B59ES Energy Studies

Wind Energy
Outline

• Introduction
• Wind resources
• Power output
• Turbines
• Issues
• Summary
Installed vs. generation
Installed Electricity Generation
[MW] [GWh]
 Introduction

•Whitelee second largest wind farm in Europe

• 215 turbines
• 540MW capacity
 Introduction

https://scotland.shinyapps.io/sg-scottish-energy-statistics/?Section=RenLowCarbon&Subsection=RenElec&Chart=RenElecTarget
Scotland aimed to generate 100% of its
gross electricity consumption from
renewables by 2020

• Wind energy plays a majority role

• Offshore wind increasingly important

Share of renewable electricity in
gross final consumption (Jan 2021)
 Scotland
• Analysis by WWF Scotland of data provided by WeatherEnergy
found that for the month of November 2014:

• Wind turbines alone generated an estimated 812,890 MWh of

electricity to the National Grid, enough to meet the electrical
needs of 107% of all Scottish households for the whole month –
the equivalent of 2.6 million homes.
 Scotland
• Maximum output was on 11 November, when generation
was an estimated 55,611 MWh – equivalent to 221% of all
Scottish households.

• Minimum output was on 15 November, when generation

was an estimated 7,838 MWh – equivalent to 31% of all
Scottish households.

• Wind generated enough output to supply 100% or more

of Scottish homes on 11 out of the 30 days of November.
 Scotland
• These figures are impressive, but just bear in-mind these
numbers do not necessarily mean all the electricity generated was
used in Scotland

• It was fed to the grid for ‘storage’

• Challenge in matching supply to demand

 Introduction
• Wind energy – atmospheric kinetic energy –
determined by mass and speed of air

• Using wind energy involves installation of a device

that converts kinetic energy in the atmosphere to
useful energy (mechanical, electrical)

• Windmills have been used to convert wind energy

into mechanical energy for over 3,000 years
• Sailing (back to 5500 BCE)
• Milling
• Pumping water
 Outline

• Introduction
• Wind resources
• Power output
• Turbines
• Issues
• Summary
Why there is wind?
 Wind resources
• Movement of air on appreciable scales is caused
by temperature differentials

• Higher temperature air is less dense than cold air

• Temperature gradients are predominately caused

by uneven solar heating

• (Wind is another form of solar energy)

 Prevailing Winds

By Kaidor - Own work based on File:NASA depiction of earth global atmospheric circulation.jpg CC BY-SA 3.0.
 Global Wind Resource
Annual global mean wind power at 50m above the surface

Quanhua L, Qinxian M, Jue JL and Wenli Y, “Solar and wind energy resources and prediction”, J. of Ren. and Sust. En. 1, 043105 (2009); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.3168403
 European Wind Resource

Scotland has one of the best wind

resources in the world

“The Saudi Arabia of Renewables”

Troen, I., & Lundtang Petersen, E. (1989). European Wind Atlas. Riso National Laboratory.
Download from: https://orbit.dtu.dk/files/112135732/European_Wind_Atlas.pdf
 Wind resources
• At lower levels of the atmosphere, wind is also
influenced by frictional forces and obstacles
(mountains, etc.)
• Can be very localised
• Result: wide variation in wind speed and direction
• Wind speed depends on the following
– Geographic location
– Climate
– Height above ground
– Terrain
 Wind resources
Localized scale of wind
•Examples
– Shore lines: sea breezes caused by
land/water temperature differentials
– Mountain valleys: flow channeling
– Buildings and urban settings
Wind resources
 Distribution of Wind Speeds
• As the energy in the wind varies wildly with wind speed,
an understanding of wind characteristics is essential for:
– Identification of suitable sites
– Predictions of economic viability of wind farm projects
– Wind turbine design and selection
– Effects on electricity distribution networks and consumers
 Distribution of Wind Speeds
• As well as site-to-site variations, the amount of wind available at a given site
may vary from one year to the next, with even larger scale variations over
periods of decades or more

• Synoptic Variations
– Time scale shorter than a year – seasonal variations
– Associated with passage of weather systems

• Diurnal Variations
– Predicable(ish) based on time of the day (depending on location)

• Turbulence
– Short-time-scale (minutes or less)
– Significant effect on design and performance of turbines
– Effects quality of power delivered to the grid
 Longer-term variations
• It’s likely that wind-speed at any particular location may be subject
to slow long-term variations
– Linked to changes in temperature, climate changes, global warming
– Other changes related to sun-spot activity, volcanic eruption (particulates)
– Adds significantly to uncertainty in predicting energy output from a wind
farm

• Wind-speed during the year is best characterised in terms of a

probability distribution based on past data
 Weibull Distribution
•This graph shows a probability density distribution.

•The area under the curve is always exactly 1, since

the probability that the wind will be blowing at some
wind speed including zero must be 100%.
 Weibull Distribution
• The Weibull distribution gives a good representation of hourly
mean wind speeds over a year
• Probability, p(x), of having a given wind speed, x, during the year,
given by

• Where k and C are the shape factor and scale factor, respectively
• Valid for k >1 (usually ~1.5), C >0 (usually ~1)
 Weibull Distribution
• If you measure wind speeds throughout a year, you will notice
that in most areas strong gale force winds are rare, while
moderate and fresh winds are quite common.

• The distribution of wind speeds is skewed. Sometimes you will

have very high wind speeds, but they are very rare. Wind
speeds of 5.5 m/s are the most common ones, and 5.5 m/s is
called the modal value of the distribution.

• This is less than the mean value of 6.6 m/s.

 Weibull Distribution
• The statistical distribution of wind speeds varies from place to place
around the globe, depending upon local climate conditions, the
landscape, and its surface.

• The Weibull distribution may thus vary, both in its shape, and in its
mean value. If the shape parameter is exactly 2, as in the graph on
this page, the distribution is known as a Rayleigh distribution.

• Wind turbine manufacturers often give standard performance

figures for their machines using the Rayleigh distribution
 Weibull Distribution

• Some real world data

• Mean speed = 10.2 knots = 5.26 m/s, but histogram is skewed
• Most common speed = 5 knots = 2.58 m/s
• The data can be fit adequately using a Weibull distribution with k = 1.667 and C = 1.149
Weibull Distribution: two more examples

Troen, I., & Lundtang Petersen, E. (1989). European Wind Atlas. Riso National Laboratory.
Download from: https://orbit.dtu.dk/files/112135732/European_Wind_Atlas.pdf
 Variation of windspeed with Height
• Main effects governing the properties of wind close to the surface
(the boundary layer) include:
– The strength of the geostrophic wind
• The direction is along the isobars, as Coriolis curls the wind away from the P gradient
– The surface topography / roughness / friction
– Thermal effects
• Most interesting for us is that the boundary layer properties are
strongly influenced by surface roughness – therefore site
selection is critical
Variation of windspeed with Height
• Taller windmills see higher wind speeds, v
• Rule-of-thumb: doubling the height, z, increases windspeed by 10% and
thus increases power density by >30%
• Wind shear formula from NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory):

where vref is the speed at height Zref, α typically around 1/7

• Wind shear formula from the Danish Wind Energy Association:

where z0 is a parameter called the roughness length, vref is the speed at a reference height zref
Variation of windspeed with Height

Typical Surface Roughness Lengths, z0

(from Wind Energy Handbook, pg 10)
 Outline

• Introduction
• Wind resources
• Power output
• Turbines
• Issues
• Summary
 What energy is there in wind?

• Kinetic energy created by air in motion

• Into electrical energy using wind turbines
• The amount of power that can be harvested from wind
depends on the size of the turbine and the length of its
blades.
• The output is proportional to the dimensions of the rotor
and to the cube of the wind speed.
 What energy is there in wind?
• Kinetic Energy (KE) – ½ mv2

• For a constant wind speed, v,

v
normal cross-sectional area, A,
given period of time, t, and air
density ρ, A

• Air mass, m = ρAtv • Wind power density (i.e.

energy per unit area, per
• So, KE = ½ ρAtv3 second) is:
Power, P = ½ ρAv3 Power density = ½ ρ v3

Harvestable power scales with the cube of the wind speed

 Power Output
• Power output from a wind turbine is given by the same
eqn, with one extra parameter
– P = ½ Cp ρ A v3
• Again, v is the wind speed
• Again, ρ is the air density
• Here, A is the rotor swept area
• Cp is the turbine’s power coefficient

• Cp describes the fraction of the power in the wind that

may be converted by the turbine into mechanical work
• Cp is a measure of efficiency, including turbine
(aerodynamic), mechanical and electrical losses
 The Betz Limit

• No turbine can be designed which is capable of

exceeding the Betz limit

• This is derived as 59.3% (read about the Betz limit

if you want to know more)

• Typical efficiency usually 30-40%

 Example – Wind Turbine Power
A wind turbine has a diameter d = 25m. The power
coefficient is 40%. What is the power density of the
facility when the windspeed is 6 m/s? What is the power
produced by the wind turbine if it harvests the wind?

Power density of the wind

= ½ ρv3 = ½ x 1.3kg/m3 x (6m/s)3
= 140 W/m2

Power of the wind turbine

= Cp x power density x area
= 40% x ½ ρv3 x π x (½ d)2
= 40% x 140 W/m2 x π x (½ x 25)2 = 28 kW
 Wind Turbine Packing Density
• As it extracts energy from the wind, the turbine leaves behind in
it’s wake, air characterised by reduced wind speeds and
increased levels of turbulence

• A turbine operating in the wake of another turbine will produce

less energy and may suffer greater structural loading

• Rule-of-thumb is that wind turbines cannot be spaced closer than

5 times their diameter without losing significant power
 Wind Turbine Packing Density
Power that a wind
turbine can generate
per unit land area =
d

= Power per wind 5d

turbine / land area per
wind turbine

= CP x ½ ρv3 x π (½
d)2 / (5d)2
 Example – Power per unit land area

• A wind farm utilizes the same wind turbines as before (with a

diameter, d = 25 m, & efficiency factor of 40%). What is the power
per unit area harvested by the wind farm if the windspeed is 6
m/s?

• = 40% x ½ ρv3 x π x (½ d)2 / (5d)2

• = 40% x 140 W/m2 x π x (½ x 25)2 / (5 x 25)2
• = 27,489 / 15,625
• = 1.8 W/m2
 Power Output
Other important parameters

•Cut-in wind speed: minimum wind speed for

power generation
•Cut-out wind speed: maximum wind speed for
which the wind turbine produces power
•‘Rated’ wind speed: wind speed at which the
wind turbine produces ‘rated’ power
 Power Output

Turbine output power

Rated
Cut out

Cut in

Wind Speed
Wind turbine operating regions and power performance
 Power Output

Rated power Cut-out wind speed

→ maximum WT → stop WT → protect
power output (including against overloading
losses) at rated wind and/or overspeeding
speed

Cut-in wind speed

→ WT starts to
produce net power
→ N.B. blades
already rotating
 Capacity Factor
• Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual
energy production is never as much as the sum of the
generator’s specified rating multiplied by the total hours in
a year

• Capacity factor, CF = actual productivity / theoretical

maximum

• Maximum for 900kW turbine = 900 kW x 24 x 365 ~ 8MWh

• Typical capacity factors are 20–40%, with values at the

upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites

• Capacity factors of other types of power plant are based

mostly on fuel cost, with a small amount of downtime for
maintenance
 Outline

• Introduction
• Wind resources
• Power output
• Turbines
• Issues
• Summary
 Wind Turbines
• Two basic categories

– Horizontal axis wind turbine

(rotating axis horizontal to
ground)

– Vertical axis wind turbine

(rotating axis vertical to ground)
Horizontal Axis Vertical Axis
 Horizontal axis wind turbine
• Most common type of turbine in use
• Power ratings typically 750kW to 3.5MW (rotor diameters 48m –
80m)

Two

Three
Single
Wind Turbines
 Vertical axis wind turbine
• Vertical Axis Wind Turbines are less common and have niche
applications

• Have a couple of advantages…

1.Do not have to face the wind to harness energy

2.Generator is located at the base which has mechanical
advantages

•But…

1.They are more expensive

2.They don’t tend to be so efficient
 Wind Turbines

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSWm_nprfqE

• Parts in a Horizontal axis wind turbine

Horizontal axis wind turbine

Basic schematic diagram

 Rotor Assembly
• Blades:
→ Older ones made of steel
→ High inertia, i.e. good stability

→ Smaller blades can be made of Al

→ Low inertia, i.e. good responsiveness
→ Responsiveness now more important than stability
→ Can harvest short-term increases in wind speed and let
the power train take care of the electrical side
→ Al require more maintenance
 Rotor Assembly
• Blades:
→ Larger ones made of fibreglass composites
→ “lay-up” process (similar to surfboards) or “infusion”
→ Many layers of fibreglass cloth placed in the mould of half-
blade
→ Each layer coated
with epoxy resin
→ Two complete mould-
halves glued to
make one blade
• Exact approach varies by
manufacturer, some include
carbon-fibre reinforcement
(Source: Hansen, M.O.L, Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines, p96)
• Blade bolted to
central hub
 Power train assembly
• Power train
– Mech & Elec components
– convert torque on rotor hub to electrical
power
• Main components
- transmission system (turbine shaft,
generator drive shaft)
- rotor brake
- electrical generator

(Source: AN Bonus Wind Turbines)

 Power train assembly

• Gearbox
– convert low-speed, high torque power received from rotor
– to low torque power, higher speed (required for generator)
• Step-up ratio depends on
– blade tip speed, rotor diameter, and generator design
• Typically:
– rotor 10 – 50 rpm → generator 1000 – 1500 rpm
 Nacelle and tower
• Nacelle, enclosure that houses equipment such as
• Yaw drive mechanism
→ turn nacelle → align HAWT into the wind
→ Large WT → automatic yaw control system → wind vane
mounted on top of nacelle
• Auxiliary equipment: control computer, safety equipment,
service power, etc.
• Tower → withstand wind and gravity loads
• Also, tower resonant frequencies → avoid coincidence with
induced frequencies from rotor or be damped out
• Foundations
 Current trends

• Move towards ever larger

blade diameters
• More financial players
• More countries
• Low wind speed turbines (U.S.)
• Offshore
Current trends
Onshore Wind Capacity
Offshore Wind Capacity
 Offshore wind

• Why offshore?
– Close to load centers
(avoids long-distance
transmission)
– Better wind resource
– Available shallow water

• Issues
– Installation challenges
– More expensive
– Maintenance
– Blocking shipping lanes
– Eyesore
Sizes and Applications

Small (≤10 kW)

• Homes Intermediate
• Farms (10-250 kW)
• Remote Applications • Village Power
(e.g. water pumping, • Hybrid Systems
telecom sites,
icemaking) • Distributed Power

Large (750 kW - >3MW)

• Central Station Wind Farms
• Distributed Power
• Community Wind
Large and Small Wind Turbines
Large Turbines (750->3000 kW)
• Installed in “Windfarm” arrays totaling 1 - >500 MW
• Designed for low cost of energy (COE)
• Requires >6 m/s (13 mph) average wind speed

Small Turbines (0.3-10 kW)

• Installed in “rural residential” on-grid and off-grid
applications
• Designed for reliability / low maintenance
• Requires >4 m/s (9 mph) average wind speed
 Outline

• Introduction
• Wind resources
• Power output
• Turbines
• Issues
• Summary
 Barriers
• Major issues restrict the development of wind
energy include:
– Lack of robust technical information has lead to
opposition to wind farms being developed in certain
areas
– Environmental concerns including noise, shadows,
flickering, wildlife, and visual impact
– Financial incentives from government are often
inadequate
– Grid connection and access not adequately provided
 Human-related bird kills

• If you cannot see the slice for Wind Turbines, it's because it's
~10,000 smaller than cats!
• Birds killed by wind turbines are fairly small in number, but tend to
be larger birds
https://www.fws.gov/birds/bird-enthusiasts/threats-to-birds.php
 Bat Kills
• Bat fatality at wind turbines has been documented
worldwide

• Annual mortality estimated at <2 to nearly 50

bats/turbine/year

• Bat mortality appears to be

highest in or near forests and
lowest in open grassland or
farmland away from forests.

• Bats rarely strike fixed objects.

• Pressure/velocity fluctuations may kill

http://www.batcon.org/home/index.asp
 Shadow flicker
• A wind turbine's moving blades can cast a moving
shadow on a nearby residence, depending on the time of
the year and time of day.

• Normally, it shouldn’t be a problem, although it is more

problematic in Scotland than most places since the sun
is low in the sky.

http://www.awea.org/faq/wwt_environment.html
 When the wind doesn’t blow…
• A wind plant requires about a certain amount of
conventional capacity to compensate for changes in
wind.
• Estimates vary between 2 and 30% of the installed
capacity for 20% grid penetration.

• Not cost-effective to have fossil-fired generating units

kept running on a standby basis in case the wind dies
down
 Lifetime environmental impact
• Extracting materials, manufacturing/installing turbines and displacing
vegetation has an environmental impact

• On the whole, this does not create large emissions of carbon dioxide

• When these operations are included, wind energy's CO2 emissions are quite
small:
– about 1% of coal, or
– about 2% of natural gas
(per unit of electricity generated).
 Noise
• Noise used to be a very serious problem for the wind energy industry.
– annoying from as much as several miles away

• Aerodynamics and soundproofing have been improved significantly

• Wind turbines operate when the wind is blowing, which tends to be louder
than turbine noise

• A modern operating wind farm at a distance of 500 m is no noisier than a

kitchen refrigerator

• Some concerns regarding low frequencies emitted from large turbines.

 Summary

• Introduction
• Wind resources
• Power output
• Turbines
• Issues
• Summary