Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277

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Ain Shams Engineering Journal

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Wear characteristics of a centrifugal pump transporting solid–liquid

mixture: An experimental and numerical study
Can Kang a,⇑, Qian Cao a, Shuang Teng a, Haixia Liu b, Kejin Ding c
a
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
b
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
c
Shanghai Marine Equipment Research Institute, Shanghai 200031, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present study aims to reveal wear characteristics of an impeller pump transporting the mixture of
Received 15 August 2021 liquid and solid particles. An experimental work is conducted to detect patterns of wear of the pump
Revised 3 April 2023 components. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) technique and the discrete element method
Accepted 15 April 2023
(DEM) are jointly used to simulate the two-phase flow and wear of the pump components. After a 30-
Available online 26 April 2023
hour wear experiment, the inlet edge of the long blades exhibits wavy profiles, and the outlet part of
the long blades is worn through. Regarding the volute, only the volute tongue is severely worn. At a par-
Keywords:
ticle diameter of 2.0 mm and a solid mass fraction of 10 %, the ratio of the average wear depth of the long
Contact energy
Experiment
blades to that of the volute reaches 64.5. Wear of the blade inlet edge depends on the normal cumulative
Numerical simulation contact energy, while the tangential cumulative contact energy contributes significantly to wear of the
Pump outlet part of the long blades. As the particle diameter increases from 1.0 mm to 3.0 mm, the average
Solid–liquid two-phase flow depth of wear of the long blades decreases monotonically by nearly 45 %, but the maximum depth of wear
Wear increases by about 34 %. The solid mass fraction serves as a key factor influencing wear of the pump com-
ponents, especially when particles of large size are transported.
Ó 2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams Uni-
versity. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction Abundant literature has been dedicated to the investigation of

In engineering applications such as mining and hydraulic sluic-
ing, the pump assumes the function of delivering the mixture of
liquid and solid particles [1]. In these cases, the interaction
between liquid, particles, and the impeller leads to complex flow
patterns in the impeller passage. Meanwhile, high-velocity solid
particles discharged from the impeller collide violently with the
pump casing. The collision incurs energy loss and high risk of wear
of the pump [2,3]. Furthermore, long exposure to wear may result
in rupture of the impeller blades, which is followed by more severe
adverse consequences.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kangcan@ujs.edu.cn (C. Kang).
Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University.
Production and hosting by Elsevier
wear of the pipe [4,5]. For liquid and solid particles, they differ con-
siderably in physical properties, and a large difference of velocity
between the two phases is predictable as they travel in the flow
passage of the pump [6]. Wear is produced as solid particles
repeatedly impact on the impeller blade. Irregular wear patterns
may arise on the blade surface due to non-uniform distribution
of particle velocity. Generally, under the impingement of solid par-
ticles, the pump component experiences sequentially plastic defor-
mation, surface hardening, pit formation and material removal
[7,8]. In the eventual state, normal flow cannot sustain, and the
performance of the pump declines [9,10]. Moreover, the operating
stability of the pump is impaired [11].
The experimental study of wear yields reliable and illustrative
results [12]. The method of coating the impeller blades with paint
has been adopted in [13] to visualize wear of the blades. The vibra-
tion of a pump is monitored as it transports the mixture of liquid
and solid particles at different flow rates [14]. The numerical work
is convenient and straightforward relative to the experimental one.
The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) technique has been
applied for liquid flow simulation, and the discrete element
method (DEM) has been employed to handle the solid parts [15].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2023.102277
2090-4479/Ó 2023 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277

Nomenclature

A Area of wear g Acceleration of gravity

a Adhesion node radius H Pump head
dp Solid particle diameter mp Mass of solid particles
dt Tangential distance R Relative collision rate
En Normal cumulative contact energy ul Liquid velocity
Et Tangential cumulative contact energy up Velocity of solid particle
FC Centrifugal force acting on particles un Velocity component in normal direction
FD Drag force acting on particles ut Velocity component in tangential direction
Fn Force component in normal direction W Wear constant
FP Pressure gradient force dt Time step
FS Saffman lift g Pump efficiency
Ft Force component in tangential direction q Density of liquid
Fv Virtual mass force r Yield limit

The Eulerian-Eulerian model treats the solid phase as a continuous 15 %. A comparison between the results obtained under different
medium, which adapts to high solid mass fractions and small par- operating conditions is implemented. The conclusions are expected
ticle size [16]. At low solid mass fractions, the Eulerian-Lagrangian to shed light on wear of the pump conveying particles of large size.
model is preferable, and the particles behave as a discrete phase
[17]. A coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian method has been employed 2. Experimental methodology
by Wang et al. [18] to simulate solid–liquid flows in the pump,
and the particle diameter is ranged from 0.125 mm to 0.710 mm. The experimental work is conducted based on the test bench
Even a machine learning model has been developed to calculate shown in Fig. 1. The mixture of water and brown fused alumina
the rate of erosion [19]. The coupling between CFD and DEM (BFA) particles is circulated in the loop. The average particle diam-
enables real-time data exchange between liquid and solid phases eter is controlled to 2.0 mm via the process of sieving. The circula-
[20,21]. Although various methods have been attempted to inves- tion pump, which also serves as the tested pump, is responsible for
tigate wear, generalizable conclusions have seldom been reported
heretofore.
Wear and flow are fundamentally correlated, which has been
demonstrated in the numerical results obtained in [22–24]. Mcla-
ury et al. [25] develop a model to calculate the rate of wear of
the pipe wall, and take into account both liquid velocity and phys-
ical property of particles. This model is then applied in investigat-
ing wear of a double-suction pump [26]. The Tabakoff erosion
model is employed in [27] to predict erosion of the components
of a double-suction pump. Peng et al. [28] employ the Finnie model
to simulate wear of a centrifugal pump. They conclude that low
flow rates are responsible for high severity of wear of the hydraulic
components. The Oka erosion model [29,30] has been adopted by
Zhu et al. [31] to predict the rate of wear of a submersible pump.
Evidently, locally high liquid velocity or sharp turning of liquid
velocity incurs a high risk of wear. Each wear model has its advan-
tages, but the accuracy of the wear prediction depends greatly on
the object considered. Furthermore, no consensus has been
reached about which wear model is the most appropriate one.
Various factors such as particle shape and solid mass fraction
are related to wear [32]. Regarding the impeller pump conveying
the mixture of liquid and solid particles, wear is further compli-
cated in consideration of the flow driven by the rotating impeller
and bounded by curved walls. Although some studies have been
conducted to depict wear of the impeller pump, most conclusions
obtained apply only to a certain pump or specified operating con-
dition. Moreover, the relationship between kinetic property of par-
ticles and wear deserves to be investigated in more depth.
The present study aims to describe wear characteristics of a
centrifugal pump that transports the mixture of water and solid
particles. An experimental work is conducted to reveal patterns
of wear of the hydraulic components. The computational fluid
dynamics technique and the discrete element method are used in
combination to simulate behaviors of the two phases and to quan-
Fig. 1. A close loop for testing operating and wear performance of the pump
tify wear of the pump components. The particle diameter is varied
transporting the mixture of BFA particles and water. Average particle diameter is
from 1.0 mm to 3.0 mm and the solid mass fraction from 5 % to set to 2.0 mm and the solid mass fraction is 10 %.

2
C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al.
driving the circulation. The flow rate of water is regulated through
valve A (J417-16P, Shazhou Valve Co., Ltd., China), and the dis-
charge of BFA particles is controlled through valve B (J421-16P,
Shazhou Valve Co., Ltd., China). The solid mass fraction is set to
10 %. The mixture is inhaled into the pump horizontally. In the
tank, water and BFA particles are separated through a grille, as
shown in Fig. 1(a).
At the inlet and outlet of the pump, two pressure gauges (YTF-
60, Dahua Instrument and Meter Plant, China) are separately
installed and connected with a chamber for measuring local static
pressure. The chambers prevent solid particles from entering the
pressure gauges. The accuracy of the electromagnetic flowmeter
(LDG, Hangzhou Supmea Automation Co., Ltd., China), the pressure
gauges, and the electrical meters (P-ZGB, Excellence Pump Industry
Co., Ltd., China) measuring the output power of the motor is ±0.5 %,
±0.25 %, and ±0.2 %, respectively. An on-site image of the experi-
mental rig is shown in Fig. 1(b). Prior to the operation of the circu-
lation, solid particles of a certain mass are added into the tank. The
initial solid mass fraction is higher by about 2 % than that expected
in the flow passage of the pump. As the circulation is launched, the
solid concentration in the pump is regulated through the two
valves separately controlling the fluxes of water and particles. To
guarantee a certain solid concentration in the pump, sampling is
performed every 15 min at the outlet of the horizontal pipe, and
the acquired concentration serves as a reference for necessary reg-
ulation of the two valves.
The pump structure is schematically shown in Fig. 2. The pump
is equipped with a single-suction centrifugal impeller and installed
horizontally. Compared with commonly used centrifugal pumps,
the pump considered here has a wide flow passage, which enables
solid particles to pass smoothly through the passage. The impeller
is composed of four long and four short blades. The participation of
the short blade imposes a disturbance to the flow between the two
neighboring long blades. The width of the short blades is smaller
than that of the long blades, as indicated in Fig. 2. The impeller
and the inner shell are made of aviation aluminum. Such a material
Fig. 2. Schematic view of the tested pump with a horizontal single-stage and single-suction structure. The embedded subfigure indicates an exclusive view of the impeller.
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Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277
is relatively soft, and wear can be produced within a short operat-
ing period [26]. Since the main purposes of the experimental work
are to locate the position of wear and to evaluate the severity of
wear, selecting the aviation aluminum is suitable. The pump casing
is made of high Cr-Mn white cast iron. Main parameters of the
pump are listed in Table 1.
Prior to the wear experiment, the performance of the pump as
pure water is delivered is measured. The results show that the
highest pump efficiency is obtained at a volumetric flow rate of
27.7 m3/h, and the corresponding pump head is 8.1 m. In subse-
quent wear experiment, the flow rate of the pump is predefined
to 27.7 m3/h. The whole wear experiment lasts for 30 h, and then
the pump is disassembled. With the wear experiment, the origi-
nally straight form of the inlet edge of the long blade is replaced
with wavy shape, as shown in Fig. 3. Furthermore, for the four long
blades, resultant profiles of the inlet edge are not consistent. For
each blade inlet edge, the width is reduced by about 7.0 mm, which
is obtained through measuring the dimensions of the remaining
part of the blade inlet edge. The most severe damage is detected
on the pressure side of the long blade. Overall, the blade surface
is roughened after the wear experiment. Meanwhile, the thickness
of the front and back cover plates is reduced by about 10.0 mm.
Near the blade outlet, local part of the blade is even worn through,
as shown in Fig. 3.
Images of the volute after the wear experiment are shown in
Fig. 4. Some fish-scale like wear patterns are observed on the inner
surface of the volute. Direction of the scratch is compatible with
the rotation of the impeller. It is noteworthy that the volute tongue
is severely eroded, which is similar with the results obtained in
[33].
3. Numerical preparation
A numerical work is conducted to associate kinetic characteris-
tics of solid particles with the wear patterns observed in the exper-
iment. The strategy of coupling CFD and DEM is employed. The
C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277

Table 1
Main parameters of the pump.

Parameters Value
3
Rated volumetric flow rate (m /h) 27.0
Pump head (m) 7.8
Rotational speed (rpm) 1470
Number of long blades (-) 4
Number of short blades (-) 4
Impeller inlet diameter (mm) 57
Impeller outlet diameter (mm) 170
Impeller width at the outlet (mm) 17
Fig. 5. Flow chart for the coupling between CFD and DEM.

ticle are calculated through the coupling interface and incorpo-

rated into the DEM solver to produce the data related to the
motion of particles for the next time step. At each time step, both
solid and liquid information is updated.

3.1. Numerical procedures

The coupling between liquid and solid phases, as shown in

Fig. 3. Images of the impeller before and after the wear experiment. The upper pair
shows the inlet edges, and the lower pair shows pressure side at blade outlet.
motion of particles is described through DEM, and the liquid flow is
solved using CFD. The coupling is implemented through the proce-
dures shown in Fig. 5. At each time step, the application of DEM
quantifies the variables such as the position and velocity of indi-
vidual particles, which are then used by the coupling interface to
calculate the forces acting on liquid. These data are used in a CFD
solver to calculate flow parameters. The forces acting on each par-
Fig. 5, is accomplished through the Eulerian-Lagrangian model
[34]. Pure water, serving as the continuous phase and the carrier
liquid, is assumed incompressible. Three equivalent particle diam-
eters, namely 1.0 mm, 2.0 mm and 3.0 mm, are selected. The solid
mass fractions of 5 %, 10 % and 15 % are predefined. These operating
conditions have their correspondence in mining applications.
Spherical particles are adopted to ensure both high computational
reliability and economy. Moreover, most wear models are estab-
lished based on spherical particles. Essentially, for the operating
conditions listed above, behaviors of the solid phase deviate signif-
icantly from those of a continuum [35]. Physical properties of the
two phases remain invariant during the operation of the pump.
The liquid phase is continuous and treated in a Euler coordinate
system using the commercial CFD code ANSYS Fluent. The flow of
water is governed by the Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
equations. The force acting on the liquid and imposed by the solid
particles is considered through a term of the momentum equation.
To ensure the closure of the governing equations, the RNG k-e tur-
bulence model is employed. Such a turbulence model incorporates
corrected turbulent viscosity and can properly describes the flow
confined by walls of large curvature. This model proves suitable
for treating the flow driven by the rotating impeller [36]. More-
over, a moderate requirement on quality of the grids is necessi-
tated with the RNG k-e turbulence model. Standard wall
functions are used to cope with near-wall flows. The SIMPLEC algo-
rithm is used to implement the coupling between static pressure
and velocity. The motion of a solid particle is driven by the forces
such as the Saffman force, the drag force. Then the motion and the

Fig. 4. Images of the volute after the wear experiment. The left subfigure shows that the inner wall has been worn in streamwise direction. More severe wear is demonstrated
in the right subfigure with the damaged volute tongue.

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C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277

rotation equations are solved. The solid phase is treated in the Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) yields:
Lagrange coordinate system through the commercial code EDEM.
Fn
Q¼ ð3Þ
3r
3.2. Interaction between particles and hydraulic components
When the probability constant, K, and the sliding distance, dt, of
Interaction between solid particles is handled using the Hertz- the protruding body for produce wear debris are considered, the
Mindlin no-slip model [37,38]. With this model, the normal force amount of adhesive wear of the contact surface is given by:
component is calculated based on the Hertz contact theory, and F n dt
the tangential force component is obtained through the relation- Q ¼K ð4Þ
3r
ship reported in [39,40]. Such a no-slip model is used to treat the
contact between particles and between particles and the wall, For elastic materials, rH/3, and H represents the Brinell hard-
which differs from the contact between fluid and solid [41]. Inter- ness. Therefore, Eq.(4) takes the following form:
action between solid particles and the pump components is K
described through the model proposed in [5]. The rolling friction Q¼ F n dt ð5Þ
H
(RF) model is used to cope with the wear induced by the rolling
of particles along the target surface. The soft ball model is used K
W¼ ð6Þ
to model the collision between solid particles and the pump com- H
ponents [42]. Data exchange between ANSYS Fluent and EDEM is
In EDEM, the depth of wear is used to express the amount of
accomplished through predefined interfaces [43,44]. Based on the
wear per unit area, and the average depth of wear, h, can be
materials selected in the experimental work, material properties
obtained by:
and the parameters related to the interaction between particles
and between particles and the wall are defined in numerical prepa- Q
h¼ ð7Þ
ration. Main parameters are listed in Table 2. A
where A denotes the area of the worn part.
3.3. Wear model The normal cumulative contact energy, En, is defined as:
X
The Archard wear model, embedded in EDEM, is used to quan- En ¼ jF n un dt j ð8Þ
tify wear of the pump components [24]. Based on this model, the
amount of material removed from a surface is proportional to the where un and dt denote the velocity component in normal direc-
frictional work generated by the solid particles moving over the tion and the time step, respectively.
surface. Even in the presence of curved surfaces, this model has The tangential cumulative contact energy, Et, is defined as:
X
high adaptability [45]. For the E/CRC model, it applies for the con- Et ¼ jF t ut dt j ð9Þ
dition involving small impact angles. The Oka model is feasible as
the particle diameter is small [29]. The Finnie model is character- where Ft and ut denote the force and the velocity components in
ized by an impact angle function, which necessitates a proper tangential direction, respectively.
selection of the values of the empirical constants included [46].
The adhesion nodes between a friction pair are circular nodes 3.4. Computational domain and boundary conditions
with a radius of a, and the area of each adhesion node is pa2. The
two materials at the two sides of the friction pair differ in hardness. The three-dimensional geometric model of the pump is con-
For the relatively soft material, as it undergoes plastic deformation, structed using the commercial code Siemens NX. Corresponding
the force component in normal direction, Fn, and the yield limit, r, flow domain is built as well. The whole flow domain is composed
are correlated through: of four subdomains, namely the inlet, the impeller, the volute
and the outlet subdomains, as shown in Fig. 6.
F n ¼ rpa2 ð1Þ
Pure water, with a temperature of 23 °C, a density of 998 kg/m3,
When the two components of the friction pair slide relative to and a dynamic viscosity of 0.94  10-3 Pas, serves as the liquid
each other, the wear debris produced on each convex body is phase. At the inlet and outlet of the computational domain, veloc-
assumed hemispherical, and its volume is 2pa3/3. Then, the total ity inlet and static pressure outlet boundary conditions are speci-
wear amount per unit sliding distance is given by: fied, respectively. The reference pressure is set to 101325 Pa. The
inlet velocity of water is set according to the volumetric flow rate
2
pa3 pa2 of the pump. The turbulent intensity is set to 5 % at the inlet. The
Qm ¼ 3 n¼ n ð2Þ
2a 3 outlet static pressure of liquid is set to 0 Pa. Particles enter the
computational domain at an initial velocity equivalent to the inlet
water velocity. Corresponding solid mass fraction is chosen among
Table 2
5 %, 10 % and 15 %. No-slip boundary condition is predefined for all
Material properties and interaction parameters.
fluid-wetted surface of the hydraulic components.
Material Particle Density/kgm3 4290
Poisson’s ratio (-) 0.25
3.5. Grid generation
Shear modulus/GPa 0.04
Incident velocity /ms1 3.06
Wall Density /kgm3 2700 The commercial grid-generation code ANSYS ICEM is used to
Poisson’s ratio (-) 0.33 discretize the subdomains. In view of the curved surfaces of the
Shear modulus /GPa 27 pump components, unstructured tetrahedral grids, featured by
Interaction Particle-Particle Coefficient of restitution (-) 0.44
Coefficient of static friction (-) 0.27
high body-fitting ability, are applied. With the CFD-DEM coupling
Coefficient of rolling friction (-) 0.01 strategy, the grid size is required to be larger than the maximum
Particle-Wall Coefficient of restitution (-) 0.5 particle diameter by at least ten times [47]. Regarding the near-
Coefficient of static friction (-) 0.15 wall regions, grids are refined for capturing local flow phenomena.
Coefficient of rolling friction (-) 0.01
An investigation is performed to examine the dependence of the
5
C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al.
Fig. 6. Geometric model of the three-dimensional computational domain involving
extended segments of inlet and outlet for the pump considered.
numerical result on grid number. Seven grid schemes with total
grid numbers ranging from about 0.3 million to 8.3 million are
designed. At a volumetric flow rate of 27.7 m3/h and a rotational
speed of 1470 rpm, numerical simulation is performed for each
grid scheme with pure water serving as the liquid medium. The
pump head obtained for each grid scheme is plotted in Fig. 7
against the total grid number.
When the total grid number exceeds 6.0 million, the relative
deviation between each neighboring pair of pump heads is less
than 1 %, as indicated in Fig. 7. In this case, the effect of the total
grid number on the pump head is insignificant. In consideration
of both numerical accuracy and economy, the grid scheme with a
Fig. 7. Variation of the pump head with total grid number. The embedded subfigure
shows part of the computational domain discretized with grids, and this grid
scheme is selected for subsequent simulation.
Table 3
Number of grids for each computational subdomain.
Computational subdomains Inlet
Number of grids 1,553,495
Number of nodes 176,249
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Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277
total grid number of about 7.82 million is finally selected. The com-
putational domain discretized with this scheme is shown in Fig. 7
as well. Meanwhile, for such a grid scheme, the numbers of grids
and nodes for the four subdomains are listed in Table 3.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Validation of the numerical scheme
The pump head and efficiency, two indicators of the perfor-
mance of the pump, are plotted in Fig. 8 as a function of the flow
rate. Both the numerical and the test results are obtained as pure
water is transported. The two results agree well with each other,
as demonstrated in Fig. 8. In comparison, the numerical data is
consistently larger since some practical factors disturbing the flow
field cannot be modeled through numerical setup. With respect to
the pump efficiency, its maximum is attained at a flow rate of
27.7 m3/h, as marked with the vertical dashed line, which is shared
by the numerical and the test results.
4.2. Effect of solid mass fraction on wear of the pump
4.2.1. Depth of wear of the pump components
At an average particle diameter of 2.0 mm, the effect of the solid
mass fraction is investigated. Three solid mass fractions, namely
5 %, 10 %, and 15 %, are selected. At a flow rate of 27.7 m3/h, both
the two-phase flow and wear of the hydraulic components are sim-
ulated. Time-dependent total mass of particles in the flow passage
of the pump at the three solid mass fractions is plotted in Fig. 9.
As the operation of the pump is initiated, total mass of particles
in the flow passage of the pump increases continuously with the
startup time, as indicated in Fig. 9, which is insensitive to am. Total
mass of particles in the pump attains a dynamic balance after
t = 0.3 s, which is shared by the three cases. With such a balance,
operation of the pump enters a relatively stable stage. During the
subsequent simulation, only the results obtained in the stable
stage are recorded and processed. More specifically, the numerical
data obtained in the fifteenth rotational cycle is analyzed.
Average depth of wear of each pump component is plotted in
Fig. 10 with varying solid mass fraction. Based on the presented
data, it is evidenced that wear of the impeller is much more severe
than that of the volute. This depends greatly on the property of the
mixture and the geometry of the impeller and the volute [18].
Essentially, the trajectories of the particles change with the blade
profile. Here, wear of the impeller is concentrated on the long
blades. This is reasonable since the function of imparting energy
to the mixture is largely assumed by the long blades. Along with
energy transfer, intensified collisions between particles and the
long blades are conceivable. Therefore, the risk of wear of the long
blades is relatively high. In a quantitative manner, the highest ratio
of the average wear depth of the long blades to that of the volute
reaches 64.5, which arises at am = 10 %. Furthermore, average wear
depth of each pump component increases with the solid mass
fraction.
4.2.2. Wear of the volute
At the three solid mass fractions, distribution of average depth
of wear over the inner wall of the volute is shown in Fig. 11. In
Impeller Volute Outlet
2,158,617 2,714,116 1,394,034
264,009 301,050 161,222
C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al.
Fig. 8. Comparison of pump head (H) and pump efficiency (g) between numerical
and test results. Solid symbols represent test result, and hollow symbols represent
numerical data.
Fig. 9. Time-dependent total mass of particles in the flow passage of the pump in
the startup stage of the pump at solid mass fractions of 5 %, 10 % and 15 %.
Fig. 10. Comparison of average wear depth for five major pump components at
solid mass fractions of 5 %, 10 % and 15 %.
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Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277
comparison, the volute tongue and the sections IV–VIII are severely
worn. This is in accordance with the test result. Meanwhile, in cir-
cumferential direction, the distribution of average depth of wear is
non-uniform, as is analogous with that reported in [48]. Essen-
tially, in the volute passage, the flow rate increases gradually in
streamwise direction, and the collision between particles and the
wall is strengthened. Therefore, the downstream parts are exposed
to high risk of wear. Furthermore, as am increases, wear of these
parts is promoted as well.
The particles discharged from the impeller passage have high
velocity in circumferential direction. Meanwhile, from the volute
tongue to section VIII, the number of the particles carried by flow-
ing water increases. Between sections VI and VIII, both the normal
and the tangential components of the particle velocity are rela-
tively high, causing severe wear, as illustrated in Fig. 11. Addition-
ally, the volute tongue is heavily worn, as indicated in both Figs. 11
and 4.
It is seen from the cross-sectional images shown in Fig. 11 that
wear is not uniform in spanwise direction, this is related to the dis-
tribution of liquid flow velocity. Furthermore, particles in the
impeller passage are not evenly distributed in spanwise direction.
Overall, the volute tongue separates the particles discharged from
the impeller passage and those to be discharged into the diffuser
pipe of the volute. Moreover, the friction between particles and
the inner wall of the volute is non-negligible. The two factors con-
tribute greatly to wear of the volute.
4.2.3. Wear of long blades
Long blades suffer from the most severe wear, as demonstrated
in Fig. 10. A further explanation of wear of the long blades is made
based on the distribution of depth of wear over the blade surface,
which is shown in Fig. 12. Both the inlet and outlet edges of the
pressure side of the long blade exhibit concentrated wear. The
wear due to regular contact can be predicted through assuming
the number of loading cycles [49]. However, particles in the pump
interact with the pump components in a relatively random pattern.
It is difficult to establish a relationship between the rotation cycles
and the wear depth. In the flow passage between two neighboring
blades, water flow, particle motion and wear are highly related
[50]. Regarding the liquid flow, the circumferential velocity
increases with the radial distance from the shaft. Therefore, the
particles involved in water possess high velocity at the blade out-
let, arousing intensive impact on the outlet part of the blade.
Meanwhile, as am increases, overall depth of wear is increased.
However, the positions where the most severe wear occurs remain
invariant.
To elaborate the factors influencing wear of the long blades, the
distribution of the cumulative contact energy at am = 15 % is
extracted from the numerical result and shown in Fig. 13. At the
outlet part of the pressure side, the tangential cumulative contact
energy is much higher than the normal cumulative contact energy.
The former is related to the motion of particles along the blade sur-
face, and the latter is produced as local particles impact perpendic-
ularly on the blade surface. Therefore, wear of the outlet part of the
pressure side is dominated by transverse cutting. In comparison,
the normal cumulative contact energy at the blade inlet edge is
predominant. At the blade inlet, solid particles experience a dra-
matic change of motion direction, and then impact intensively on
the blade inlet edge.
4.2.4. Distribution of particles in the flow passage
Distribution of solid particles in the flow passage of the pump is
shown in Fig. 14. As solid particles enter the blade passage, their
velocity shifts from axial to radial direction. Some particles impact
on the inlet edge of the long blades with large contact angles [51].
When a cluster of particles arrive at the blade inlet edge, their
C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al.
m m
Fig. 11. Distribution of average wear depth over inner wall of the volute at solid mass fractions of 5 %, 10 % and 15 %. An axial view is indicated at the upper part, and a cross-
sectional view is shown at the lower part.
m m
Fig. 12. Distribution of depth of wear over the pressure and suction sides of a long blade at solid mass fractions of 5 %, 10 % and 15 %.
Fig. 13. Distributions of cumulative contact energy over the long blades at a solid
mass fraction of 15 %.
velocity decreases rapidly, forming a circulation zone. As am
increases, local particle velocity at the inlet of the impeller
decreases considerably, as indicated in Fig. 14. Moreover, some
particles intend to gather at the pressure side of the long blades.
This conforms to general argument that solid particles tend to
8
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277
m
m
approach the pressure side of the blade. This partially explains
why the pressure side of the blade is exposed to high risk of wear
relative to the suction side. Essentially, as the particle diameter is
certain, the increase in the solid mass fraction results in more par-
ticles to be transported. In [26], particles with high velocity tend to
accumulate around the outer rim of the impeller as the solid mass
fraction increases. However, in Fig. 14, such a tendency is not
prominent. This also depends on particle size and the matching
between the impeller and the volute. From another aspect, this
partially explains why the documented conclusions cannot be
directly generalized.
In the stage of stable operation of the pump, two views of cross-
sectional distributions of solid mass fraction are shown in Figs. 15
and 16. As am increases, overall solid mass fraction in the pump
increases continuously. Particles gather at the inlet of the impeller,
which is common for the three cases. Since local velocity is rela-
tively low, the impeller eye suffers from a high risk of blockage.
When the direction of instantaneous particle velocity is not consis-
tent with local profile of the blade inlet edge, the cutting wear will
be incurred. This serves as another important reason of the wear of
the blade inlet edge.
C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277

m m m

Fig. 14. Distributions of solid particles and their velocity magnitude in the flow passage of the pump at solid mass fractions of 5 %, 10 % and 15 %.

It is observed in Fig. 16 that particles accumulate near the back

cover plate of the impeller, which becomes even remarkable as am
increases. This is ascribed to sudden change of the direction of par-
ticle motion. Meanwhile, in the volute passage, high solid mass
fraction is recognized near the inner wall, which is caused by
decreasing particle velocity and the interaction between particles
and the inner wall. Furthermore, at the inlet of the impeller, parti-
cle velocity is rather low, promoting the stagnation of solid parti-
cles. Therefore, the risk of blockage at the inlet of the impeller is
improved.

4.3. Effect of particle size on wear of the pump

m m m

At am = 10 %, the average and the maximum depth of wear of
long blades are plotted in Fig. 17 against the particle diameter.
As the particle diameter increases, the average depth of wear of
the long blades decreases continuously, implying wear is alleviated
with reduced number of particles. In contrast, no monotonic rela-
tionship is identified between the maximum depth of wear and
the particle diameter. The maximum depth of wear is attained at
a particle diameter of 2.0 mm.
The outlet edge of the pressure side of the long blade is severely
worn, as shown in Fig. 12. In Fig. 18, as dp increases, wear of the
pressure side of the long blade, especially the middle part, is con-
siderably mitigated. In comparison, for the blade inlet edge, the
extent or the pattern of wear is slightly affected by the particle
diameter. To suppress or even avoid wear, the blade surface can
be coated with a thin layer of hard material. From the aspect of
blade design, reducing blade length and the curvature of the blade
Fig. 16. Instantaneous distributions of local solid mass fraction at solid mass
fractions of 5 %, 10 % and 15 %. (Azimuthal view).
profile are preferable. However, as a prerequisite, the pump head
and efficiency should fulfill the requirement of the application.
Distributions of the tangential and the normal cumulative con-
tact energy over the surface of a long blade are shown in Figs. 19
and 20, respectively. The distribution of the tangential cumulative
contact energy is similar with that of the depth of wear. Wear of
the pressure side is greatly related to transverse cutting of the wall
by particles. When am is certain, increasing particle diameter leads
to a decrease in particle number, and the cutting effect is relieved.
In Fig. 20, the most severe wear on the pressure side occurs at the
inlet edge, which is exposed to both transverse cutting and direct
impact of particles. The motion of particles depends greatly on

m m m

Fig. 15. Instantaneous distributions of local solid mass fraction at solid mass fractions of 5 %, 10 % and 15 %. (Axial view).

9
C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al.
Fig. 17. Comparison of average and the maximum depth of wear of long blades as
particles with diameters of 1.0 mm, 2.0 mm and 3.0 mm are separately transported.
Fig. 18. Distributions of depth of wear over the pressure and suctions sides of a
long blade at different particle diameters: (a) dp = 1.0 mm; (b) dp = 2.0 mm; (c)
dp = 3.0 mm.
the liquid flow, which is related to geometric parameters of the
blade [13]. These parameters jointly influence the flow in the
impeller passage, posing a challenge to the design of the impeller.
As dp increases, the normal cumulative contact energy at the outlet
edge of the pressure side increases, and the tangential one
decreases, which explains why the maximum depth of wear of
Fig. 19. Distributions of tangential contact energy over the pressure and suctions
sides of a long blade at: (a) dp = 1.0 mm, (b) dp = 2.0 mm, (c) dp = 3.0 mm.
10
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277
Fig. 20. Distributions of normal contact energy over the pressure and suctions sides
of a long blade at: (a) dp = 1.0 mm, (b) dp = 2.0 mm, (c) dp = 3.0 mm.
the long blade increases first and then decreases, as shown in
Fig. 17.
4.4. Collision rate and kinetic energy of particles
To elucidate the collision between particles and the pressure
side of the long blade, the relative collision rate, rR, is introduced,
which is defined as:
Nc
rR ¼ ð14Þ
Np
where Nc denotes the number of collisions between particles
and the pump components, Np denotes the number of particles in
the flow passage of the pump.
At different particle diameters, the relative collision rate for the
collision between particles and the pressure side of the long blade
is shown in Table 4. It is seen that rR decreases with increasing
particle diameter, and the probability of the contact between par-
ticles and the pressure side decreases. Meanwhile, particles tend to
travel away from the pressure side of the long blade. This con-
tributes to the alleviation of wear of the pressure side of the long
blade.
The average and the maximum depth of wear of the inlet edge
of the long blade are plotted in Fig. 21. As dp increases, overall wear
of the blade inlet edge is not intensified, but the position of wear is
nearly invariant, as demonstrated in Fig. 18. Regarding the parti-
cles, they impact on the blade inlet edge with high moment of iner-
tia. Although the relative collision rate is low for large particles, as
indicated in Table 4, each single impact is strong. Thus, the maxi-
mum depth of wear is large relative to its counterparts.
The kinetic energy of solid particles is calculated based on their
mass and velocity. Cross-sectional distribution of the kinetic
energy of solid particles is shown in Fig. 22. As the particle diame-
ter increases, the kinetic energy of particles at the blade inlet edge
increases considerably. Meanwhile, the input energy for sustaining
effective delivery of the mixture is increased. When the solid mass
fraction is certain, small particle diameter corresponds to large
number of particles. Therefore, the particle–particle contact is fre-
quent, leading to decrease in particle velocity but increase in
energy loss. Consequently, overall kinetic energy of small particles
is relatively low.
Table 4
Correspondence between relative collision rate and particle diameter.
Particle diameter (mm) 1.0 2.0 3.0
Relative collision rate 0.15 0.10 0.07
C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al.
Fig. 21. Comparison of average and the maximum depth of wear of the blade inlet
edge as particles with diameters of 1.0 mm, 2.0 mm and 3.0 mm are separately
transported.
dp dp dp
Fig. 22. Cross-sectional distribution of particles and their kinetic energy in the flow
passage of the pump at particle diameters of 1.0 mm, 2.0 mm and 3.0 mm.
When dp varies, the positions where severe erosion arises
remain unchanged, namely from the section VI to VII. The depth
of erosion along the volute wall exhibits an overall and continuous
increase with increasing particle diameter. From the perspective of
the impact-caused wear, with increasing particle diameter, the
impact of the particles discharged from the impeller on the inner
wall of the volute is strengthened [52]. Meanwhile, large particles
tend to accumulate near the downstream part of the volute wall, as
shown in Fig. 22. The two factors contribute to a relatively high
severity of wear of the volute at dp = 3.0 mm.
As discussed above, at the blade inlet, the normal cumulative
contact energy is higher than the tangential cumulative contact
energy. The main cause of wear of the inlet part of the blade is
the collision between particles and the blade. When many particles
gather at the inlet of the impeller, an individual particle may
repeatedly impact on the blade inlet edge. Wear of the blade inlet
edge exhibits a uniform rather than an aggregation pattern.
Increasing particle size, alternatively, reducing the particle num-
ber, allows the particles to pass smoothly through the inlet passage
of the impeller, which accounts for the decrease in the average
depth of wear of the inlet edge of the long blade. However, with
increased diameter, individual particles possess larger mass and
can exert a stronger impact on the blade. Consequently, the maxi-
mum depth of wear of the blades increases.
5. Concluding remarks
A comprehensive study on wear of the hydraulic components of
a pump transporting the solid–liquid mixture is performed. The
11
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277
maximum particle diameter and the maximum solid mass fraction
of 3.0 mm and 15 % are investigated. With the experimental result,
the position exposed to severe wear, as well as the extent of wear,
is demonstrated. The numerical data indicate an explicit relation-
ship between wear and the contact energy. Furthermore, the two
results jointly reveal essential characteristics of this branch of
pumps. Main conclusions drawn from the study are as follows.
(1) After a 30-hour experiment, the inlet edges of the long
blades exhibit wavy profiles, and the outlet part of the long
blades is worn through. In contrast, the volute remains its
surface integrity, while severe wear arises at the volute
tongue.
(2) At a particle diameter of 2.0 mm, with increasing solid mass
fraction, the positions where severe wear occurs remain
nearly invariant. However, the worn area is enlarged and
the depth of wear increases accordingly. The highest ratio
of the average wear depth of the long blades to that of the
volute reaches 64.5, which arises at a solid mass fraction
of 10 %.
(3) Wear depends significantly on the cumulative contact
energy, which is largely determined by the components of
particle velocity. The blade inlet edge is worn due to the nor-
mal cumulative contact energy, while the tangential cumu-
lative contact energy contributes significantly to intensive
wear of the outlet part of the long blades.
(4) When the particle diameter increases from 1.0 mm to
3.0 mm, the average depth of wear of the long blades
decreases monotonically by nearly 45 %, and the relative col-
lision rate decreases gradually. Although increasing particle
diameter leads to an improvement of the conveying ability
of the pump, particles with high kinetic energy impact on
the blades, incurring an increase in the maximum depth of
wear.
With large particle size and high solid mass fraction, the com-
plexity of the transport dynamics stems from the interaction
between particles. In this aspect, current numerical scheme is
fairly theoretical. In future work, the collision model is expected
to involve more factors pertinent to physical property of the parti-
cles. Meanwhile, the water film covering the rough surface of the
particles is expected to be considered. Regarding the experimental
work, efforts are expected to be dedicated to dynamic behaviors of
particles as they collide with walls of various shapes at different
incident angles. Furthermore, quantitative and generalizable con-
clusions are preferable.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The study is financially supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 51676087), National Key Research
and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2021YFC2801600)
and the Science and Technology Plan Project of State Administra-
tion for Market Regulation of China (Grant No. 2021MK060), and
Postgraduate Research and Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu
Province (Grant No. KYCX20_3082). The authors thank the Compu-
tation Center of Jiangsu University for providing the computer
clusters.
C. Kang, Q. Cao, S. Teng et al. Ain Shams Engineering Journal 15 (2024) 102277

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Chinese government.
predictive equation. Wear 2005;259:102–9.

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