Energy From Water

© Heriot-Watt University
Energy Studies
Hydro, Tidal, Wave

Outline
 Hydroelectric generation  Marine power

 Hydrological cycle  Tidal
 Hydro plant 
Tidal range
 Water wheels / turbines 
Power available
 Available power

Tidal barrage
 Pumped storage

Tidal flow
 Wave

Wave energy

Opportunities & issues
Introduction
 Three different forms of power generation that exploit the abundance of water on Earth
 Hydro power / Tidal power / Wave power
 Hydro power utilizes the Earth’s natural hydrological cycle
 Established technology
 58% of global renewable electricity production in 2020
 Water energy either PE (reservoirs) or KE (rivers)
 Electricity made by passing the water through large turbines
 Tidal power
 Exploits bulk motion of the tides
 Trap sea water in a large basin and drain through turbines, or drive turbines using tidal flow
 Wave power
 A variety of large structures can be designed to convert wave energy to electrical energy
Hydro Power
Source: BP Statistical Review of Energy 2022

 Hydro shows slow increase over the decades, with no transient fluctuations; note it is plotted separately from “renewables”
The Hydrological Cycle
 Water constantly moves
through a vast global cycle,
in which it evaporates from
lakes/oceans/land, forms
clouds, precipitates as rain or
snow, then flows back to the
ocean
 The energy of this water

cycle, which is driven by the
sun, it tapped most efficiently
with hydropower
Solar heat  Evaporation  Precipitation  Rivers  Seas

The Hydrological Cycle
• Install a turbine generator (and dam) to harness the energy as the water falls
Hydropower
 Hydropower plants can broadly be classified into two main types:

 ROR (Run-of-River) hydropower

The flow of a river is intercepted to generate energy
 Hydro Power Plants with reservoir

A dam is built to create a reservoir where water is stored
 Pumped Energy storage hydropower

With an additional lower reservoir, it’s possible to use as energy
storage
ROR (Run-of-River) hydropower
 ROR hydropower plants mainly
generate electricity from the
available flow in a river.
 Most small hydropower plants
are of ROR type, with no
storage.
Water wheels
 Power of water exploited in the ancient world for

irrigation, grinding corn, metal forging and mining
 Waterwheels were common in Western Europe;

over 5000 recorded in the 1086 Domesday book
 Early versions were inefficient ‘undershot’ design
 Overshot design led to efficiency improvements

RUN OF RIVER: Archimedes’ screw
 can be a good solution with low

heads and medium~high flow
 fish can go through
(→ limited screening needed)
 converts gravitational force into
torque to turn the generator,
like the overshot water wheel
River Dart Country Park – 50 kW Archimedes Screw

[https://www.renewablesfirst.co.uk/latest-projects/attachment/dscf1820/]
RoR: Cross-flow turbine
 Impulse turbine, but good for

moderate heads:
 H = 2.5 to 200 m
 Flows
 Q = 0.04 to 17 m³/s
 Can have two sections, to operate
even at a small fraction of rated
flow (e.g. 5%)
 Power from a few kW to a few MW
https://www.ossberger.de/en/hydropower-technology/ossbergerr-crossflow-turbine/
Pumped Storage Hydropower
 A pumped storage hydropower plant consists of a reversible power plant and

two reservoirs, eg natural lake
 Pumped storage can help to overcome the difference between supply-and-
demand:
 At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity from the grid is
used to pump water up to the higher reservoir
 When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir
through a turbine to generate electricity.
 currently the most important means of large-scale grid energy storage
 Increasingly important for balancing other renewables, in particular wind and
solar power plants
Hydro Plant Schematic
 Hydroelectricity comes from the

potential energy of dammed water
driving a water turbine and generator
 The power extracted from the water
depends on the volume (flow rate)
and on the difference in height (head)
between the source and the water's
outflow
 Water is guided to a hydraulic turbine
through a large pipe called a
penstock
Water turbines
 Modern water turbines are typically ~90%

efficient due to improved design
 Water turbine extracts KE from the water
 Two basic designs:
 Impulse turbine
 Reaction turbine
 Impulse – blades fixed to a rotating wheel,
rotates in air, blades powered successively
with an ‘impulse’ of fast moving water
 e.g. Pelton wheel…
Pelton turbines
 The Pelton is suitable for large

heads and ‘small’ flow rates
Horizontal axis Vertical axis, with 4 jets

[http://www.ghiggia.it/en/products/pelton-turbines] [http://www.ghiggia.it/en/products/pelton-turbines]
 Reaction (Kaplan)
 blades fully immersed in water with
thrust mostly due to reaction forces
Kaplan
 very high efficiency
 for low heads conditions
 Mixed regime (Francis)
 Direct water into the channels
between the blades
 Water velocity changes direction Francis
 Spiral, internal shape with guide
vanes
Water turbines
Impulse Francis Kaplan
 Choice of water turbine depends on site conditions

 Flow rate (r) and head (h) are the main deciding factors:
 Impulse turbines (Pelton) best for large head and low flow rate, e.g. mountain
streams
 Francis turbines preferred for moderate flow rate and moderate head, e.g. dams
 Kaplan turbines best for low head and large flow rate, e.g. rivers & some dams
Water turbines
The shape number (S) is a
dimensionless parameter that helps
us choose the best turbine for a
given location
where ω is the required angular

velocity of the turbine.
 impulse: S ~ 0.25
 Francis: S ~ 1
 Kaplan: S ~ 5
r
Available power
 A simple formula for approximating electric power generation of
a hydropower plan based on potential energy is
P=k ρ h r g
 for one based on kinetic energy (e.g. ROR, if you know v):
1 3
P= k ρ A v
2
Available Power
 A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a

hydroelectric plant is:
 k is a coefficient of efficiency, ~0.9 at the right conditions
 ρ is the density of water (~1000 kg/m³)
 h is head in meters
 r is flow rate in m³/s P=k ρ h r g
 g is acceleration due to gravity: 9.8 m/s²
 ρ, g and k are constants (or close enough)
 Height (head) and flow rate are the key variables
Available Power: worked example
The Dinorwig pumped storage station in Wales has a water capacity of 7x10 6 m³, which can be
released for generating electricity over a 5 hour period. If the effective head is 500m and the
turbine&generator efficiency is 90%, calculate the average power output (GW) and the total electrical
energy produced (GWh) in 5 hours.
 Generating flow rate 6

V 7 · 10 m³
r= = =390 m³/s
t 5 h ×3600 s/h
 Power output
P=k ρ h r g=0.90 ×1000 kg/m³ × 500 m ×390 m³/s × 9.81 m/s²=1.72 GW
 Energy output
E=P t =1.72 GW × 5 h=8.6 GWh
U =m g h=7 ·10 6 ×1000 ×9.81 ×500=3.43 · 1013 J=9.54 GWh
2019→2021 © M.Pozzi – Heriot-Watt University
Follow–On Question
It takes 6.5 hours to refill the Dinorwig
reservoir (7·106 m³) by pumping. The
effective head when pumping is 530m.
For pumps having an energy efficiency
of 90%, calculate the input power (GW)
to the pumps, the total electrical energy
(GWh) required for pumping and the
overall (round-trip) energy efficiency
of the pumped storage plant.
Scotland
 Broad spread of hydro electricity generating stations in Scotland
 Over 100 installations in total, particularly in the Highlands
 Four pumped storage installations in UK
 Ben Cruachan at Loch Awe (in 1965, was the world’s first)
 Currently the largest and could double in capacity
 440 MW power; 700 GWh annually
 396 m head; 316 m long dam; 10 Mm³ storage
 Dispatchability: <30 s
 A few new PSH being planned
 Balliemeanoch at Loch Awe (1500 MW )
 Red John at Loch Ness (450 MW)
 Corrievarkie at Loch Ericht (600 MW)
 Coire Glas at Loch Lochy (1500 MW)
Ben Cruachan
Predicted efficiency:
η = 90%
Dispatchability:
τ = 90 s
Expected
completion: 2024
GCC: Gulf Cooperation Council

Hydro power: summary of Pros
 Well-established technology
 Low operating cost
 Minimal impact on the atmosphere
 don’t forget the CO2 to make the cement in the dam...
 Base load power generation, unlike wind, solar
 Quick response to changes in electricity demand (stored)
 Long plant life (typically over 40yr before major refurbishment)
 Tourism honeypot
Hydro power: summary of Cons
 Large capital cost; hence long payback period

 Possible displacement of population
 Changes in sediment transport (with reservoirs possibly silting up)
 Impact on fish and ecosystem
 Dam failures can have catastrophic consequences
 Location dependent
 High maintenance (but infrequently needed)
 High decommissioning costs
Tidal Energy
 Tides
 Operation of tidal pools
 Potential power generation
more on tides: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_tides/

Lunar Tide
 Gravitational Effect
moon
 As the Earth rotates on its axis,
2 high tides are drawn around the
globe as it rotates - 2 high tides
every (moon) day (~24.8 hour period)
Mismatch of principal lunar driven periods of 12h 25’ and 24h 50’ with the human
(solar) period of 24h – optimum generation not in phase with demand
Influence of Solar Effects
 The solar tide moves in and out of phase with the lunar tide
 Lunar and solar tides are in phase when Sun, Earth and Moon are
aligned (twice per month at full and new moons)
 Produces tides of maximum range: spring tides
 When Sun/Earth and Moon/earth directions are perpendicular
 Produces tides of minimum range: neap tides
Tides
Effect of declination
 The plane of the Moon’s orbit is

tilted with respect to the ecliptic
 The centre of the tidal bulges

may be up to a maximum of
28.5º from the Equator
Effect of elliptical orbits
 Tidal ranges are greater when:
 The Moon is at perigee
 The Earth is at perihelion
 Although very predictable,

there are a number of cycles
in parallel, so the tidal energy
available is always changing
Tidal range
 Difference in water height between high and low tide is the tidal
range
 predictable, making tidal a predictable and secure energy source
 but it requires huge tidal basins to produce useful amounts of
electricity (several 10s to 1,000s of km²)
 Tidal range is typically <1m in open ocean but can be as much as
14 m, as in the Bristol channel due to the restricted channel
Summary of tides
 Two high tides and two low tides per lunar day (~24h 50’)
 Neither the two high tides nor the two low tides are of the exact same
height because of the declination of the Moon and the Sun
 Yearly and monthly cycles of tidal range are related to the changing
distances of the Moon and Sun from Earth
 Each week, there are alternating spring and neap tides
 At any location, tide characteristics are defined by its
range (water height) and period (time) between high and low tide.
Tidal Energy
 Tidal energy schemes rely on the twice daily tides which produce
the ebb and flow of large volumes of water in estuaries and at sea
 Other factors such as ocean depths, landmass shapes, etc., can
accentuate tidal flow
 Energy can be extracted from tides in two principal ways:
 Tidal pool
 Tidal flow
Exploitation of the Resource
 Earliest exploitation of tidal power was by tidal mills:

 barrage built on the mouth of a river estuary
 Sea water trapped at high tide and released at low tide through a water wheel
 First large scale tidal power plant was built in 1966 in France (La Rance),
generating 240MW: 24 bulb turbines of 10 MW each; 500 GWh/year; 20 €/MWh
 Large scale River Severn tidal barrage was considered but rejected in 2010
 Costly: £7 to £34 billion, depending on scheme
 Two types of turbine
 Conventional (only operate in one direction)
 Bi-directional (operate with tide flowing both ways, but are less efficient)
Which turbine?
Which type of turbine would you use for a

tidal power station (e.g. La Rance)?

impulse

reaction
Operation of tidal barrage
Low Tide
Barrage Dam
Ocean Estuary
Low Tide High Tide
Barrage Dam
Ocean Estuary
Then the dam shuts

Low Tide High Tide Low Tide
Barrage Dam
Ocean Estuary
Then the dam opens

Low Tide High Tide Low Tide
Barrage Dam
Since the ocean is much more Estuary
massive than the estuary, its
height does not change
Ocean
Turbine
Then the entire process repeats on

the next tide…
Power density of tidal pools
High water
 Tide pool filled rapidly at high tide and emptied
rapidly at low tide
Range (h)
 change in potential energy every 6.2 hours is:
ΔU = m g h / 2
Low water Tidepool
 the mass of water in the tide pool: m = ρ A h
 Potential energy of water: E = ρ A h² g / 2 sea
h h 2
h
Δ U=∫ g y dm=∫ g y ρ A dy =ρ · g·A·
0 0 2
turbine
Power = E/t = (ρ A h2g/2)/T
(T ~ 6.2 hours for two-way turbine)

(T ~ 12.4 hours for one-way turbine)
High water
 Tide pool filled rapidly at high tide and emptied
rapidly at low tide
Range (h)
 change in potential energy every 6.2 hours is:
ΔU = m g h / 2
Low water Tidepool
 the mass of water in the tide pool: m = ρ A h
 Potential energy of water: E = ρ A h² g / 2 sea
 Example:
 Let h = 4 m, ρ = 1000 kg/m³, g = 9.81m/s²
 Power per unit area (two-way turbine): turbine
(ρ h² g / 2) / T ≈ 3.5 W/ m² Power = E/t = (ρ A h2g/2)/T
 Assume 90% efficiency: Pout ≈ 3.2 W/m²
(T ~ 6.2 hours for two-way turbine)
(T ~ 12.4 hours for one-way turbine)
Estimate the average power output of a tidal
basin using a one-way turbine with a tidal range
of 7m and an area of tidal basin of 520km 2 (e.g.
a Severn estuary barrage)
Ecological/Environmental Impact
 A tidal barrage acts as a major blockage to navigation and requires

locks to allow vessels to pass through
 Fish may be killed in turbines and their migration is impeded
 The habitat is altered, forcing species to move
 Tidal regime downstream of the barrage may be affected which
could have knock-on effects
 Water quality is altered due to the natural flushing of pollution
and silt being impeded
Tidal lagoon
 A tidal lagoon, e.g. where a closed basin is created off an estuary,

does not extend across the whole channel
 reduced environmental consequences
 cheaper
 but less power

Simple intro and brief to tidal energy (TU Delft):

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sLIHQ-2TbvA
Tidal flow power
 Near coastlines and between islands, tides may produce strong

water currents and we can use the KE of the water
 Tidal flow power conversion is similar to wind power conversion:
 Power density for moving water (same as wind) = ½ ρ v³
 Advantage of predictable velocity and greater fluid density (x1000)
 Only a fraction of the power available can realistically be converted
 Disadvantage of low fluid velocity and an aquatic environment
Tidal Currents
 Tidal current over a 21-day period at a location where the maximum current at spring tide
is 1.5 m/s and the maximum current at neap tide is 0.9 m/s
 The power per unit sea-floor area over a nine-day period extending from spring tides to
neap tides
 The power peaks four times per day, and has a maximum of about 27 W/m², with a min of
about 6 W/m²
 The average power of the tide farm is 6.4 W/m2
Pros and Cons of Tidal flow power
 Various devices for using this resource have been proposed

 Devices may be mounted on the seabed or from a floating
platform
 null or limited visual impact
 Many engineering challenges
 Installation can use expertise from oil/gas drilling/perspecting
 Generation is predictable (vs. wind turbines)
 Good potential for the future as technology develops
Tidal flow power
Examples…
Electric
generator
Tidal
Flow turbin
e
seabe
d
Scotland
 A significant proportion of the tidal and marine energy resource is to be found
off the west coast of Scotland
 Pentland Firth project underway (between Orkney and Scottish mainland)
 9 MW demonstration in 2015 with
6 turbines (22.5m diameter)
 86 MW for 2020 and ultimately
398MW from 400 turbines
 ~2 GW possible in the
area (Inner Sound)?
Wave energy
 Waves represent a renewable energy source
 Wind waves result from the conversion of wind energy when it blows over
the sea (fetch is the distance over which the wind has swelled the waves)
 When they are no longer affected by local
wind, they are called swells
[Electric Power Research Institute]

Wave resources
 More concentrated at mid-latitudes where in general the wind resource is stronger
Devices
Wave Energy
Wave Power Issues
 Waves are irregular in amplitude, phase and direction.

 Difficult to design efficient devices over such a wide range of variables
 Wave typically low frequency (circa 0.1Hz).
 Difficult to efficiently couple this motion to an electrical generator
 Peak power normally available in deep water from open swells.
 Very difficult conditions to construct, fix, and maintain devices. Remote
locations.
 Marine environment
 salt water is corrosive to mechanics and electronics
 Probability of extreme gales or hurricanes
 Many different device types in the public domain – which to choose?
Wave Power: Environmental Issues
 Noise
 Will marine life be attracted or repelled?
 How does it compare to existing impact of the fishing and shipping fleet?
 Collisions
 Are the locations and motion of wave energy devices obvious to marine life?
 Hauling out
 Can marine life (e.g., sea lions) damage the wave energy devices?
 Cables and mooring systems – can any marine life become entangled?
 Artificial reef effect?
 Will marine life congregate around the devices?
 How does that impact local predator-prey relationships?
Advantages of Wave Power
 Predictability of wave conditions over a period of days

 Little visual impact
 Since only a small fraction of total wave power is extracted,
impact on coastline is minimal
 No obvious problems for marine life proven so far
 Wave power largest in winter when electricity demand is
increased
Wave energy – current status
 Several installations currently under testing offshore Scotland

(and more elsewhere in the world), e.g.:
 Archimedes Waveswing from AWS
 Blue X from Mocean Energy
 the exploitable wave resource is 40–50 TWh/year
 Uptake rather slow compared to other technologies
Siya Jin, Deborah Greaves, Wave energy in the UK: Status review and future perspectives,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 143, 2021, 110932, ISSN 1364-0321,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110932.

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© Heriot-Watt University

Hydro, Tidal, Wave

 Hydroelectric generation  Marine power

Source: BP Statistical Review of Energy 2022

 The energy of this water

Solar heat  Evaporation  Precipitation  Rivers  Seas

 Hydropower plants can broadly be classified into two main types:

 Power of water exploited in the ancient world for

 Waterwheels were common in Western Europe;

 Early versions were inefficient ‘undershot’ design

 Overshot design led to efficiency improvements

 can be a good solution with low

River Dart Country Park – 50 kW Archimedes Screw

 Impulse turbine, but good for

 A pumped storage hydropower plant consists of a reversible power plant and

 Hydroelectricity comes from the

 Modern water turbines are typically ~90%

 The Pelton is suitable for large

Horizontal axis Vertical axis, with 4 jets

Impulse Francis Kaplan

 Choice of water turbine depends on site conditions

where ω is the required angular

 A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a

 Generating flow rate 6

GCC: Gulf Cooperation Council

 Large capital cost; hence long payback period

more on tides: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_tides/

 The plane of the Moon’s orbit is

 The centre of the tidal bulges

 Although very predictable,

 Earliest exploitation of tidal power was by tidal mills:

Which type of turbine would you use for a

Then the dam shuts

Then the dam opens

Then the entire process repeats on

(T ~ 6.2 hours for two-way turbine)

 A tidal barrage acts as a major blockage to navigation and requires

 A tidal lagoon, e.g. where a closed basin is created off an estuary,

Simple intro and brief to tidal energy (TU Delft):

 Near coastlines and between islands, tides may produce strong

 Various devices for using this resource have been proposed

[Electric Power Research Institute]

 Waves are irregular in amplitude, phase and direction.

 Predictability of wave conditions over a period of days

 Several installations currently under testing offshore Scotland

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