TransactionalAnalysisresourceE Manual

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Transactional Analysis e-Manual
Table of Contents
Module 1: Introduction and Background....................................................................................... 2

Positions of Change............................................................................................................................. 2
Child, Parent, and Adult ...................................................................................................................... 7
Families and Children ........................................................................................................................ 10
Analysis and Treatment Goals .......................................................................................................... 14
Roles and Games............................................................................................................................... 16
Practical Example: Life Positions and Stabilization of Ego States ..................................................... 19
Module 2: Fundamentals of Ego States ....................................................................................... 24

Moral and Social Aspects .................................................................................................................. 24
Fundamentals of TA, Ego States and Transactions, and the Adult Ego State ................................... 27
Archaic Child Ego States: A Developmental Perspective .................................................................. 33
Parent Introjections, Influences, and Culture ................................................................................... 35
Parental Introjects and Influences ........................................................................................... 35
The Influence of Culture .......................................................................................................... 38
Practical Example: Transaction Types and Ego States ...................................................................... 41
Module 3: Scripts and Strategies ................................................................................................ 46

Scripts: Personal, Cultural, and Organizational................................................................................. 46
Games and Rackets: Ways of Protecting Ourselves and Furthering Our Script ............................... 50
Games ...................................................................................................................................... 50
Rackets ..................................................................................................................................... 56
Self-Perpetuating Strategies, Strokes, and Time Structuring ........................................................... 57
Strokes ..................................................................................................................................... 58
Time-structuring ...................................................................................................................... 59
TA and Group Dynamics.................................................................................................................... 61
Practical Example: More Transactions .............................................................................................. 63
Examples of Complimentary Transactions............................................................................... 63
Examples of Crossed Transactions ........................................................................................... 66
Practical Example: Transactional Analysis Therapy .......................................................................... 69
Counseling Skills: A Short e-Manual 2
Module 1: Introduction and Background
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
 Introduce the basic concept of TA as a theory of personality as defined

through life positions
 Discuss the parent, adult, and child ego states
 Identify hoe TA is useful in working with families and children, and setting
therapy goals
 Describe the concept of roles and games in interpersonal interaction
Positions of Change
Transactional Analysis (TA) is in essence a theory of personality, more specifically
how personality develops over different life stages and how it is expressed in interactions
with other people. The theory outlines how we have developed, view and treat ourselves, how
we relate and communicate with others. The analysis and understanding is applied to offer
suggestions and interventions for personal change and growth in order to improve our
relations with ourselves and the world, and performance. Therefore, the central philosophy of
TA is that people can and do change, and that we have an inherent need to be valued and
accepted. The theory is applied in psychotherapy, organizations, educational and religious
settings and continues to develop and change in order to adapt to our dynamic knowledge and
environment.
TA was first developed by Canadian-born U.S. psychiatrist Eric Berne, starting in the
1950s. His inaugural and seminal book on TA, titled “Transactional Analysis in
Psychotherapy”, was published in 1961. The structural analysis of interpersonal stimuli and
responses revealed different types of “transactions”. In TA, the concept of transactions refers
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to how people interact with each other—which ego state in me is talking to which ego state in
the other person. The perpetuation of uncomfortable or problematic interactions with another
person is not so much a factor of his or her behavior, but our own state of mind. According to
the TA framework, we shift between three different ego states. These are the parent, child,
and adult states, which will be discussed further in the next section. In a follow-up book,
Berne (1964) described four positions of change, or life positions, that a person can hold,
which have a profound impact on their interactions with another person and their own life.
The positions are defined as follows.
1. I’m OK and you are OK (I+U+). This is the most constructive position
where the person accepts their own worth, but also those of others. Although
people with this life position are generally happy, energetic, and balanced,
they are not necessarily the most effective in life or cope the best. They tend to
be too accommodating and trusting, and may be too carefree and unrealistic.
2. I’m OK and you are not OK (I+U-). People with this life position is
confident, decisive, and dominant. However, they tend to have a false sense of
superiority and power, and can be impatient and aggressive. They don’t accept
responsibility for their actions and may blame others for failures and negative
consequences. They have narcissistic traits and exploit or use others to achieve
their goals. They also often have difficulty trusting others, which make them
paranoid.
3. I’m not OK and you are OK (I-U+). People with this life position will likely
be dependent and submissive. They tend to feel inadequate and compare
themselves unfavorably to others. They constantly seek approval from others
and internalize their distress, which makes them depressed and anxious.
4. I’m not OK and you are not OK (I-U-). People with this life position often
developed feeling ignored, neglected, or abused. They adapt by forming
coping mechanisms that lead to dysfunctional behavior by adolescence and
later. Unpleasant thoughts and feelings are either internalized as depression or
anxiety, or externalized as anger and aggression.
The four main positions of change, or life positions, as defined by Berne (1964), are
useful from many perspectives to understand positions from which interpersonal interactions
are initiated and responded to, including personal wellbeing and mental health, organizational
effectiveness and productivity, and team functioning. Berne’s four life positions are presented
in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Life Position Summary
It is important to realize that most people do not consistently act from a single life
position and positions change and adapt according to situational needs and personal maturity.
In a more recent book, Australian psychologist and TA analyst, Tony White, altered the life
positions to better represent or explain disorders that have since been recognized and appears
to have become more widespread.

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1. I’m not OK, you are OK (I-U+). This life position is similar to (3) in Berne’s
list above.
2. I’m not OK, you’re not OK (I-U-). This life position is similar to (4) in
Berne’s list above.
3. I’m not OK, but you are worse (I-U--). This life position is similar to (4) in
Berne’s list above, but people with this position convince themselves that
others are less well in order to reassure themselves of their own value. As a
result, they tend to deny or avoid their own problems.
4. I’m not OK, you are irrelevant (I-U?). A person with this life position has
no clear sense of boundaries between themselves and others. They tend to be
emotional and unstable, have an unclear concept of reality, and could exhibit
antisocial traits whereby they lack the ability or need to empathize with others.
5. I’m OK, you are OK (I+U+). This life position is similar to (1) in Berne’s list
above.
6. I’m a bit more OK than you are (I++U+). This is an autonomy position in
which the person relates to themselves and others from a confident and
positive position. It is a natural, stable, and supportive life position.
7. I’m OK, you are irrelevant (I+U?). A person with this life position is self-
centered and have no clear sense or need for boundaries between themselves
and others. Others either exist to meet their needs or may as well not exist at
all.
White (1994) believes that his extended life positions better clarifies and provides a
more complete explanation and distinction of human behavior and personality. In contrast
with Berne’s original conceptualization, White proposes that life positions can be fairly
permanent and innate or adaptable according to context and situational requirements,

depending on their level. Herein, surface, minute-by-minute relating—or floating—are
separated from the deeper, more permanent, character level of relating—or commitment. The
latter concept better represents the sense of identity and personality that is more stable across
relationships and time, while less situational influenced.
Mountain and Davidson (2011) added a third dimension to the original life position
quadrant (see Figure 1) to represent the view of another, third party—they (T+ positive or T-
negative)—to conceptualize life positions in family, work, or other group contexts (Figure 2).
By further integrating this with White’s extended life positions, we can argue that the
I++U+T+ character-level position would be the most optimal in the sense that it is positively
balanced in terms of self-confidence, and a considerate and sympathetic view of others.
Figure 2: Three-Dimensional Life Positions
In summary, life positions are basic beliefs about the self and others, which are used
to justify decisions and behavior, consciously and unconsciously. Life positions at the
character level are stable and underlying daily interactions, but become especially apparent
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when a person is distressed or under pressure. As the surface-level life positions are more
readily changeable, initial interventions can be aimed at this level to eventually alter
problematic character-level life positions.
Child, Parent, and Adult
Another central concept in Transactional Analysis (TA) has been derived from
Freud’s conception of the human psyche. He believed that that the majority of what we
experience in our lives, the underlying emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses are not
available to us at a conscious level. Freud defined three elements of personality that underlie
and create complex behaviors, namely the id, ego, and superego. The id aspect is entirely
unconscious and includes instinctive and primitive behaviors that is driven by the need for
immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. The ego functions in the conscious
and unconscious mind and is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with
reality. As such, the ego accepts delayed gratification. The superego is the aspect of
personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals and encompasses a
sense of right and wrong and guidelines for making judgments.
Where Freud titled the three ego states id, ego, and superego, Eric Berne, using
Freud’s ideas as a basis, redefined them as the Parent, Adult and Child ego states. The three
ego states are applied as a functional model in Transactional Analysis (TA), which explores
how we use the ego states to relate to others and ourselves. Each ego state is associated with a
distinct state of mind that has related patterns of verbal and nonverbal behavior. The Parent
state is defined as being “a set of feelings, attitudes, and behavior patterns, which resemble
those of a parental figure” (Berne, 1961, p. 75). The child will either develop a personality
that directly represents the behavior that they perceive his or her parents to have exhibited—
Do as I Do—or in a way that their parents expected them to respond—Do as I Say. Berne
further states that the Adult is “characterized by an autonomous set of feelings, attitudes, and
behavior patterns, which are adapted to the current reality” (p. 76). The Parent ego state can
be divided into two functions. The first is the Nurturing Parent, which is soft, loving, and
accommodating. It is also generous, helpful, and sympathetic, but tends to create dependence
and weak boundaries, is sensitive and irritable, and takes on too many problems of others,
and is thereby prone to vicarious stress. The second Parent ego state is the Critical or
Controlling Parent. This part of the personality contains the prejudiced and critical thoughts
that we have learned from our parents. It takes quick decisions, maintains high standards, and
assumes responsibility. However, on the negative side, it tends to suppress initiative and
spontaneity, is intolerant and accusing, strict, reprimanding, and prone to anger and
aggression.
The Adult ego state is rational and reasoned. Here, things are planned, facts checked,
and questions asked to make the most appropriate decisions for the situation. As such, it is the
area of logic, consideration, objective examination, decision-making, and responsibility.
Conflicts and confrontations are solved in a balanced and sober way. However, the Adult ego
may come across as unemotional, superficial, dull, and boring at times. The Adult state is
considered as the most stable and positive of the three ego states. As such, objectives in
personal development, coaching, counseling, or therapy are often modeled on the traits and
behavior of the Adult ego state.
The Child ego state is part of our personality that holds the emotions, thoughts,
feelings, and memories that are associated with childhood. As such, it identifies with
immature, distorted, and impulsive views of a situation and can prevent the Adult state from
engaging objectively and accurately with reality. Like with the Parent state, the Child state is
also divided into two functions, namely the Free Child and Adapted Child ego states. The
Free Child ego state is the core of spontaneous feelings and behavior. It experiences the
world in an unfettered and immediate way. The Free Child state is playful, expressive,
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enthusiastic, and creative. It derives pleasure impulsively and easily, but it is also reckless
and inconsiderate. The Adapted Child is a part of the personality that has learned to comply
with demands and expectations, but when it can be compromising, considerate, and modest, it
can also be scared, reserved, and hesitant. It avoids conflict and criticism, but can also
become rebellious if pushed too far. The three ego states are illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Illustration of Berne’s Ego States
As we have seen, the ego states make up our personalities in different combinations.
No ego state is only positive or only negative, and the main features of each is listed in Figure
4. These characteristics determine our view of ourselves, others, and the word, and guide our
responses accordingly in terms of thoughts, feelings, and behavior. An understanding of ego
states can help ourselves and help us to help others engage more positively with our
environment. It makes us more aware of opportunities to change and grow. Personality is

relatively stable, so change will not necessarily come quickly or easily, but it is possible with
practice. Transactional analysis can make this possible.
Figure 4: Personality Features of the Ego States
We will return to ego states and its practical applications in more detail in the next
section. For now, it suffices to be aware of the main ego states and their influence on feelings
and behavior. It is by recognizing our own and others’ ego states at any time in an interaction
that we are best equipped and able to respond appropriately and positively. As Wagner
(1981) reminded us:
“You are six different people, and so am I. You have six different personalities, and
so do your subordinates, your customers, your boss, your spouse and your children.
Right now you are operating within one of those personalities, and at any moment you
may activate another one instead.” (p. 1).
Families and Children
As the essence of Transactional Analysis (TA) deals with how we interact with others,
it is useful in group contexts such as families and work teams. TA relates to the development
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and expression of personality, and therefore childhood and the family as a dynamic relational
system is relevant. Furthermore, TA therapy methods are particularly useful in family
contexts as the method is well defined, the simplicity of the system and terminology is very
suitable for groups of different competencies, it is easy to talk about and diagram, which is
important to enable people to “see” and understand what is happening in their relationships
with others within the family unit. They can better relate to the ego states—characters in a
sense—and life positions that are involved in interpersonal interactions than is the case with
other systems of psychotherapy. Instead of emphasizing problems and issues of each group
member and in their behavior and relationships with each other—which has the tendency of
amplifying problem behavior and resistance—the TA methodology focuses instead on
developing the states that are supposed to be a part of everyone, and place them in a correct
context that is appropriate to situations and beneficial to family relationships. As such, the
emphasis is on strengths and potential development areas that are dealt with in a practical and
non-confrontational manner. This will certainly assist families better than with other
approaches to develop more comfortable and intimate relationships while also having fun
with each other. Indeed, humor can be a most useful and effective therapeutic tool that can
eliminate feelings of shame, anger, deficiency, and resistance from the family sessions, while
relieving pressure and unreasonable expectations. Therefore, TA is considered to be almost
like an art form that is applied as a supplement to more structured analytical and
psychotherapy methods, and its lively and healing overtones are extremely suitable for
distressed family units and couples.
In a study that was conducted recently in 2012 at the Payame Noor University in Iran,
the effectiveness of Transactional Analysis (TA) to increase family functioning among
distressed families and couples were demonstrated. The authors found a statistically
significant improvement in family functioning in the experimental group after just eight
sessions, as measured by aspects of problem solving, communication, roles, affective
responsiveness, affective involvement, behavioral control and general functioning. The TA
framework acknowledges that a family is more than a group of people living in close
psychological and physiological proximity, but is rather a natural social system that is bound
by a set of rules, different roles, and communication styles within a systematic structure.
Many complicated and negotiation and problem solving strategies are involved that are often
taken for granted. As such, there are reciprocal, strong, and enduring emotional attachments
in the family system that connect its members together that can become detached, defensive,
or otherwise dysfunctional under distressing circumstances, thereby creating disputes and
incompatibility.
As a system, TA recognizes that persons have distinct personality makeups and views
of themselves and the world that are created and developed in the childhood home. Personal
problems begin within the family and its relationships and expectations and therefore family
is the place where such problems should be resolved in. The implicit “contracts and
expectations within the family unit govern interpersonal relationships and sub-systems, such
as dyads, which are significant pairings within the larger family dynamic, such as husband-
wife, mother-child, or father-child relationships. These “special” relationships within the
larger structure are worthy of attention in TA and family therapy in general as they can form
unhealthy attachments and behavior, among others by reinforcing and fixing inappropriate
ego states and belief systems. For example, in mother-child dyads, young children are active
agents who influence and are influenced by their relationship with their mother and who
behave—across contexts and with different social partners—in ways that reflect this
relationship. Where competent children and their mothers influence each other positively and
reciprocally, aggressive children and their mothers were still relatively positive, but children
make more use of coercive control. On the other hand, anxious children and their mothers are
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generally aversive, and use resistance, unresponsiveness, and coercion to exert their roles in
order to achieve their aspirations. As we are able to see, any overuse or reversal of Parent and
Child ego states can result in dysfunctional and distressed interpersonal relationships in the
family unit. The same applies to unclear and inappropriate boundaries, which are the main
reasons why relationships do not develop in healthy ways. Where rigid boundaries are based
on fear, diffuse or permeable boundaries cause members to be both vulnerable and invasive
towards others as they do not have a clear sense of who they are, what their personal rights
are, or what others’ rights are. Here, the tendency is to be fixed in a perpetual Child or Parent
state, or oscillate between the two, with both conditions inappropriate in many situations,
leading to psychological vulnerabilities and pathological symptoms such as depression,
anxiety, or aggression. Growing and/or changing expectations and emotions may also lead to
misunderstandings, which can lead to evolving conflict, hostility, or internalized distress if
not dealt with appropriately, preferably in the family environment.
Figure 5: Patterns of Attachment in the Family System

In general, the personality or ego states and worldview of each individual in the
family system, is greatly determined by attachment styles in childhood. The Child and I-U+ (I
am not OK, You are OK) states are insecure and ambivalent. The Parent and I+U- (I am OK,
You are not OK) states are expressed as an avoidant and rigid style. The Adult and I+U+ (I
am OK, You are OK) states are the most positive and productive, and—as we will see in the
following section—its attainment is the essential goal of TA treatment. The I-U- (I am not
OK, You are not OK) worldview is conducive to negative interactions that is insecure,
unstable, and disorganized. An analysis of these styles in the family unit is useful to
understand each member’s point of reference.
As such, TA is considered to be an interactive therapy that is intended to enhance the
awareness of and ability in making a sound decision by individuals and group within the
family in order to change their relationships and course of life for the better. Insights into
their ego states can improve their communications by awareness of the time and
circumstances that their interaction patterns are crossed. We will look at crossed ego states in
the next module, but it occurs when two “non-complimentary” ego states interact, a situation
which is unsustainable and typically confrontational. If they are aware of these particular
interactions, they are able to make a concerted and conscious effort to return to a
complimentary transaction that is more positive and stable.
Analysis and Treatment Goals
As we have mentioned before, the essential objective of Transactional Therapy (TA)
is to move clients closer to their Adult ego states and an I+U+ (I am OK, You are OK) view
of themselves and others who they interact with. This is a stable and secure frame of mind
and perspective within which mature and bilaterally beneficial transactions can take place.
Unlike the Parent and Child state, the Adult is not subdivided (refer to Figure 3). That’s
because it is thought to have access to all information—internal and external—and that is one
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of the reasons that it is often a goal of TA therapy to strengthen the adult state. That is not to
say that the Parent and Child states are bad—as we have seen before, they do have
advantages such as creativity and structure, but because of their very limited awareness
compared to the Adult, the Parent and Child are not the most reliable states. Instead of rigid,
impulsive, or deterministic decisions about their lives and the direction of their lives and
relationships, a more adaptive decision-making that is situational and relational appropriate is
facilitated. But, it is also important to acknowledge and not deny the existence and role of the
Parent and Child ego states. It is by denying and suppressing these ego states that unresolved
problems continue to bubble under the surface.
Therefore, the overarching goal of Transactional Analysis (TA) is the achievement of
autonomy through updating the strategies for dealing with life that we decided on in
childhood. In this context, autonomy is defined as awareness, spontaneity, and the capacity
for intimacy. Hereby clients learn to substitute an autonomous lifestyle that is characterized
by manipulative game-playing and a self-defeating life-script with more functional
alternatives. In a later module, we will return to the concepts of game-playing and life scripts,
how they are formed, played out, and can contribute to our daily problems. For now, in short,
it suffices to define a “game” in TA as a series of transactions between two (or more) people
that is reciprocal, ulterior, and proceeds towards a predictable outcome. The process of a
game is often sub-conscious and can be disruptive to relationships and deceptive in its
consequences. Our “life script” or schema is another way of describing the meaning we
attribute to the events that happen to us and how we interpret real or perceived events and
react to it by way of feelings, thoughts, and behavior.
In TA therapy, clients learn to write their own new script instead of following their
previous script passively. As TA has a contractual approach, the counselor and client
collaborate closely to establish the specific goals that guide the therapy sessions and plans. A
few other goals are:
 Being a catalyst to enable clients to mobilize their efforts.
 Helping clients to obtain an amenable separation or distance from others.
 Help clients break through impasses that stem from injunctions and early
scripts.
In summary, by analyzing the client’s ego states and worldviews by examining
personal interactions and life scripts, a transactional therapist can make them aware of roles
and beliefs that influence their relationships, and that they may not even have been aware of.
Awareness of dysfunctional behavior is the start to developing more functional alternatives
that will be more appropriate and adaptive in daily interactions, and lead to less
confrontations and internal distress.
Roles and Games
The concepts of games, strokes, and rackets will be discussed in more detail in
Module 3. At this stage, only a brief introduction will be given, with a discussion of where
and how games relate to Transactional Analysis. According to British TA expert practitioner
Dave Spenceley, a game is a “series of complimentary ulterior transactions followed by [at
least] one of the players switching ego states, leading to a moment of confusion, followed by
familiar feelings and thoughts that reinforce the player’s life script.” Here, there are several
important concepts. The first is the requirement of “complimentary ulterior transactions”. Of
course, transactions refer to the dynamics that is contained in people’s interactions.
According to TA, it is by changing the negative and dysfunctional interactions that emotional
problems are solved. As such, transactions are the flow of communication, especially the
unspoken and sometimes subconscious psychological motivations that accompany the overt
or explicit interaction. “Complimentary” points to the fact that transaction that are part of
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games are parallel as the assumed ego states of the players align in a way that it can be
sustained. The concept is illustrated in the following example. It is also important to note that
the transactions are typically intentionally hidden—or “ulterior”—to consciously or
subconsciously deceive the other person into acting in a certain way. There is always a gain
or payoff at stake for the players that are aligned with their life script, thereby reinforcing it
each time that the game is played out. For example, payoff can be earning sympathy,
satisfaction, vindication, or superiority. At some point, usually towards the end of the game,
players switch ego states that always involve Parent and Child states. Compared to the Adult
state that is conscious, game playing is mostly outside of our awareness.
In games, roles are assumed by each player at any given time, and these can change
throughout. As mentioned, the roles are associated with Parent and Child ego states, and
follow a complimentary pattern. There are three basic roles, namely the victim, persecutor,
and rescuer.
 Victims are people who (1) provoke others to put them down, use them, or hurt
them, (2) send helpless messages, (3) conveniently forget, and (4) often act
confused. “You can make me feel bad or good.”
 Persecutors (1) make unrealistic rules, (2) enforce rules in harsh,
inappropriate, or inflexible ways, and (3) bully “weaker” people rather than
engaging their peers. “I can make you feel bad.”
 Rescuers are people who (1) offer helpfulness to keep others dependent on
them, (2) may not even have a real desire to help others, and (3) work to
maintain the victim role in others so that they can continue to act as a rescuer.
“I can make you feel good.”
This psychological and social model of human interaction by way of roles are often
referred to as the Karpman Drama Triangle. In a game, the players start from their familiar
favored position or role, but the game completes when one of the players switch roles. The
Karpman Drama Triangle is illustrated in the simple diagram in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Karpman Drama Triangle
According to a transactional analyst Claude Steiner, the Victim is not really as
helpless as he feels, the Rescuer is not really helping, and the Persecutor does not really have
a valid complaint. The covert purpose for each player and the reason the situation endures is
that each gets their unspoken and often unconscious psychological wishes or needs met in a
manner they feel justified, without having to consider or acknowledge the real or potential
broader dysfunction or harm done in the situation as a whole. As such, each player is acting
upon their own selfish needs, rather than acting in a genuinely responsible or altruistic
manner that can be associated with the Adult ego state. Eric Berne (1964) pointed out that in
Transactional Analysis, the drama triangle is sometimes referred to in the context of mind
games—the unconscious games played by innocent people. Examples—that will be
explained later—include: Why Don't You/Yes But; If It Weren't For You; Why does this
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Always Happen to Me?; See What You Made Me Do; You Got Me Into This; Look How Hard
I've Tried; I’m Only Trying to Help You; and Let You and Him Fight. Oftentimes, the
relationships are co-dependent, which can be sustained—at least for a while, until someone’s
needs are not adequately met and they shift position. A cycle of abuse or addiction is possible
when repeats and is reinforced with each repetition.
Practical Example: Life Positions and Stabilization of Ego States
As we have seen, our life positions and how they are expressed in a situation as our
ego states are durable as they are developed from childhood. They tend to form the stable
basis of our personality, causing many subconscious responses in the form of thoughts,
feelings, and behavior. Other than the Adult ego state and I’m OK, You’re OK life position,
the Parent and Child ego states and other life positions are often maladaptive have
consequences that were not intended. It is the objective of TA to recognize and understand
these interactions and supply the tools for clients to move into their Adult state, while
accepting and being aware of their Parent and Child states. The OK corral grid—see Figure
6—is a visual illustration of how our life positions are acted out in real situations.
To a large extent, the position that is best aligned with our life script is favored as the
most comfortable, and will determine our game position/strategy, verbal communication, and
physiological expressions and mannerisms, all which is mostly unintentional and motivated
by subconscious needs and desires. By understanding someone’s likely position, they can be
made aware of it, understand the consequences, and invest effort in resolving the issues.
Figure 6: The Practical OK Corral Grid
Adapted from the Eric Berne Memorial Scientific Award Acceptance Speech by Franklin
Ernst, 1981, Boston MA.
As we have demonstrated before, we move between the ego states all the time, but not
in a random way as it is dependent on a particular situation and the associations we make
through our past experiences. We also change states when interacting and responding to
others, especially when it suits our needs. Here is a very brief example to illustrate
complementary interactions. Bill is Jackie’s boss. Jackie comes in late and misses an
important meeting.
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(Bill): You’re useless.
(Jackie): I know. I’m sorry.
Let’s look at the transactional analysis. What has happened? Bill has likely been in his
Adult state, but, seeing Jackie, he became angry and switched to Parent, criticizing her
harshly. Jackie had also been in her Adult state, but in response to being shouted at, she
moved to Child where she felt small and bad, and meekly apologized. Notice what the arrows
that depict the interaction are doing; they align (Figure 5). These are said to be
complimentary interactions or transactions, and they have an important property in that they
set up a reciprocal pattern that is stable and could be maintained indefinitely. However, not
all transactions are complimentary or parallel, and in the next module we will explore this
further by way of a different scenario.
Figure 7: Transactional Analysis of Complimentary Interactions
By now, we have explained many concepts that are central to the theory of
Transactional Analysis, including ego states, life position, games, roles, and how these
determine our daily interactions with others—called transactions in TA. In the next module
we will cover the fundamentals and significance of ego states in relationships, games, and
introjections in more detail.

You’re the Transactional Analyst
The interaction above is the briefest illustration of a complimentary transaction. Would you
say that this is sustainable?
Here, Bill acted from a Controlling Parent state, and Jackie from her Adaptive Child state.
Could Jackie have responded from a Free Child state? What if she said: “Yes. And I don’t
care”?
If Jackie responded from her Parent state as well, it would have been confrontational (We
will see an example in the next module.) Could Bill then have switched to his Child mode,
by apologizing?
The Adult state is the objective and reasonable dimension. Could Jackie have responded
from her Adult state?
In this module, we have discussed ego states and life positions and seen how they
impact on our relationships and daily lives. Our Parent and Child ego states are subconscious
responses to an environmental stimulus that is activated in accordance with past experiences.
Our past experiences, especially those in childhood, are also associated with the development
of our life positions, which represent the core view that we have of ourselves and the world.
It can be very dysfunctional if it causes behavior that are no longer appropriate in our present
day lives. Life positions are deeply rooted and difficult to change, but Transactional Analysis
therapy has proven successful to make us aware of our disruptive Child and Parent states, and
to get us to accept them and integrate them with our Adult ego state, thereby achieving better
balance, decision-making, and appropriate behavior.

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KEY CONCEPTS
 Transactional Analysis (TA) is a theory of personality that conceptualizes

four main life positions: I+U+, I+U-, I-U+, and I-U-.
 TA defines three main ego states—Parent, Adult, and Child—to help us
understand our feelings and behaviors in different situations.
 TA therapy has proven to be effective to improve functioning in family
systems.
 The main goal of TA therapy is to assist clients to associate more with their
Adult ego state.
References
Berne, E. (1961). Transactional analysis in psychotherapy: A systematic individual and
social psychology. New York, NY: Grove Press. DOI: 10.1037/11495-000
Berne, E. (1964). Games people play: The psychology of human relationships. New York,
NY: Grove Press.
Mountain, A., & Davidson, C. (2011). Working together: Organizational transactional
analysis and business performance. Burlington, VT: Bower Publishing Company.
Wagner, A. (1981). The transactional manager: How to solve people problems with
transactional analysis. Sydney, Australia: Prentice Hall.
White, T. (1994). Life positions. Transactional Analysis Journal, 24(4), 269-276.
White, T. (2000). New ways in transactional analysis (2nd Ed.). North Perth, Australia: TA
Books.
Module 2: Fundamentals of Ego States
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
 Discuss how our ego states influence morality and social aspects
 Explain the fundamentals of our Adult ego state and transaction
 Define the archaic Child ego state and its development
 Explain parental introjects and the effect of cultural influences
Moral and Social Aspects
Naturally moral and social aspects will be relevant in the engagement between the TA
analyst and client and have had an influence on the development of the ego states and life
positions. The integrated Adult ego state—a concept that we will explore in more detail in the
following section—embody the charm and openness that are reminiscent of childhood, but
also responsibility and compassion towards other persons, which is referred to as the pathos
of the Adult dimension (Massey, Hewitt, & Moiso, 2002). When these ego states manifest
“moral qualities that are universally expected of people who undertake grown-up
responsibilities such as courage, sincerity, loyalty, reliability, they convey a world-wide
ethos.” (p. 559).
In Freud’s original psychodynamic theory of personality, the id is the set of
uncoordinated instinctual trends; the super-ego plays the critical and moralizing role; and the
ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-
ego. The id, which is the unorganized part of the personality structure that contains a person’s
basic, instinctual drives, is similar to the Adult and Child ego states in transactional analysis.
The Parent and Child ego states are also shaped by early childhood experiences and are
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activated and expressed as a subconscious process. It is not concerned with morally and
socially acceptable decision-making and behavior and is largely reactive and impulsive, often
with exaggerated self-interests at the expense of others.
On the other hand, the Adult ego state—especially when Adult and Parent ego states
are already adequately integrated—as an objective and reasonable decision-maker, is much
more concerned with morality and the other’s point of view and interests. Therefore, it is
superior in social intelligence. It is in the conscious domain, and if it is able to remain
unfettered from influence and contamination from the Parent and Child ego states, it will
attempt to act with rationality in a consistent way according to the information at its disposal.
A positive attitude and empathy are also typical hallmarks of the Adult ego state. As with
Freud’s theory of personality development, Berne’s Transactional Analysis theory was also
frames on the concept of the human personality as a multi-faceted structure. As such, it
assumes a simultaneous presence of multiple personality features, in varying combinations
and states of activation. In his book, “I’m OK, You’re OK” that was first published in 1969,
American psychiatrist and author Thomas Anthony Harris posits that reality is the most
important tool of the Adult ego state. It is also the tool by which we construct a valid ethical
system. However, there are many variations of personal reality, and value judgments are
ultimately made according to personal beliefs that were developed based on earlier
experiences. And as Harris reminded us: “The key to motivation lies in the realm of values.”
The Child is more likely to discard valid parts of conventional learned and self-developed
conventional morality that the Adult ego state. Also, we must take care not to reject the
Parent ego state totally, as much culture and values have been transmitted through the
Parent—data that is often reliable.
Morality is defined as having and exercising the principles concerning the distinction
between right and wrong or good and bad behavior that is underlain by a particular system of
values and principles of conduct, often a manifestation of our parental and societal values.
The search for objective principles and relatedness is a universal reality, but also a subjective
experiential reality for each of us. In that, man creates his own human essence through a
series of choices, and it is maintained and reinforced through repeated actions. In many
circumstances killing is condoned by the Parent, while the Child is too reactive to control
himself when provoked. These are but two examples of the difficulty that the Parent and
Child have in determining and preserving the worth of others. Therefore, according to Harris
(2004), the Adult is the only part of us that can choose to believe that “I am Important, and
You are Important.” It is only upon this life position that morality can be exercised. It is only
when engaging in Adult to Adult dialogue, rather than conducting interactions in the
collective archaic ego states of Parent or Child, in which disharmony and immorality can be
addressed. This was articulated by American Senator William Fulbright in a 1964 speech to
the U.S. Senate on U.S. foreign policy titled “Old Myths and New Realities”, as analyzed by
Harris (2004) in the context of TA:
There is an inevitable divergence, attributable to the imperfections of the human mind

[the Contaminated Adult], between the world as it is [viewed by the Emancipated
Adult] and the world as men perceive it [viewed by the Parent or Child or the
Contaminated Adult]. As long as our perceptions are reasonably close to objective
reality [uncontaminated], it is possible for us to act upon our problems in a rational
and appropriate [Adult] manner. But when our perceptions fail to keep pace with
events [are archaic], when we refuse to believe something because it displeases
[Parent] us or frightens [Child] us, or because it is simply startlingly unfamiliar, then
the gap between fact and perception becomes a chasm and action becomes irrelevant
and irrational. (p. 253).
Early exposure to difficulties and inconsistencies, especially, frames archaic data in
the Rebellious and Anxious (Adapted) Child, but also in the fragmented Controlling Parent
ego state. These states often have a hold on us, and prevent us from engaging our Adult ego
state in times when it is most required. As Harris noted: “The violence in our homes is the
most significant violence of all. It is the Child who commits murder. Where does the Child
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learn?” It is only by opening new lines of communication between Adult and Adult that
social responsibility and morality can be put in place and maintained for the benefit of all.
Fundamentals of TA, Ego States and Transactions, and the Adult Ego State
We will now continue our discussion of ego states and transactions that form the
foundation of Berne’s original Transactional Analysis (TA) model, in more detail. As we
have seen in the previous module, transactions are the flow of communication between two
or more people, and TA focuses on the unspoken psychological flow that accompanies the
spoken word and overt gestures. Our behavior, including in our interpersonal interactions are
influenced by our prevailing ego states. To recapitulate: All of us have three main ego states
that developed since early childhood and is reflective of our earliest experiences with the
environment and those around us, namely the Child, Adult, and Parent. The Adult ego state
functions on the conscious dimension and is our objective voice of reason and logic. On the
other hand, Child and Parent ego states are impulsive and instinctive. They are activated
when something reminds us subconsciously of our experiences in the past. Each has two
dimensions, the Child ego state is divided into the Free Child and the Adapted Child, while
the Parent ego state is divided into the Controlling Parent and the Nurturing Parent. These
different states represent the different response mechanisms that we developed to events in
our childhood. Sometimes they can be highly disruptive to our relationships and emotional
states as they embody reactions that are not always appropriate in present situations. As such,
it is helpful for the TA therapist and each of us to recognize the words, gestures, and
expressions that are associated with each ego state. The typical characteristics of each are
listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Recognizing Ego States
Controlling Nurturing Natural Adapted

Behavior Adult
Parent Parent Child Child
Can’t, wish,
Bad, should, Good, nice, How, why, Fun, want,
Words ought, don’t well done who, yes, no mine
please, thank
you
Pointing finger, Straight Slumped,
Gestures and Energetic,
pounding table, Open arms posture, level dejected, nail
postures shaking head eye contact
loose limbed
biting
Loving,
Tone of Sneering, Calm, clear, Whining,
encouraging, Loud, free
voice condescending
concerned
even, confident sulking, defiant
Facial Scowl, hostile, Thoughtful, Joyful, Fearful,
Smiling
expression disapproving alert eyes twinkling eyes pouting
By observing and recognizing our active ego states at real time, an awareness is
created that is the first step in dealing with their negative influences more effectively, and
moving closer to our Adult state. As we have explained before, an ego state is defined as a
coherent system of thinking, feeling, attitudes, and related behavior. However, it has to be
noted that the structural source of the respective ego state differs. According to Trautman and
Erskine (1981), the Parent category of ego states is filled with introjects that have content
from parental figures that have been taken from the past. We will discuss introjects further in
a later section. The Child category of ego states is filled with reactive patterns of thinking,
feeling, and behaving that were self-developed in the past. The Adult category of ego states
consists of up-to-date current thinking, feeling, and behavior that is thoughtful and
appropriate in present moment situations. The Adult ego state has the capacity to integrate
contents from both the Child and Parent ego states. The functional ego model differs from the
standard structural model that was proposed by Berne (see Figure 3 in Module 1) as it
explains the ego states by way of their typical expression or function. The Karpman drama
triangle is also incorporated (see Figure 5 in Module 1).

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Figure 7: Functional Ego State Model
The functional ego state model also have the three main ego state categories—Parent,
Adult, and Child—and their subdivisions—Controlling Parent, Nurturing Parent, Adaptive
Child, and Free Child—but recognizing that any state can more or less resemble the positive
of the Adult state (+ side), or be in opposition to it (- side). According to Van Beekum
(1996), the Adult ego state can manifest itself in any of five functions as illustrated in Figure
8, which is a combination of the structural and functional models.
Figure 8: Relation between Structure and Function of Ego States
Therefore, as per Figure 8, functioning in the present moment is always fivefold.
Contrary to the traditional functional model that separates functions more definitively
(Controlling Parent, Nurturing Parent, Adult, Adapted Child, and Free Child), the Adult ego
state has all these functions available, and boundaries are determined, information processed,
and decision made to varying degrees, depending on the contents, activation and conscious
awareness of each functional ego state. In effect, there can also be contamination from the
archaic (introjected) Parent or archaic (fixated) Inner Child, which is sometimes indicated as
an overlap between the structural circles. (These concepts will be discussed in greater detail
in the next two sections.) As such, the Parent or Child ego state that was developed and
largely fixed in childhood, is triggered with little awareness from memory of the perceived
meaning of past experiences. As in the example of Figure 9, the archaic Child ego state
becomes activated and contaminates—or interferes with—the functioning of the Adult ego
state that is trying to navigate present situations with objectivity and reason. In principle, the
same would apply if the contamination came from the archaic Parent state.
Figure 9: Child-Adult Contamination
With a graphical presentation that combines both the functional and structural
elements of the transactional process, theoretical clarity is enhanced, which enables a better
practical understanding and application of Transactional Analysis principles in counseling

31
and therapy. As mentioned previously, the functional ego state model (Figure 7) includes and
expands on the Karpman Drama or VPR Triangle (see Figure 5 in Module 1), and thereby
also account for states that are closer to the Adult ego state. But, if we only consider the
features (functions) that are most prevalent in the “pure” Parent and Child ego states, and can
easily become disruptive, namely the Victim, Prosecutor, and Rescuer roles—keeping in
mind that these are only surface appearances that are subconsciously assumed in order to
achieve a goal—TA therapy goals can be designed. These new goals, productive and
effective functions, provide empowerment and improve behavior in interactions. These goals
were extended above the Karpman Drama Triangle as a concept by American leadership
development consultant and executive coach David Emerald (see Figure 10). He coined the
mirrored triangle “The Empowerment Dynamic”, or TED. As with the Karpman Drama
Triangle, TED also involves three key roles that mirror those found in the drama triangle: the
victim, instead of looking for others to validate their victimhood, becomes a creator who is
attempting to discover what they truly want in the situation; the persecutor, instead of
belittling and distracting with criticism mind games, is using criticism constructively as a
challenger to aid the victim in this self-exploration, and the rescuer becomes a coach to the
others, rather than seeking their dependence or his own egotistic gain.
Figure 10: The Empowerment Dynamic (TED) Triangle
By applying the concepts of TED in relation to the traditional functional Parent and
Child ego states, the client not only becomes aware when he or she is
unintentionally/instinctively assuming the Victim, Persecutor, or Rescuer roles, and analyze
how that worked out and how it felt, but they can consciously make a choice to assume more
effective roles when they recognize familiar triggers. As such, the Creator—as an antidote for
the Victim—is a shift towards learning, moving, growing, and leaving the past behind,
instead of automatically functioning from the I’m not OK, You’re OK life position and
Adapted Child ego state.
The Challenger is an antidote for the Persecutor, and actively and constructively
ignites others to take action by influence rather than power and control. Therefore, it moves
from an I’m OK, You’re not OK life position and Controlling Parent ego state, closer to the
Adult ego state.
The Coach is an antidote for the Rescuer, and cultivates real empowerment—instead
of an act or impression of rescue—by capable and resourceful support and encouragement.
As such, the move is from a I’m OK, You’re not OK, and Nurturing Parent to a more
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sustainable and scrupulous position in the Adult ego state. Therefore, it is becoming even
clearer that Transactional Analysis essentially aims to observe and understand dysfunctional
behavior in interpersonal interactions from the perspective of the ego state and life positions,
create awareness thereof, and replace those ineffective ones with functional Adult-oriented
behavior.
Archaic Child Ego States: A Developmental Perspective
As we have seen in a previous section, the activity of an ego state is time and context
bound and continuously changing, although at a progressively slower pace from adolescence
onward into adulthood. This is as new experiences are added, previous ones are reinforced,
and parts resolved and integrated with the Adult state. Accordingly, Federn (1952) suggests
that a person may sometimes re-experience ego states that date from earlier stages of their
lives. He described two sets of ego states. The first is an autonomous set of feelings, attitudes
and behaviors that reflect and is adaptive to the current reality. In TA, this set is referred to as
the Adult ego state. The second set makes up the Child ego state—or Inner Child—which
consists of archaic relics of past experiences in childhood. As the Adult ego state functions in
the conscious dimension and the Child state in the sub- or preconscious dimension, awareness
of the other and communication between the two are deficient. The ego states are first
developed in a chronological sequential manney.
When first born, the infant’s awareness is centered on personal needs and comforts.
The baby seeks to avoid painful experiences and responds at the feeling level. Almost
immediately the infant’s unique Child ego state emerges. (Prenatal influences on the Child
ego state had not yet been determined.)
The Parent ego state develops next. It is often first observed when the young child
plays at parenting, imitating parental behavior. Sometimes it’s a shock for parents to see
themselves being played back. Sometimes they are pleased.

The Adult ego state develops as the child tries to make sense out of the world and
figures out that other people can be manipulated. The child may ask, “Why do I have to eat
when I’m not hungry?” and may try to manipulate others by faking a stomach ache in order
to avoid eating. After the archaic Child and Parent ego states have formed and the Adult ego
state starts to develop—a process that will continue through life—some integration and
introjection also starts to take place.
The Integrated Adult is distinguished from introjected Parent states and fixated
archaic Child ego states. As with the Parent state, the Child state can be seen as a pattern of
defenses against integration with the Adult state. As a result, the archaic Child state
represents fixated adjustments that have been developed earlier in life and are pathological in
that they are compulsively used in the present moment at the expense of excluding other—
more adaptive and objective—choices. In his 1975 book titled “What Do You Say After You
Say Hello”, Berne has also conceptualized that different kinds of perceived realities are based
on past experience of self (Child), others are based on past experience of others (Parent), and
still others are present-centered (Adult). Dr. Richard Eskine, an American integrative
psychotherapist with more than four decades of experience described Child or archaic states
of the ego as “the entire personality of a person as he or she was in a previous developmental
period of time”.
The archaic Child ego state can exhibit two types of behavior, namely one that is
dominated by influence of the Parent state—compliance or withdrawal—and the other that is
autonomous and resistant of the Parent influence—rebelliousness and self-indulgence.
According to Clarkson, Berne also distinguishes between two Child ego states, namely (1)
Child as archaic ego states, and (2) Child as fixated archaic states. “Both categories are
accessible to being relived, as such, in the present by the adult person. Indeed [archaic] Child
ego states may be a misnomer since this term suggests a repository of experiences only
35
relating to a person’s childhood whereas ego states—as normal psychological epochs—
continue to be formed for the duration of a person’s life.” (p. 45). Instead, a person’s vivid
experiences today is stored in natural psychological memories to be recalled at a later time as
archaic. Here, the distinction is made between “fixated” ego states and “non-traumatic” ego
states. In the case where these impressions are formed in childhood, both become part of the
archaic Child ego state later on. As such, archaic—or for that matter any—ego states are not
necessarily pathological, but fixated ego states represents a single, and, more potently
repeated traumatic experiences that is therefore much more likely to develop into a fixated
state that will be relived later on as a fixated archaic Child ego state. “Such a temporal
recording carries with it important psychical elements such as understanding of the meaning
of the experience, and the emotion that it may have aroused” (p. 45). Distress, confusion, and
a myriad of other feelings are associated with the experience of trauma, which is “designed”
to act as a coping mechanism at the time, but becomes maladaptive in later, more “normal”
circumstances as it is fixated in a past that is not “real” in the present moment.
As we have explained before, it is only by being aware of our unintentional and
instinctive Child states, both archaic (fixated in the past) and introjected (inserted into the
present functioning Adult ego state) that we can begin to reintegrate them with our Adult ego
state where they will lose their disruptive influence on our relationships and daily
interactions.
Parent Introjections, Influences, and Culture
Parental Introjects and Influences
Parental introjects are internal parts, usually formed in childhood, which represent a
person’s understanding of the point of view of a particular parent. Eric Berne (1961)
observed this third set of ego states in which the experiences and behaviors seemed to be
copied, or introjected, from someone else. He also called it a “borrowed” ego state. This
someone else was most often a parent, or a parental figure. However, it is important to
understand that when we introject our Parent figures, we also introject all of their ego states,
including the Child, Parent, and Adult ego states. As such, the activation of a particular
parental introject can account for sudden and seemingly uncharacteristic changes in the
behavior of a person. The analysis of the parental introject is typically inferential and
hypothetical as the analyst rarely has the opportunity to interview and observe the parents—
as the source of the introjects—themselves. Therefore, within our Parent ego states there
remains the Parent, Adult, and Child of our introjected parents. These are represented as three
ego states within the Parent ego state, as illustrated in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Parental Introjection
As can be seen in the two illustrations, the Adult ego state—as is the case with the
Child and Parent as well—has features from the parents and other caregivers or role models
from our childhood introjected into the beliefs that underlie our personality. These features,
together with those that we formed outside the parental influence, determine our thoughts and
feelings in response to environmental information. Their perspective regulate our behavior
and daily interactions with others, through psychological needs and desires and our
expectations of achieving these. This model (as in Figure 7) are referred to as the third order
structural model (Widdowson, 2009). In TA structural models, C0, A0, and P0 are used to
denote the main (primary) Child, Adult, and Parent ego states, while C1, A1, and P1 are the
introjects in C0; C2, A2, and P2 are the introjects in A0; and C3, A3, and P3 refer to the
37
introjects that are active in the core Parent state, P0. Of course, this adds another dimension
to the TA structure for the analyst to consider: What may be observed as a Child state, may
be a Child introject in the Parent ego state. Features of these states and introject will be
qualitatively different depending on the age and developmental stage of the ego stage
cathected, which is a subjective and deductive process that requires an advanced and
experienced TA practitioner. According to Widdowson (2009), a “behavioral diagnosis are
not entirely reliable here, as the client may be exhibiting ego states which did not use age-
appropriate behaviors so social, historical, and phenomenological diagnosis needs to be
utilized to determine the age and developmental state of each presenting ego state.” (p. 137).
To explain: a client may present with behavior that seems out of place given their age,
development, and experiences. This provides a clue that introjects are associated with this
behavior. By understanding the culture and history of the client, age-appropriate behavior can
be inferred, which puts the introjects in their proper context. Introjected ego states may also
be sequestered or excluded, and this process of repression or dissociation can be so powerful
within the client’s ego structure that they cause internal distress, which may not be readily
apparent.
The internal dialogue between the Child, Adult, and Parent ego states and their
various introjects are preconscious, which means that although a person may not be aware of
it, it can be easily brought into consciousness by a skilled TA analyst. As we have mentioned
before, the additional structural levels of introjects typically cause complexity and some
internal dialogues can remain hidden for longer. Here, such an internal dialogue can be
explored by questioning and challenging visible aspects and by prompting the client to be
aware of the interactions.

The Influence of Culture
We remain embedded in matrices of our culture, and as such, it has had a significant
influence on the development and perspective of our life script. Therefore, for TA therapists
it is important to work with clients on both an intrapsychic level and at a level that addresses
their cultural scripts. By ignoring a person’s cultural script, and the scripting from the wider
society, would be to deny the impact of culture and race on their everyday lives (Widdowson,
2009). Culture largely determines parental styles and family and gender roles, which becomes
an integral part of our personality development in childhood. Therefore, it is imperative to
observe and place behavior that is an expression of our beliefs, thoughts, and feelings in
relation to needs and expectations, in the proper cultural context, especially when that culture
is not well aligned or in minority of the prevailing culture in the individual’s environment.
Geertz (1973) reminded us that there is no such thing as human nature without
culture; we are inescapably connected to our culture that are influenced by a myriad of
differences. The Oxford Dictionary defines culture as the “customs and civilization of a
particular time or people”. In our childhood, we are not only subjected to and influenced by
our parents and caregivers, but their culture as a whole, including practices, beliefs, and
perspectives that are time and context bound. Then, there is not only our own cultural
identification, but the relation of others to our own. Our culture mirror our own set of values,
beliefs, and experiences, and with it, a sense of inclusion and belonging—undeniably a
fundamental human need and motivation. However, when our wider society fail to accept or
include the existence, values, and experiences of a particular group, then those will inevitably
feel alienated (Hargaden & Sills, 2002). This failure is often apparent in a lack of
understanding, ignorance, or mistaken beliefs, patronizing words and actions, unfamiliarity
with the behavior or traditions of minority cultures, and stereotyping. According to Hargaden
and Sills (2002), this “overt acknowledgement of cultural apartheid demonstrates the extent
39
to which our social and political identities are implicated in our personal identities.” (p. 98).
And further, when the dominant culture “does not mirror our identity or, worse, devalues it,
then, essentially, we internalize a sense of rejection of ourselves.” Therefore, an
understanding of cultural identity is implicit in the notion of the core self as the core Adult
ego state (A0). Similarly, the relationship between the child and mother will include the
mother’s feelings about her own racial, class, and gender identity and how it is perceived by
the immediate environment and wider community. This will eventually be reflected in the
child’s Parent ego state (P0), and the parental introjections.
This raises another important issue, namely the value of the parent-child attachment in
the development of adaptive and stable ego states and life position in the child. People,
especially from minority cultures, are often left to cope without sufficient resources to
support the parent-child attachment. Many—if not most cultures—continue to devalue the
female, which can cause a psychological vulnerability and moral distortion that is conveyed
to the child and their developing personality. Marginalized people may also repress, deny, or
lose their sense of identity in an attempt to fit in. In this context, the splitting of the “self” and
“false self” as a requirement for survival is embedded in the child’s life script and may cause
feelings of alienation and low self-esteem. A conceptualization of the development of the
cultural self is illustrated in Figure 8. Here, we can see how the child tries to conform to his
mother’s sense of identity and expectations.

Figure 8: The Development of the Cultural Self
Source: Hargaden and Sills (2002), p. 99.
Furthermore, a world of segregation can also cause a dichotomous mindset of “us”
and “them” that becomes firmly fixed in the child’s developing ego states and life script. This
can easily cause persecutory feelings and anxiety that can be “split off” and projected onto
the environment as inappropriate behavior. There is no sense of trust and security in the
young child, and when the “I’m not OK, You’re not OK” life script becomes rooted, his or
her internal world remains conflicted, and the Parent and Child ego states firmly in control
where difference is viewed with caution and hostility. As a result, the fear of not belonging
and envy of and hostility towards others lead to internalized distress and externalized
aggression that is poorly aligned with a health and stable Adult ego state.
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Practical Example: Transaction Types and Ego States
This example of a transactional exchange illustrates the concept of a crossed
transaction and how it is different from the complimentary transaction that we have explored
in the previous module. There are three types of transactions and many variations within each
of the three types. The main types are the two that we have already mentioned—
complimentary and crossed—and the third being ulterior transactions. Where the ego state
responding is complimentary to the ego state that is offering the stimulus, i.e. the interaction
vectors are parallel and do not cross (such as Parent↔Child, Adult↔Adult, etc.), the
communication is sustainable and non-confrontational. On the other hand, when the ego state
addressed is different for the one responding the communication ceases, i.e. the interaction
vectors cross rather than being parallel (such as Parent→Child stimulus followed by a
Parent→Child response), the communication is confrontational and therefore not sustainable.
Ulterior transactions are indicated by a broken line, and involves two messages that are sent
at the same time, one overt social and one covert psychological, which is an unconscious
process.
Let’s return to the ego state example of the interaction between Bill and Jackie that
we briefly discussed in the previous module, but change the exchange to illustrate transaction
that are not complimentary, but crossed.
(Bill): You’re useless. [Bill again gets angry and move to Parent]
(Jackie): Don’t you dare talk to me that way. [Here, however, Jackie responds by
moving to her Parent state by expressing outrage]
This interaction represents a crossed transaction that is highly unstable, and one of
two things tend to happen. Either the transaction will stop or there will be a shift of ego states
in one of the parties to create a new stable complimentary transaction.
(Bill): You missed the meeting.

(Jackie): I don’t care what I’ve done! You don’t talk to people like that! Now you can
bloody-well apologize! I’m waiting…
(Bill): I just meant that…
(Jackie): I said I’m waiting.
(Bill): OK, I’m sorry.
(Jackie): I don’t think you mean it. Right, that’s it; I’m reporting you for harassment!
(Bill): Look, I am. I’m really sorry.
So what started out by Bill trying to put Jackie in her Child state, ended up with Bill
instead firmly in the Child state and Jackie in Parent (see Figure 5). Now that the transaction
has shifted to a complimentary pattern, it can stay like that with Bill perpetually submitting to
Jackie. Although Bill submitting to Jackie is not necessarily a comfortable state of affairs,
particularly for Bill, it can be psychologically stable.
Figure 9: Moving From Crossed to Complimentary Transaction
As we have seen, Bill engages Jackie from his Controlling Parent ego state, directed
at her Child state, but Jackie responds from the same state, directed at Bill’s Child state. This
interaction is immediately confrontational and will escalate if no-one concedes and changes
position. This type of interaction is possibly repeated between Bill and Jackie on different
occasions, and they are probably not aware of the source of their problem, that is, that they
are engaging from ineffective states. An awareness and understanding of this dynamic will
43
assist them to be mindful that they engage from their Adult ego states instead, thereby
creating a complimentary interaction that is reasoned and responsible.
The preceding example of an interaction between Bill and Jackie illustrates a crossed
transaction that changed into a more stable complimentary transaction. Looking at the
interaction again, would you agree that a crossed transaction is not sustainable and tends to
be confrontational and escalate?
Was it necessary for Jackie to immediately move to her Parent ego state—or Child ego state
for that matter—as a response to Bill’s position from his Parent state? Can you see that it
probably reflected feelings and experiences that Jackie had in her childhood that caused her
to react instinctively from a defensive position?
It is assumed that either Bill or Jackie could have taken a position in their Adult ego state at
any time. What do you think prevented this from happening? Would you say that they were
even aware of their respective states?
KEY CONCEPTS
 The Adult ego state is responsible for our reasoning, value judgments, and
morality, but is contaminated or interrupted by our dysfunctional Parent and
Child ego states.
 The archaic Child ego state is based on our early childhood experiences and
either fixed or inserted into our Adult or Parent states.
 Parental introjects are influences from our parents that are inserted into our
own ego states.
 Our cultural perspective and experience has an important influence on our
ego states and life position.
 The two main communication types are crossed transactions—
confrontational and unsustainable, and complimentary transactions—
sustainable and non-confrontational.
References
Clarkson, P. (1992). Transactional Analysis psychotherapy: An integrated approach. New
York, NY: Routledge.
Erskine, R. G. (1988). Ego structure, intrapsychic function, and defense mechanisms: A
commentary on Eric Berne’s original theoretical concepts. Transactional Analysis
Journal, 18, 15-19.
Hargaden, H., & Sills, C. (2002). Transactional analysis: A relational perspective. New
York, NY: Routledge.
Harris, T. A. (2004). I’m OK, you’re OK. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.
Massey, R. F., Hewitt, G., & Moiso, C. (2002). Transactional Analysis. In F. W. Kaslow, R.
F. Massey, & S. D. Massey (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychotherapy:

45
Interpersonal, humanistic, existential (Vol. 3) (pp. 555-586). New York, NY: John
Wiley & Sons.
Trautman, R. L., & Erskine, R. G. (1981). Ego state analysis: A comparative view.
Transactional Analysis Journal, 11(2), 178-185. DOI: 10.1177/036215378101100218
Van Beekum, S. (2009, May). The graphics of ego states. Paper presented at the Advanced
Working Conference of the International Transactional Association, Amsterdam,
Netherlands.
Widdowson, M. (2009). Transactional Analysis: 100 Key points and techniques. New York,
NY: Routledge.
Module 3: Scripts and Strategies
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
 Introduce the concept of scripts and their significance on personal, cultural,

and organizational levels
 Explain games and rackets, how it reinforces our script, and further our
interests
 Discuss self-perpetuating strategies, strokes, and time-structuring
 Describe Transactional Analysis in group dynamics
Scripts: Personal, Cultural, and Organizational
The concept of a script refers to an unconscious life pattern that are developed from
early childhood by way of decisions that are based on awareness and the attachment of
meaning to events and experiences. From the beginning, decisions are directed to a reward or
payoff that we believe will solve a life problem in accordance with the logic of the Child
(Tilney, 1998). Therefore, the payoff is viewed as some kind of an ultimate solution or is
attached to other benefits or secondary gains. As such, it acts as a motivator in life decisions.
However, it is rarely played out, and represents a transferential reply of unresolved life
issues. In psychology “transferential” refers to the unconscious tendency to assign to others
in one’s present environment feelings and attitudes associated with significance in one’s early
life, or, explained in another way, the process by which emotions associated with one person,
such as a parent, unconsciously shift to another later in life.
The life script is also associated with the discounting of current reality by a projecting
of issues from the past in the hope of repeating or achieving the payoff, which will reinforce
the script. “Discounting” refers to the tendency to take something as less than what it really
47
is. By unknowingly attaching less value to the present moment, a reaction is activated that
does not originate in the here-and-now, but is based on archaic states of perception, thereby
often choosing to ignore evidence that would contradict the perceptions that have been
formulated into the life script. Therefore, as the Adult may attempt to solve an actual problem
in the present, archaic ego states often interfere by way of the life script. Types of discount
can include passivity, over-adaptation, prostration, agitation, anger, and violence.
As such, the script is a response to perceptions of the world and an unconscious
attempt to make sense of the world. It actually redefines reality, where “redefining” refers to
the deliberate distortion of reality to fit our life script, our preferred way to make sense of the
world, resolve our life issues, and achieve the payoff. According to Berne (1964), scripts that
are discussed in psychotherapy are mostly negative and destructive as the patient’s script is
psychopathological given his or her context in therapy. However, under many everyday
circumstances, scripts can also be positive and beneficial. We often repeat the patterns that
proved to be correct by early decisions, and, especially in circumstances of indulgence and
caring instead of neglect, abuse, or deprivation, our scripts may very well be positive and
well-adapted to later similar circumstances. It is when our script becomes outdated and is not
appropriate to our adolescent and adult lives any more that our automatic decisions seem
dysfunctional and counterproductive. Therefore, they do not always make sense when we are
adults, but they take hold and continue to influence our lives until we become aware of their
influence and that they are no longer sensible, although they made sense in earlier
circumstances.
A script is often illustrated by way of a script matrix—a diagram that shows how a
person received their injunctions, counter-injunctions (or counterscript), and program
messages from the ego states of their parents, caretakers, and other role models in their
childhood (see Figure 1). An injunction is considered to be a negative message from the
Child ego state of a person’s parent to his or her own Child ego state. There are twelve basic
behavior injunctions: (1) Don’t be, don’t exist, (2) Don’t be well, or sane, (3)Don’t be you,
(4) Don’t make it, don’t succeed, (5) Don’t be close, don’t trust, (6) Don’t grow up, (7) Don’t
be a child, (8) Don’t be important, (9) Don’t belong, (10) Don’t enjoy, (11) Don’t talk, and
(12) Don’t.
A counter-injunction is messages that specified behaviors in later childhood that the
child believed would gain the approval or love of their parents or caretakers. From an adapted
Child position these behaviors generate a spurious sense of “OKness” as a defense against
negative elements in the personality. A program message is conveyed from the contaminated
Adult ego state of a parent to the contaminated (and developing) Adult ego state of a Child.
These messages provide information in support of script behavior, e.g. “this is how to drink
heavily”, or “this is how to alienate people” (Tilney, 1998, p. 95). There are five commands
in particular which form the counter-script: (1) Be Perfect, (2) Be Strong, (3) Be Hard, (4)
Please and, (5) Hurry Up.

49
Figure 1: Script Matrix
Adapted from: Woollams & Brown, 1987, p. 177; Stewart, 1992, p. 56.
Messages are sent in many different forms—physically, through touching, holding,
hitting, and neglect, or verbally, from gently with interest and care, to harshly with disgust
and contempt (Solomon, 2003). Children observe and hear these messages, interpret their
perceived meaning, and make decisions about themselves, others, and the world based on
these experiences. Our innate need to be connected and fit in makes us try to make sense of
our perceptions and adapt as best we can to our environment in order to prosper, or at least
survive. Children who are loved and cared for are able to develop positive life scripts that are
conducive to positive, healthy, and satisfying decisions such as “I’m good”, or “I’m
competent”. On the other hand, children who receive negative or mixed messages are more
likely to attach negative meaning in their life script whereupon decisions are based, which
may serve them at the time, but may not be appropriate later in different circumstances.
Examples are “I’m dumb”, or “I never do anything right”. “Usually the decisions that we
make are based not on a single message or event, but on the continual repetition of that
message during our growing up years.” (p. 21).
We should also realize that although our life script is durable and persistent, it can be
changed through awareness and practice as it is not inborn but learned. Change occurs slowly
and starts with a change in attitude; a redrafting of the life script through a non-judgmental
understanding of perceived behavioral problems and an emphasis on areas where there is a
sense of purpose and value. Such a script will still be authentic as it relates to their own
history, but be reframed with a different sense of meaning that draws strength from their
experience and brings out the best of their personality, and personal resources of family, work
and interests.
Games and Rackets: Ways of Protecting Ourselves and Furthering Our Script
In this section we will see how and why we use games and rackets to protect our self
and further our script. As we experienced positive and negative interactions since early
childhood, we have come to adapt our expectations and behavior to protect ourselves by
minimizing our distress, but also to obtain strokes, even if they are negative. We have
developed our Parent and Child ego states to represent and express our views to the world in
ways that are comfortable and familiar to us and that we believe suit our needs. Each time
that we subconsciously engage in a type of behavior such as a game or racket that yields a
payoff, our life script is reinforced.
Games
In Transactional Analysis (TA), games are defined as repetitive patterns of social
behavior that are characterized by ulterior transactions (Tilney, 1998). We have already
mentioned ulterior transactions, but to recap: It is a transaction that occurs at two levels,
namely a social level with an overt message that is socially acceptable, but also at a
psychological level, typically with a manipulative or sexual overtone that involves

51
Parent↔Child, Child↔Child, or Child↔Parent interaction flow. The social level message is
to all appearances Adult↔Adult oriented. According to Berne’s third rule of communication:
“No kind or amount of processing of the social level can predict the behavioral outcome of an
ulterior transaction; prediction is universally contingent on a knowledge of the psychological
level.” (Stewart, 1992, p. 38). An example of one ulterior transaction is illustrated in Figure
2.
Figure 2: An Ulterior Transaction
Source: Tilney, 1998, p. 130.
We have also already discussed Berne’s other (first) two rules of communication, but
it is repeated here for the sake of amplification: (1) So long as transactions remain
complementary, communication can continue indefinitely, and (2) When a transaction is
crossed, a break in communication results, and one or both individuals will need to shift ego
states in order for the communication to be re-established. Returning to the topic of games:
Berne (1964) identified that people habitually adopt certain ego states (not necessarily
consciously) and “play games” in the way they communicate with others. Games involve
transference and acting out unresolved archaic issues in the Parent and Child. Games are the
unconscious manipulation of others through unauthentic behavior and feeling. An
individual’s propensity for games is developed from their childhood experiences of ways to
satisfy their psychological needs, such as stroking and time-structuring. We will discuss these
two concepts further in the next section.
Although games may appear to be negative when viewed from the outside, there are
social and psychological advantages that sustain and reinforce their practice. Berne (1964)
listed six advantages as follows:
1. Internal psychological advantage: Games help to maintain the script belief,
which attached meaning and understanding of the world, and therefore
supports predictability.
2. External psychological advantage: They bring comfort in situations that
would otherwise have been difficult to manage or avoid.
3. Internal social advantage: Games facilitate intimacy from a (safer) “non-
intimate” frame, which Berne called “pseudo-intimate”.
4. External social advantage: Games fill the time with (comfortable) routine
exchanges.
5. Biological advantage: Games yield strokes, which, even when negative,
prevent stroke deprivation.
6. Existential advantage: Games generate experience that can reinforce the life
position and maintain a familiar and reassuring world view.
In the process of the game, each participant engages in a symbiotic relationship and takes up
a specific role that can be related to the drama triangle that we have discussed in the previous
module. Persecutors and Rescuers take a Parent position, while Victims take a Child position.
53
As such, games basically represent an acting out of unresolved unconscious conflicts in a
projected replay of earlier situations. Games can at times also be very subtle and without a
clearly identifiable behavior pattern. A game is often followed by racketeering or the
immediate initiation of another game. It is important to note that both participants are
involved in a game that is different but complimentary, and is therefore always bilateral.
Games are typically classified as first, second, or third degree according to the level of social
damage that are involved in the payoff. A first degree game will cause social embarrassment,
a second degree game has more lasting and serious consequences such as loss of a job, while
a third degree game has more serious consequences still—such as violence, hospitalization,
or imprisonment. Berne (1964) categorized typical games according to their context and
motivation, namely life games, marital games, party games, sexual games, underworld
games, consulting room games, and good games. A selection of 10 examples of the most
well-known games are:
 KICK ME! Life Game. Yes, I’ll do anything (badly). Creates an irresistible
temptation to get scolded. Asks: Why does this always happen to me? Setting
up self-fulfilling prophecy.
 YDYB: Why Don’t You, Yes But. Party Game. Historically, the first game
uncovered. YDYB can be played by any number. The agent presents a
problem. The others start to present solutions, each beginning with “Why
don’t you . . . ?” To each of these White objects with a “Yes, but…” The goal
is to reassure and gratify the Child; avoids surrender and being dominated.
 IFWY: If It Weren’t For You. Marital Game. Historically, the second game
uncovered. Typically, a woman allows restrictions of her activities to avoid
situations that may cause anxiety. But, she complains about it, blaming the
husband, and derives internal and external advantages in the process.

 SWYMD: See What You Made Me Do. Life Game. Often precipitated by the
threat of impending intimacy. Looks for justification to “eject” the other in an
avoidance strategy where blame or responsibility is circumvented.
 LHIT: Look How Hard I’ve Tried. Marital Game. Is apparently agreeable (at
first) and makes an unauthentic effort to vindicate himself later. Achieves
freedom from guilt and avoids responsibilities.
 ITHY: I'm Only Trying to Help You. Consulting Room Game. The initiator
offers advice, which—if it didn’t have the desired effect—causes negative
feedback. In the face of repeated failure, he becomes a neglected martyr,
which he projects onto the other person. This alleviates his guilt and he avoids
facing his inadequacies.
 LYAHF: Let’s You and Him Fight. Sexual Game. The woman maneuvers or
challenges two men into fighting, implying to surrender herself to the winner.
She often leaves with a third, gaining the advantage of psychological
satisfaction and higher regard.
 NIGYYSOB / NIGYSOB: Now I’ve Got You, You Son Of a Bitch. Life
Game. Escalates minor disagreements or errors into major interpersonal
conflicts by using any justification to put the other player at his mercy.
 RAPO: Sexual Game. In the mild form, a woman flirts with a man and then
rejects his advances. In a more severe form, the aim is malicious revenge that
is associated with the expression of hatred and projection of guilt while
avoiding emotional sexual intimacy.
 ALCOHOLIC: Life Game. This is a multi-player game related to excesses.
The dynamics is notice how bad I’ve been—see if you can stop me. It is
simultaneously (and alternating) a rebellion, reassurance, satisfaction, and

55
self-castigation of excessive behavior. Blame is absolved blame and projected
onto others.
This is by no means an exhaustive list of games, nor are the explanations meant to be
elaborate. Instead, the intention is to provide an introduction in the form of a cursory prelude
that can be followed by further reading. In conclusion, the concept of games can be
summarized as follows:
 Games are repetitive.
 Games are played without Adult awareness.
 Games always end up with players experiencing racket feeling.
 Games entail an exchange of ulterior transactions between the players.
 Games always include an element of surprise or confusion.
Formula G was Berne’s final definition of a game and states that the following
sequence of events is observable in a game:
𝐶𝑂𝑁 + 𝐺𝐼𝑀𝑀𝐼𝐶𝐾 = 𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑃𝑂𝑁𝑆𝐸 → 𝑆𝑊𝐼𝑇𝐶𝐻 → 𝐶𝑅𝑂𝑆𝑆𝑈𝑃 → 𝑃𝐴𝑌𝑂𝐹𝐹, or
𝐶+𝐺 =𝑅 →𝑆 →𝑋 →𝑃
In a switch, the initiator changes roles on the drama triangle, and the other person
follows after a brief confusion, refers to as the cross-up. The “con” is the first ulterior
invitation, and the “gimmick” is a weakness or need to respond. To illustrate the concepts, a
brief game is illustrated:
A patient asked: “Do you think I’ll get better, doctor?”, and the sentimental therapist
replied: “Of course you will”. At that point the patient revealed her ulterior motive in
asking the question. Instead of saying “Thank you” as in a straight transaction, she
pulled the switch with: “What makes you think you know everything?” The reply
crossed the therapist up and threw him off balance for a moment, which is what the
patient wanted to do. Then the game ended, the patient feeling elated at having
conned the therapist, and he feeling frustrated; and those were the payoffs. The game
followed Formula G precisely. The con was the original question, and the gimmick
was the therapist’s sentimentality. When the con hooked into the gimmick, he
responded in a way she expected. Then she pulled a switch, causing a cross-up, after
which each collected the payoff. (Stewart, 1992, p. 40).
As mentioned before, games have certain social and psychological benefits through a
bilateral unconscious process that is linked to our life script and involves deception and
unauthentic feelings and emotions. As we often find some emotions confusing or unpleasant,
games are used to avoid them and substitute them with racket behaviors or feelings.
Rackets
Racket behavior and feelings are responses that substitute unwanted authentic feelings
for the appearance of feelings that are more familiar to us and associated with benefits such
as strokes. As such, a racket feeling is a familiar set of emotions, learned and enhanced
during childhood, experienced in many different stress situations, and maladaptive as an adult
means of problem solving (Stewart & Joines, 1987). They are based on behaviors that were
learnt and encouraged in childhood to meet certain needs. Racket behavior is manipulative in
nature, but there is no intentional awareness of it. According to Tilney (1998), there are four
styles of racket behavior, namely helpless, bratty, helpful, and bossy. Although racket
behavior may have been successful in childhood to meet needs, it is often not the case in
adulthood as our scripts often become out of tune with our changed circumstances as they are
not easily adaptable. However, when there is the perception of some—even limited—success,
rackets reinforce our script.
Rackets resemble games when others are involved, but can also be one-handed. Other
than games that are inevitably played out to switch and cross-up, racketeering can proceed
indefinitely. Racket feelings are a way to discharge emotion, especially when expression of
the authentic feeling is discouraged. Primary authentic feelings are sadness, anger, fear, and
happiness, whereas complex—often unhelpful—feelings involve more cognitive aspects,
such as guilt and shame, or a non-affective state such as confusion or blankness (Tilney,
1998). Erskine and Zalcman (1979) proposed a dynamic model of scripts as “interlocking,
self-reinforcing systems of racket behaviors and script beliefs” (Tilney, 1998, p. 100). Here
57
script behaviors (or script displays/racket behaviors) are illustrated as manifestations of script
(see Figure 3). The elements of racket displays are observable behavior, internal experiences
that are also often expressed outwardly, and fantasies. The model is dynamic as each part
reinforces the other parts, thereby maintaining the life script.
Figure 3: Racket System
Source: Erskine & Zalcman, 1979
Hereby, the racket system is essentially a self-perpetuating system that fits the
perception of current events to the frame of the past and the life script and position.
Uncomfortable and unpleasant feelings are avoided and replaced by racket and game
behavior to satisfy psychological needs in a more expedient manner. Each failure is
rationalized, while each “success” maintains and reinforces the life script, even when no
longer helpful. This ensures that we perpetuate a life script that we have felt comfortable with
for a long time, even when we do not recognized its damaging limitations.
Self-Perpetuating Strategies, Strokes, and Time Structuring
From childhood we have developed and reinforced the need for psychological
satisfaction. It is what makes us feel comfortable and valuable. Two such innate needs are the
struggle to obtain strokes and structure, and, as we have seen, we unconsciously apply self-
perpetuating strategies through games and rackets in the context of our life script to maintain
our long-held beliefs of ourselves, others, and the world. This gives us a perception of
predictability, meaning, and security. The need to belong is a fundamental human motivation
and we require constant reminders of our value in the world. This is primarily achieved by
way of strokes.
Strokes
Eric Berne defined a stroke as a “unit of human recognition”. A stroke can be a look,
a nod, a smile, a spoken word, a touch. Any time one human being does something to
recognize another human being—that is a stroke. In other words, strokes are forms of
recognition, attention, and responsiveness from one person to another. In TA terminology,
positive strokes are nicknamed “warm fuzzies”, and negative strokes “cold pricklies”. People
typically place very high value on recognition, and—lacking positive strokes—they tend to
seek whatever kind they can get. People may even become more comfortable with negative
strokes, which is unconsciously reflected in life scripts and sought in game payoffs.
Strokes can be conditional or unconditional, but it is especially the former that are
potent in changing our expectations, needs, and feelings, therefore guiding and limiting our
behavior accordingly. Here, rewards and encouragement are linked to behavior, performance,
and traits. Although conditional negative strokes, and even conditional positive strokes, can
be limiting and counterproductive, the most harmful kind of stroke is the unconditional
negative stroke, which convey to us that we are not OK. As there is no associated condition,
we are unable to change or affect it and it impacts our core view of ourselves negatively
through the life script and position. Of course, positive and unconditional strokes are
conducive to a healthy self-esteem, which are incorporated into a different life script
altogether.
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Time-structuring
People have a basic need for structure—Berne coined this “structure hunger”—which
leads to the development of patterns of time-structuring. He identified six patterns that are
developed from early childhood to address this need, namely withdrawal, rituals, pastimes,
activities, games, and intimacy. For each of the patterns—with the exception of activities,
which is variable—the stroke yield and social risk are positively associated with involvement
and unpredictability. When people do not withdraw from social interaction (withdrawal is
typically a defensive behavior to avoid negative feelings), the remaining five ways are used
to structure time in order to get strokes.
 Ritual: A ritual is a pre-set exchange of recognition strokes.
 Pastime: A pastime is a pre-set conversation around a certain topic that is
often found at social get-togethers. Examples are weather, PTA (pot luck or
catered?), sports, drugs, and gossip.
 Games: Games are repetitive and duplicitous series of transactions that are
unawarely intended to get strokes.
 Intimacy: Intimacy is a direct and powerful exchange of strokes which
people crave but seldom attain because the Child is frightened away from it
by hurtful experiences. It is not the same as sex, but are sometimes associated
with it. Sex can also be a ritual, a pastime, a game, or work.
 Work/Activity: Work and other activities have a product as result. A
successful activity results in the exchange of strokes as a side effect. It is
linked to rewards such as praise and recognition.
As such, time-structuring—as with other self-perpetuating strategies such as the quest
for strokes—is a way to defend against situations that may evoke uncomfortable and
unpleasant feelings. Therefore, we apply these strategies to maintain the life script and
position that we have come to know since early childhood. As we believe that it is the best—
if not only way—to satisfy our psychological needs and prevent painful emotions, we expend
great effort, mostly unconscious, to maintain and reinforce this comfortable and familiar view
of ourselves, others, and the world. Time-structuring is like an autopilot—we engage in these
activities as we perceive the risk to be low or potential payoffs worthwhile according to our
innate needs. A time-structuring analysis can provide a useful clue to the potential problem
and development areas of an individual. Every such profile is unique; an example is
illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Personal Time-Structuring Analysis Example
In Figure 3 we notice that the individual spends about 40% of their time engaged in
productive and planned activities and about one-quarter is taken by pastimes. Intimacy is the
second lowest time investment, apparently at the expense of games and withdrawal. Both of
these time consumers are typical intimacy-avoidance strategies. By creating an awareness and
understanding of the context and situations where games and withdrawal strategies are
favored, behavior can be encouraged that favor authentic feelings and the willingness to
express it instead.
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Although most Transactional Analysis (TA) concepts such as behaviors and strategies
through games, rackets, and time-structuring are usually associated with bilateral
transactions, these are also applicable in group contexts and situations.
TA and Group Dynamics
We have seen that the TA concepts that underlie our unconscious behavior, in
particular script and life position that were conditioned in our childhood already and
determined the way we deem most successful to satisfy our social and psychological needs,
not only apply to ourselves and bilateral relationships, but also to groups that we find
ourselves part of. In a group dynamics, each member tries to assume a role that fits his or her
script the best as it relates to familiar strategies and expectations of reward. However, there
are interventions and actions by others that may cause an imbalance, raise anxiety, and lead
to projecting and acting out by group members. Each member has a mental image of how
their group is or how it should be. Naturally, this image varies between group members and
may change over time depending on group composition, objective, and circumstances. Most
often, there is a leader, and while some members are differentiated, others are lumped
together. Such a group imago diagram is often referred to as “the submarine” (see Figure 4).
Figure 4: Partly Differentiated Group Imago
Adapted from: Berne, 1966, p. 155.

Transactional Analysis (TA) therapy was originally practiced as a group therapy as its
emphasis on understanding personal interactions provided a suitable model for group work
that included mutual support and insights. Although it still remains an important perspective
today, some emphasis has since shifted to individual therapy. TA group therapy are
conducted by means of two major styles, namely (1) facilitation by a group leader with the
group acting as support, and (2) most interaction are between group members with the leader
mainly intervening when it is required to control or guide the process.
Berne (1966) advanced a theory of group development that primarily viewed the
group as a “family” and included considerations such as seating, group authority, subgroups,
and external group processes to understand transactions within a group. In later studies, five
stages of development that occur in small groups have been identified, namely forming,
storming, norming, performing, and mourning/adjourning (Tilney, 1998), as follows:
1. Forming. Before entering the group for the first time, prospective members
form a preconscious expectation of the group that are based on their fantasies
and previous experiences with groups.
2. Storming. The group imago is superficially adapted when each member
confronts reality and conflict and polarization is typical around interpersonal
issues.
3. Norming. The group leader’s expectations are incorporated and the operative
group is adapted by developing new standards, in-group feeling and
cohesiveness. New roles are adopted accordingly.
4. Performing. The group is structured and energy directed to task performance.
5. Mourning. The group imago is clarified and functioning and integration is
further improved, but the group eventually faces termination and the demise of
relationships are mourned.

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Leading or working in a group, we realize that the thoughts and feelings of individual
members as framed in the context of their individual script and life positions are expressed in
behavior towards each other—or transactions. Ultimately this will determine group
functioning and performance depending on the unconscious strategies and needs of each
members and in how they relate to one another. The more time and energy is spent on
unauthentic and counterproductive individual games and rackets, less resources remain to
achieve real group goals in a cohesive way. We can often notice this effect by way of
company politics, whereby each individual’s aspirations and self-perpetuating strategies
detract from the shared goals. It is the role of the leader—and possibly that of an impartial
observer—to monitor and analyze intergroup transactions and intervene where required.
Therefore, in this module and the whole course, we have seen that Transactional Analysis
(TA) theory not only explain how and why people interact bilaterally, often out of awareness
and without conscious intent, but that these principles are valid in groups as well.
Practical Example: More Transactions
In this section brief practical examples will be offered to illustrate the types of
transactions that are found in bilateral exchanges.
Examples of Complimentary Transactions
Where the message is sent from one ego state and the reply is from the expected ego
state, the transaction is complementary.

Figure 5: Complimentary Parent to Parent Transaction
P P
A A
C C
“The government “They are,
is making us all it’s really annoying”
criminals by putting
speed cameras
everywhere”
Figure 5 is an example of a Critical Parent to Critical Parent exchange. It is agreeable and
sustainable.
Figure 6: Complimentary Adult to Adult Transaction
P P
A A
C C
“What time is “It’s due at
the train due?” one fifteen”

65
Figure 6 is an example of an Adult to Adult transaction. This is a transaction that is on a
conscious level between the two Adult ego states.
Figure 7: Complimentary Parent to Child Transaction
P P
A A
C C
“Oh, I’m really “Don’t worry, I’ll
struggling with give you a hand
all this painting” right now”
Figure 7 is an example of Adapted Child to Nurturing Parent. It is directed at the ego state
that also replies.
Figure 8: Complimentary Child to Child Transaction
P P
A A
C C
“Oh what the “Yeah, great idea,

hell, let’s have make that 2 drinks
another drink and a pudding, and some
pudding” gateaux”
Figure 8 is an example of a Free Child to Free Child exchange.
Examples of Crossed Transactions
A crossed transaction occurs when a message is sent from one ego state and the sender
expects it to be sent back from the expected ego state, but instead it is sent back from a
different one. The transaction is crossed, and communication is non-effective, often
confrontational, and unsustainable.
Figure 9: Crossed Transaction between Parent and Child States
P P
A A
C C
“You messed that “Rubbish, it’s your fault.
up, it’s full of It’s you that can’t understand
errors and typos” or use correct English”
Figure 9 is an example of Critical Parent expecting a reply from the Adapted Child, but
receiving a reply from the Critical Parent instead.

67
Figure 10: Crossed Transaction between Adult and Parent
P P
A A
C C
“The deadline “What do you mean ‘we’. If
is tomorrow. you didn’t always leave
We’ll need to things to the last minute”
stay on a final
half hour to give it
another check”
Figure 10 is an example of an Adult expecting a reply from an Adult but receives the reply
from the Critical Parent directed at the Child.

Figure 11: Crossed Child to Parent Transaction
P P
A A
C C
“Oh, I’m really “Oh, I know what
struggling with you mean, it’s really
all this painting” difficult isn’t it”
Figure 11 is an example of an Adapted Child expecting reply from a Nurturing Parent but
receiving a reply from the Adapted Child.
Figure 12: Crossed Child to Parent Transaction
P P
A A
C C
“Oh, I’m really “So bl***y what.
struggling with I’ve got enough to
this painting” do without you

69
moaning all the time”
Figure 12 is an example of an Adapted Child expecting reply from the Nurturing Parent but
receiving reply from the Critical Parent. As we have seen in the previous examples, a crossed
transaction could easily lead to an argument and loss of effective communication. The real or
intended message is in fact lost in the confusion and emotions.
The previous brief examples in Figures 5 to 12 illustrated messages that are direct
from one ego state to the same state or a different one. When the reply is received back from
the intended ego state, the transaction is complimentary, the message understood and clear,
and the interaction is not confrontational and there is no need for escalation. On the other
hand, when the reply is received back from another ego state than the intended one, the
situation is likely to escalate and become confrontational. An exception is when the reply is
received back from the adult state, which is logical and objective rather than emotional, and
in turn could defuse a potential confrontation. In the next section we will examine how TA
therapy can be used to explore non-Adult ego states.
Practical Example: Transactional Analysis Therapy
In this section, we look at a partial transcript of an actual TA therapy session. The
patient, Mark, suffers from depression that likely has origins in cumulative childhood neglect
through a life script that was formulated to act as coping and defensive mechanism at the time
and later.
[Counselor]: Well, hi Mark. Good afternoon. So what would you like to change today?
[Mark]: What I would like to talk about is…since we did…I wanted to check in with
you, since we did that piece of work in the previous session, I
felt…hum…like the Child that I kind of met. Hum…I put him to bed and I
felt really exhausted. And I think there has been another process, which has
been…getting a little bit annoyed as well; you know with somebody else to
take care of as well as taking care of other things. So, there’s been that…I
suppose once you’re more energized. [long silence] I’ve been more nurturing
as well, towards my Child. So I’ve just been a little more connected with him,
I suppose. Just putting him to bed to have a rest, you know what I mean?
[Counselor]: Did it feel if that’s part of yourself that you put to bed?
[Mark]: Yeah.
[Counselor]: Now of course, I have another question here. And that is: How often do you
check upon him, after you’ve put him to bed?
[Mark]: Hum…I actually make a concerted effort to check on him, see what he’s up
to, what he’s doing; probably two or three times a day, you know? Something
like that I think…
[Counselor]: Do you check in with him?
[Mark]: Yeah…just to say to him how well he’s doing, if he’s OK…yeah…He’s kind
of been sleeping a lot recently. He’s not been like that in the last couple of
days, but before then, he has been screaming…really loud…like…that wasn’t
pleasant. But he seems to be in a different part of my brain…consciousness.
[Counselor]: OK. So it seems like two parts of you?
[Mark]: Yeah. There’s one that’s asleep and there’s one that is kind of screaming.
[Counselor]: Now, the one that is screaming…do you think he is screaming for recognition
from you? Or was he screaming for some other reason?
[Mark]: [long silence] It’s not like…what I’m thinking now kind of changes things.
Before, it seems that he was screaming in anger, but now he seems to have
calmed down…it’s just an upset kind of crying.
[Counselor]: What was he angry about?

71
[Mark]: Hum…he felt left out? For me, it felt like persecutory. I have this image of
jaws, like mouth wide open, shouting at me. [long silence] It was repelling as
well, kind of overwhelming…the noise he was making.
[Counselor]: So what happens when you feel overwhelmed? What did you do?
[Mark]: Hum…I tried soothing him, telling him that he’ll be OK; and that seemed to
work. But sometimes I just kind of recoiled as well, you know…when it was
too much.
[Counselor]: [another long silence] What are you thinking when you’re smiling like that?
[Mark]: I was kind of…hum…checking you out there; I was checking out whether I
was making any sense to you...and what you were thinking, because it sounds
a bit…kind of…silly. It’s that old thing, isn’t it? The Parent sometimes
feeling odd and unsure…
[Counselor]: [smile] Would you like my response?
[Mark]: Yeah, I would…yeah…[laughs]
[Counselor]: [smile] Oh, good, I’m pleased about that! Yeah, what you’re saying is that
you want to be more in charge…
[Mark]: Mmm.
[Counselor]: So, what you say is you want to be more in control. And you’re aware that
there are two parts of you, almost like two kids in a way. One is silent and the
other is screaming a lot. And the other one is screaming a lot because it
wants recognition from you.
[Mark]: Mmm.
[Counselor]: He’s angry, because you aren’t giving him that attention. And he keeps
checking how much attention you’re giving the other.
[Mark]: Well, both of them, but it is easier for me to tend to the one that is asleep.
[Counselor]: Ahhh…but, how come—if he’s asleep, he’s not going to hear you?
[Mark]: Hum…hum…yeah…I haven’t thought of it that way; I suppose it’s a bit like
checking that he is still OK, you know, being asleep for a long time.
[Counselor]: And the other one? Do you still go and say, it’s OK, I’m here…? Do you do
that?
[Mark]: No, I wouldn’t put it in those words.
[Counselor]: What do you do then?
[Mark]: I kind of say to him: He’ll be OK. Shhh…shhh…you’ll be OK in a bit. He
doesn’t like me to talk to him in that frame though, when he’s so angry.
[Counselor]: [long silence] So what really needs to happen for you to manage get along
with him better?
[Mark]: [long silence] I think I should feel less scared with these two.
[Counselor]: So, help me understand. You need to be less scared of the one when he’s
asleep, of the other one, or…
[Mark]: Scared of what might happen if he wakes up…
[Counselor]: What could happen?
[Mark]: I may not be able to care for him properly.
[Counselor]: And the other one? He’s angry at you? Are you scared of him as well?
[Mark]: Yeah, I’m scared of him because he’s coming from…you know, what if I
can’t shut him up? When I can’t sooth him to calm down? [long, long
silence] I was just thinking about…I’m sure there is a connection, but
recently…it’s not a pleasant experience to go to bed.
[Counselor]: So, it’s not a good experience, a nice experience to get ready for bed?
Because…?
73
[Mark]: [long silence] I guess I feel somewhat paranoid about waking up sick in the
middle of the night, being hurt, that kind of thing.
[Counselor]: Who would want to hurt you?
[Mark]: Hum…I won’t say that out loud, but…
[Counselor]: Why not?
This is just a partial transcript of an actual TA therapy session, but note how the
therapist delineates the patient’s Child and Parent ego states. He explicitly makes Mark aware
of them and elicits details of his feelings and experiences of them. Also note how this
approach is useful to bring repressed memories to the surface, and how Mark is guided to
take action to resolve their issues.
In the conversation it becomes clear that Mark has problems dealing with his Free Child and
Adapted Child ego states as well as his Nurturing Parent. He is scared that something bad
will happen to the quiet one (Adapted Child) and that the angry one (Free Child) will
continue to be rebellious. Do you think that he is also afraid that his Nurturing Parent is not
able to cope?
We simultaneously see Mark as an Adult (not yet integrated), but with Child ego state issues
in particular. Do you believe that Mark can resolve his Child problems through awareness
and understanding, first of their existence, and secondly of their needs?
Mark has to accept his problematic Child states as a part of him in order to integrate them
into his Adult ego state. Although he has come to recognize the issue, he still finds it difficult
to articulate his feelings and seem genuinely scared and overwhelmed. Nevertheless,
wouldn’t you say that awareness and acceptance are the first, most important steps to
integration? In this case, the TA counselor purposely chose a passive role. Do you think that
this is appropriate? Could a little bit more encouragement not benefit Mark? As Mark exhibits
remnants of poor mother-child attachment, do you think a female counselor could have been
more suitable?
As we have come to the end of the Transactional Analysis (TA) course, it is hopefully
evident that TA theory and practice has incredible potential to understand how our adult
personal interactions are shaped by our childhood experiences and personality. Although our
life script and position that developed during childhood as a mechanism to protect and
comfort us, and to satisfy our psychological and social needs, are persistent through life, with
awareness and understanding of our own Child and Parent ego states, their deficiencies, and
continued impact on our lives and relationships, we can take a first conscious step to integrate
them into our Adult state, which—as the voice of reason and objectivity—cope better with
the changing demands of adult life.
KEY CONCEPTS
 A life script is formulated during early childhood and is based on our

perception of our own value and the behavior that suits our needs.
 Games are transactions where unauthentic behavior and feelings are used to
achieve payoff. Racket behavior is based on learnt strategies to obtain
strokes.
 Strokes are the rewards of encouragement and recognition from others.
 Time-structuring is the unconscious passing of time by way of a
combination of work, intimacy, games, pastimes, withdrawal, and rituals.
 Although mostly applied to bilateral transactions, TA is also useful to
analyze and improve group functioning.
References
Berne, E. (1964). Games people play: The psychology of human relationships. New York,
NY: Grove Press.
Berne, E. (1966). Principles of group treatment. New York, NY: Grove Press.
Erskine, R. G., & Zalcman, M. J. (1979). The racket system: A model for racket analysis.
Transactional Analysis Journal, 9(1), 51-59. DOI: 10.1177/036215377900900112

75
Solomon, C. (2003). Transactional Analysis theory: The basics. Transactional Analysis
Journal, 33(1), 15-22.
Steiner, C. (2005). Transactional Analysis: An elegant theory and practice. The Script, 35(2),
4-5.
Stewart, I. (1992). Eric Berne. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Stewart, I., & Joines, V. (1987). TA today: A new introduction to Transactional Analysis.
Chapel Hill, NC: Lifespace Publishing.
Tilney, T. (1998). Dictionary of Transactional Analysis. London, UK: Whurr Publishers.
Woollams, S., & Brown, M. H. (1979). TA: The total handbook of transactional analysis.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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Transactional Analysis e-Manual

Module 1: Introduction and Background....................................................................................... 2

Module 2: Fundamentals of Ego States ....................................................................................... 24

Module 3: Scripts and Strategies ................................................................................................ 46

Module 1: Introduction and Background

 Introduce the basic concept of TA as a theory of personality as defined

Transactional Analysis (TA) is in essence a theory of personality, more specifically

accepted. The theory is applied in psychotherapy, organizations, educational and religious

The positions are defined as follows.

be dependent and submissive. They tend to feel inadequate and compare

themselves unfavorably to others. They constantly seek approval from others

developed feeling ignored, neglected, or abused. They adapt by forming

coping mechanisms that lead to dysfunctional behavior by adolescence and

later. Unpleasant thoughts and feelings are either internalized as depression or

anxiety, or externalized as anger and aggression.

Figure 1: Life Position Summary

to have become more widespread.

Berne’s list above.

result, they tend to deny or avoid their own problems.

no clear sense of boundaries between themselves and others. They tend to be

positive position. It is a natural, stable, and supportive life position.

permanent and innate or adaptable according to context and situational requirements,

depending on their level. Herein, surface, minute-by-minute relating—or floating—are

relationships and time, while less situational influenced.

balanced in terms of self-confidence, and a considerate and sympathetic view of others.

Figure 2: Three-Dimensional Life Positions

problematic character-level life positions.

Child, Parent, and Adult

sense of right and wrong and guidelines for making judgments.

area of logic, consideration, objective examination, decision-making, and responsibility.

behavior of the Adult ego state.

Figure 3: Illustration of Berne’s Ego States

responses accordingly in terms of thoughts, feelings, and behavior. An understanding of ego

environment. It makes us more aware of opportunities to change and grow. Personality is

practice. Transactional analysis can make this possible.

Figure 4: Personality Features of the Ego States

(1981) reminded us:

Families and Children

system is relevant. Furthermore, TA therapy methods are particularly useful in family

amplifying problem behavior and resistance—the TA methodology focuses instead on

relieving pressure and unreasonable expectations. Therefore, TA is considered to be almost

distressed family units and couples.

the effectiveness of Transactional Analysis (TA) to increase family functioning among

sessions, as measured by aspects of problem solving, communication, roles, affective

responsiveness, affective involvement, behavioral control and general functioning. The TA

or otherwise dysfunctional under distressing circumstances, thereby creating disputes and

wife, mother-child, or father-child relationships. These “special” relationships within the

leading to psychological vulnerabilities and pathological symptoms such as depression,

misunderstandings, which can lead to evolving conflict, hostility, or internalized distress if

not dealt with appropriately, preferably in the family environment.

Figure 5: Patterns of Attachment in the Family System

understand each member’s point of reference.

As such, TA is considered to be an interactive therapy that is intended to enhance the

complimentary transaction that is more positive and stable.

Analysis and Treatment Goals

As we have mentioned before, the essential objective of Transactional Therapy (TA)

relationships, a more adaptive decision-making that is situational and relational appropriate is

problems continue to bubble under the surface.

Therefore, the overarching goal of Transactional Analysis (TA) is the achievement of