Cambridge International AS and A level Chemistry
Magnesium powder has a greater surface area for the b Across a period, the number of protons (positive charges)
same mass (1)
More magnesium ions / atoms exposed for the
hydrogen ions to collide with (1)
iii Increases rate (no mark on own but if not correct max. 1
for question).
Idea that particles have more kinetic energy on average (1)
Greater proportion of reactant particles has energy greater
than activation energy (1)
16 cm3
b i (1) = 0.8 cm3 s −1 (1)
20 s
ii 0.25 mol dm−3 (1)
The magnesium is in excess so the acid is the limiting
reagent. (1) The volume of hydrogen produced is half
that of B, so the moles and (for the same volume) the
concentration is half that for B. (1)
iii The increased gradient reflects the increased rate of
reaction / increase in temperature increases reaction rate (1)
The final volume is the same because there are the same
number of moles of acid / the acid is the limiting reagent (1)
Total = 13
Chapter 10
Exercise 10.1
a 1 with C; 2 with F; 3 with A; 4 with D; 5 with B; 6 with E
b Sodium chloride dissolves in water to form a neutral solution
because the polar water molecules surround the positive
and negative ions and separate them. Aluminium chloride is
16
hydrolysed by water and the solution becomes acidic. Chlorides
of silicon, phosphorus and sulfur react with water. The gas,
hydrogen chloride, is released, some of which dissolves in
water and reacts to form an acidic solution.
c i PCl5 + 4H2O → H3PO4 + 5HCl
ii SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
iii Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O
iv SiO2 + 2NaOH → Na2SiO3 + H2O
v 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
vi Al2O3 + 3H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2O
vii SiCl4 + 2H2O → SiO2 + 4HCl
Exercise 10.2
a i There is a general increase in ionisation energy across the
period. This is because successive atoms have one more
proton in their nucleus so there is an increased nuclear
charge. The outer electrons are in the same principal
quantum shell and there is no significant difference in
shielding. So the attractive effect of the increased nuclear
charge on the electrons makes it more difficult to remove an
outer electron from an atom across the period.
ii The additional electron in aluminium goes into a p orbital
which is, on average, slightly further from the nucleus and has
slightly more shielding. These effects overcome the effect of
the increased nuclear charge. In sulfur, the added electron
goes into an orbital so that its spin opposes that of the
electron already in the orbital. This gives the outer electrons
additional stability so an outer electron is less easily removed.
iii K: value should be slightly less than Na (actual value =
419 kJ mol−1)
Ca: value should be slightly less than Mg but greater than K
(actual value = 590 kJ mol−1)
increases. So the nuclear charge also increases. The number of
electrons (negative charges) also increases across a period. Each
electron added to the atom of successive elements goes into the
same principal quantum shell. So the shielding of outer shell
electrons by inner shell electrons does not increase significantly.
Across a period, the greater attractive force between the nucleus
and the outer electrons pulls them closer to the nucleus.
c From sodium to silicide, the ionic radius decreases for similar
reasons detailed for the atomic radius (part b). The outer
electrons are in the second quantum shell because the ions
are formed by loss of the outer electrons and so the ionic
radii are smaller than the corresponding atomic radii. The
values for phosphide to chloride are much higher because
the outer electrons are in the next quantum shell (the third).
So the outer electrons are further from the nucleus and the
attraction to the nucleus is much less. The values decrease
from phosphide to chloride for similar reasons detailed for the
atomic radius (part b).
d i Group 1
ii Decreases from Group 1 to Group 13 or 14 and then increases
to a maximum.
iii The atomic radius decreases gradually across a period but the
atomic volume decreases then increases.
iv The atomic volume depends on how the atoms are packed
in the structure, whether they are packed so that there is a
lot of space between some of the atoms or whether they are
packed more efficiently.
v It increases (compare similar points on the curve, e.g. Li with
Na with K).
Exercise 10.3
a It increases to a maximum (at Si) and then decreases to very low
values.
b i They have molecular structures with only weak forces of
attraction (van der Waals’ forces) between the molecules.
ii Each aluminium atom can provide 3 electrons to the ‘sea’
of delocalised electrons in the metallic structure. A sodium
atom can only provide 1 electron. A greater number of
delocalised electrons and a higher ionic charge (3+ for Al)
mean that there are greater forces of attraction between
the ions and the electrons so making it more difficult to
overcome these.
iii Ne: element before Na so about the same level as argon.
ALLOW: 5–100 K (actual value 25 K)
K: next element after Ar value should be nearer to that of Na
but slightly lower. ALLOW: 250–400 K (actual value 336 K)
Ca: next element after K so should be higher than potassium.
ALLOW: 900–1300 K (actual value 1112 K)
c i They are metals so have delocalised electrons which are
responsible for the transfer of charge throughout the whole
structure.
ii Each aluminium atom can provide 3 electrons to the ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons in the metallic structure. A sodium atom
can only provide 1 electron.
iii It has a simple molecular structure so there are no delocalised
electrons (or mobile ions).
d i The ratio of chlorine to other element increases to a
maximum in Group 14 or 15 and then decreases.
ii CCl4, SiCl4, NCl3, PCl5
iii P = +5, S = +4
 Answers

Exercise 10.4 It takes a lot of energy / high temperatures to break the

electrostatic forces or covalent bonds in a giant structure. (1)
a i There is a regular pattern in the melting points, e.g. in the Phosphorus and sulfur oxides have low melting points
d-block the melting points rise to high values then fall again / because they are simple molecules. (1)
there is a peak for the Group 14 element.
With weak intermolecular forces / van der Waals’ forces
ii Element X is silicon and Y is germanium. They have giant
between the molecules (1)
structures of covalent bonds. It takes a lot of energy / high
temperature to break all these bonds. It does not take much energy / low temperature to
iii Element with atomic number 15 (phosphorus) is in group overcome these forces of attraction. (1)
15 and is a simple molecule. There are only weak forces of ii The change from solid to vapour or vapour to solid directly
attraction between the molecules so it does not take much without the liquid phase being formed. (1)
energy / relatively low temperature required to overcome d i In Period 2 there is a gradual increase with increase in
these forces. atomic number up to Group 15 then decrease to fluorine
iv They rise from high values to very high values then fall again. oxide. (1) In Period 3 there is a gradual increase from
v They are noble gases / Group 18. There are only very weak Group 1 to 17. (1)
forces of attraction between their atoms (because the van der ii Nitrogen: N2O5 (1)
Waals’ forces are only between single atoms). So not much Silicon: SiO2 (1)
energy / only low temperature is required to overcome Chlorine: Cl2O7 (1)
these forces. iii They are both giant structures. (1) They have high melting
b i ALLOW: between 500 and 1200 °C (actual value is 931 °C) points so that they do not melt from the heat of the electric
ii Conductor (the elements are more metallic down the group) current. (1) They do not conduct electricity. (1)
iii 1.8 Total = 27
iv (Weakly) acidic
v The covalent bonding gets weaker as the atoms get larger Question 2
because there is less force of attraction between the nucleus a i Any four of:
and the bonding electrons. Sodium, magnesium and aluminium are metals (1)
vi They are metals and so do not form covalent bonds.
so have delocalised electrons which flow through the
c i Gets more negative
structure when a voltage is applied. (1)
ii It has a higher nuclear charge than the atoms of the elements
before it. So it is more likely to attract the first electron and fill Conductivity increases from sodium to aluminium 17
the outer p-electron shell to make it stable. because there are more electrons to conduct. (1)
iii The outer shell electrons are further from the nucleus, so Silicon does not conduct very well / is a semiconductor
attractive forces between the nuclear charge and an incoming since it is a giant covalent structure and does not have
electron is less. delocalised electrons / a few electrons can jump from
place to place. (1)
Examination-style questions Phosphorus and sulfur do not conduct because they
are molecular and do not have delocalised electrons. (1)
Question 1 ii Any value between 10 −11 and 10 −22
(actual value is 10 −17 S m−1) (1)
a i Mass of atoms (1); size of atoms (1); the way the atoms
b i The energy needed to remove 1 mole of electrons from
are packed together (1)
1 mole of atoms of an element (1) in the gaseous state to
ii The mass of the atoms increases as the number of protons
form 1 mole of gaseous ions. (1)
and neutrons increases (1) the atomic radius / volume
ii Argon (1)
decreases from sodium to aluminium (1)
Greatest nuclear charge in the period (1)
so ratio of mass / volume decreases. (1)
The last (8th) electron added goes into the same principal
b i Na2O(l)s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
quantum shell as the atoms of others elements in the
Correct formulae (1), correct balance (1), correct state
same period (1)
symbols (1)
so the shielding is approximately the same (1)
ii Amphoteric (1)
so there is the greatest force of attraction between the
iii Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 3H2O → 2NaAl(OH)4
nucleus and the outer electrons. (1)
Correct formulae (1), correct balance (1)
c i 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO (1)
c i Any six of:
ii Magnesium oxide has a giant ionic structure. (1)
Melting point of sodium, magnesium and aluminium
Takes a high temperature / a lot of energy to break the
oxides are high because they are giant ionic structures. (1)
strong forces of attraction between the ions. (1)
Increase in melting point from sodium to aluminium iii Magnesium hydroxide is formed (1) OH− ions are
reflects the increased electrostatic forces between the responsible for alkaline nature (1)
ions because of the increased charges on the ions. (1) d i Covalent (1)
Silicon dioxide has a high melting point because it is a ii As 4O10 ALLOW: As2O5 (1)
giant covalent structure. (1) iii Acid hydrolysis / forms an acid / forms arsenic acid (1)
Total = 20
 Cambridge International AS and A level Chemistry

Question 3 over slaked lime is that the soil does not become alkaline if
too much is added.
a i Across a period the nuclear charge increases. (1) b i CaCO3 CaO + CO2
heat
Each electron added to the atom of successive elements ii CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
goes into the same principal quantum shell (1) iii Ca(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O
so the shielding of outer shell electrons by inner iv CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
shell electrons does not increase significantly. (1) c i MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
So across a period, the greater attractive force between ii Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
the nucleus and the outer electrons pulls them closer to
the nucleus. (1) Exercise 11.2
ii The outer electrons in the magnesium ions are in the second a 1 with D; 2 with G; 3 with A; 4 with F; 5 with C; 6 with B;
quantum shell (1) (because the two outer electrons of the 7 with E
magnesium atom have been lost). b i 2Ca(NO3)2 → 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2
The sulfide ion has a greater ionic radius because the ii BaCO3 + 2HNO3 → Ba(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
outer electrons are in the third quantum shell (1). iii 2Sr + O2 → 2SrO
so the attraction to the nucleus is much less than for iv MgCO3 MgO + CO2
c heat
magnesium. (1)
b i Ease of hydrolysis increases across Period 3. (1) i SrCO3(s) SrO(s) + CO2(g)
heat
ii SiCl4(l) + 2H2O(l) → SiO2(s) + 4HCl(g) ii 2Mg(NO3)2.6H2O(s) → 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 6H2O(l)
Correct formulae (1), correct balance (1), iii SrCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → SrCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
correct state symbols (1) iv 2Sr(s) + H2O(l) → Sr(OH)2(aq)
iii 2Al + 3Cl2 → Al2Cl6
Correct formulae (1), correct balance (1) Exercise 11.3
c Any five of:
Melting points of sodium, magnesium chlorides are high a i ALLOW 660–710 °C (actual = about 700 °C)
because they are giant ionic structures. (1) ii ALLOW 4–6 g cm−3 (actual about 5.0 g cm−3)
iii ALLOW 0.97 to 1.04 (actual 1.0)
It takes a high temperature / lot of energy to break these
iv ALLOW 0.18 to 0.21 (actual = 0.197 nm)
strong attractive forces. (1)
18 b Down the group density decreases to minimum at calcium,
Decrease in melting point from sodium to aluminium reflects then increases.
the decreased ionic bonding / greater proportion of covalent c Magnesium
bonding in aluminium chloride / aluminium chloride without d Down the group solubility of the hydroxides increases.
water is covalently bonded. (1) e Strontium hydroxide is more soluble than magnesium
Chlorides of silicon, phosphorus and sulfur have low hydroxide.
melting points because they are simple molecules (1) So strontium hydroxide has higher concentration of hydroxide
with weak intermolecular forces / van der Waals’ forces ions in solution than magnesium hydroxide.
between the molecules (1) The higher the concentration of hydroxide ions, the higher
the pH.
It does not take much energy / low temperature to overcome
f Down the group solubility of the sulfates decreases.
these forces of attraction. (1)
ii The melting point of aluminium chloride is not measured
at r.t.p. ALLOW: phosphorus chloride sublimes so its
Exercise 11.4
melting point cannot be measured. (1) a i Down the group, there is an increase in reactivity.
iii Sodium chloride dissolves in water (1) ii 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
so its pH is the pH of water. (1) iii Litmus will turn blue due to alkaline pH.
Magnesium chloride undergoes a small amount of The magnesium oxide reacts with water to form magnesium
hydrolysis in water (1) hydroxide, which is slightly alkaline.
So sufficient hydrogen ions formed to lower the pH. (1) b i Constant heating is required (which means energy is
Total = 23 absorbed).
ii ΔHr
MgCO3(s) MgO(s) + CO2(g)
Chapter 11
ΔHf [MgCO3(s)] ΔHf [MgO(s)]
Exercise 11.1 ΔHf [CO2(g)]
a Limestone is mainly calcium carbonate. Lime is made by Mg(s) + C(graphite) + 112 O2(g)
heating limestone in a kiln. At high temperature the limestone
decomposes into calcium oxide (lime). Slaked lime is calcium
iii −1095.8 + ∆H⦵r = −601.7 − 393.5
hydroxide. It is made by adding water to lime. Farmers add
So ∆H⦵r = −601.7 − 393.5 + 1095.8 = + 100.6 kJ mol−1
slaked lime to acidic soils to increase their pH. Slaked lime is
iv Strontium carbonate decomposes less readily because,
basic, so it reacts with acids in the soil. Powdered limestone can
as you go down the group, the temperature at which
also be used to neutralise acidic soils and lakes. Its advantage
decomposition occurs gets higher.