Cardiovascular System Chambers and Associated Great Vessels:

Cardiac
Size, Circulation:
Location, and Orientation of the The heart delays
AV node comprises four transmission,
impulse chambers:
Heart:
  Capillaries: Microscopic vessels with  two
InferioratriaVena
allowing and
atriatwo
Cava ventricles.
to finish contracting
Draining Veins:
Heart functions as a double pump:
a pulmonary
single layercircuitof endothelial cells.  before
Atria ventricles.
primarily receives
Anterior tibial vein, posterior tibial blood, aiding
 The heart is approximately (right side) and of
the size
Facilitate exchange of substances in
vein,filling
Bundle of
fibular theHisventricles.
vein,and Purkinje
great saphenous fibers
a systemic circuit less
fist and weighs (leftthan
side).a pound.
between blood and tissues.  distribute
Ventricles
veins, common impulse
are theiliac rapidly
main
veins,pumpsthrough
of the
gonadal
  Located
Pulmonarywithincircuit transports blood
the inferior
ventricles,
heart, renal
veins, coordinating
propelling
veins,bloodhepatic contraction.
outportal
into vein,
from
Tunics mediastinum heart
of Blood Vessels to lungs for
of the thoracic gas cavity,
exchange
 and
circulation.
Electrocardiogram
hepatic veins. (ECG) measures
and back.
flanked by the lungs.
1. Tunica Intima: Innermost layer,  Right
heart'sventricle
electricalforms activity,
most providing
of the
  Apex
Systemic
pointscircuit
toward delivers
the leftoxygen-
hip, Arterial Circulation of the Brain:
consists of endothelium. Provides a diagnostic
heart's information.
anterior surface; left ventricle
rich blood
resting on the from heart to body tissues
diaphragm.
smooth surface to reduce friction.  Theformsbrainits apex.
is supplied by two pairs of
 Base and returns oxygen-poor
points toward the rightblood.
shoulder Cardiac Output:
2. Tunica Media: Middle layer,  arteries:
Septum dividesthe internalthe heart
carotidintoarteries
 andCoronary circulation
lies beneath the second supplies
rib.
composed of smooth muscle and  and
interatrial
Cardiac and interventricular
output is
the vertebral volume of blood
arteries.
oxygenated blood to the heart
elastic
Coverings andfibers.
WallsControls
of the Heart:vessel sections.
 The internal carotid arteries
pumped by each ventricle perdivide
minute.
muscle itself.
diameter.  Stroke volume cerebral
and heartartery rate and
Heart into the anterior
  Enclosed
Venous return,
by the contractility,
pericardium, and Valves:
3. Tunica Externa: Outermost layer, determine
middle cerebralcardiac
artery,output.
supplying most
afterload influence
consisting of fibrous stroke volume
and serous
made of fibrous connective tissue.  of
Four
the valves
cerebrum.
Preload, ensure one-way
contractility, blood
and afterload
and
layers. cardiac output.
Provides support and protection.  Theflow through
influence
vertebral the heart
stroke volume.
arteries chambers
join to formand the

PhysiologyFibrous
of thepericardium
Heart: protects the
Major Arteries  Autonomic nervous system,
out
basilarinto the
artery, arteries.
which serves the
heart andofanchors
Systemic it toCirculation
surrounding
 brainstem
Atrioventricular
hormones, andions, (AV)
cerebellum. valves
and physical Theprevent
basilar
factors
 structures.
Cardiac muscle cells contract
 Aorta: Largest artery, originates from artery
backflow divides
regulate intotothe
heart form
rate.atriathewhen
posterior
 the spontaneously,
Serous pericardium regulated by intrinsic
produces
left ventricle. Divides into cerebral
ventricles arteries,
contract.supplying the
conductionserous
lubricating system. fluid, allowing the Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
ascending aorta, aortic arch, thoracic  Left AV valve (bicuspid/mitral)
posterior part of the cerebrum. has
 aorta,
SA node
heart toandbeatinitiates heartbeat,
in a frictionless
abdominal aorta. AV node
 The
two cerebral
Blood flaps; arterial
right
vessels acircle,
AV valve
form or Circle
(tricuspid)
closed transport
delays impulse, and Purkinje fibers
environment.
 Branches: Include coronary arteries, of
hasWillis,
threeknown
system connects
flaps. as the vascular
anterior and system.
spreadwalls
 brachiocephalic
Heart contraction.
composed of three
trunk, common  posterior
Williamblood
Chordae supplies
tendineae
Harvey, ananchorof thevalve
English brain,
 carotid
Autonomic
layers: nervous
epicardium
arteries, systemarteries,
(visceral
subclavian and
providing
flaps alternate
to ventricular
physician, proved the routes
walls, for blood
preventing
concept of
hormonestrunk,regulate
pericardium),
celiac heart
myocardium,
superior rate
mesenteric andand
flow in
inversion case of
during clot or impaired
contraction.
blood circulation in the 17th century. blood
contractility.
endocardium.
artery, renal arteries, gonadal arteries,  flow.
Semilunar valves guard bases of
 lumbar
Cardiac
Myocardium cycleconsists
arteries, involves systole
inferiorofmesenteric
thick Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
pulmonary trunk and aorta,
(contraction)
bundles ofcommon and diastole
cardiac muscle Hepatic Portal Circulation:
artery, and iliac arteries  preventing
Arteries: Carry bloodbloodreentry awayintofrom
the the
(relaxation)for
responsible of atria and ventricles.
contraction.
Major Veins of Systemic Circulation  Theheart.
hepatic
heart. Haveportalthick circulation
walls with heavy drains
 Intercalated
Stroke volume discs and withheart rate
desmosomes
 blood from the digestive
tunica media to withstand bloodwith
Valves operate in organs,
coordination
determine
and gap junctions
 Superior cardiac
Vena Cavaallow output,ions
Draining with to flow,
Veins: spleen,
heart
pressure andchanges.
pancreasensuring
contractions, into the liver
various
coordinating factorsheartinfluencing
contractions.
Radial vein, ulnar vein, cephalic vein, each .
 through
continuous the hepatic
Veins: Carry blood
blood portal
flow.
back to vein.the heart.
 basilic
Endocardium is a thin endothelial
vein, subclavian
Intrinsic Conduction System vein, of the Heart:  ThisHave system
thinner allows
wallsthe andliver
larger to process
lumens.
lining continuous
vertebral vein, internal with jugular
blood vessel
vein, nutrients absorbed after
Possess valves to prevent backflow a meal and
 brachiocephalic
linings.
SA node acts asveins, pacemaker,
and azygos setting detoxify
and aid blood
venousbyreturn.removing and
pace
vein. for heart contractions. processing toxins from the digestive
system.
 Major vessels in the hepatic portal
circulation include the inferior and
superior mesenteric veins, splenic vein,
and left gastric vein, which join to form
the hepatic portal vein.
Physiology of Circulation:
 Pulse is the alternating expansion and
recoil of an artery with each beat of the
left ventricle, indicating the heart rate.
 Pulse points, such as the radial artery
at the wrist, are used to measure heart
rate and assess circulatory efficiency.
 Blood pressure is the force exerted by
blood against the inner walls of blood
vessels, necessary for continuous
circulation.
- Blood pressure is influenced by
cardiac output and peripheral
resistance, with factors like neural,
renal, temperature, chemical, and
dietary factors affecting it.
 Systolic pressure is the pressure during
ventricular contraction, and diastolic
pressure is the pressure when the
ventricles are relaxing. Blood pressure
is usually reported as systolic over
diastolic pressure (e.g., 120/80 mm
Hg).
 Variations in blood pressure occur due
to factors like age, weight, time of day,
exercise, and emotional state.
Hypotension and hypertension are
abnormal variations in blood pressure.
Capillary Exchange of Gases and Nutrients:
 Capillaries facilitate the exchange of
gases and nutrients between the blood
and body cells.
 Substances can diffuse through the
plasma membrane of endothelial cells,
intercellular clefts, fenestrations, or via
vesicles.
Development of the Cardiovascular System:
 The heart begins as a simple tube in the
embryo and starts beating by the fourth
week of pregnancy.
 Over the next few weeks, the heart
matures into a four-chambered
structure capable of acting as a double
pump.
 During fetal development, the lungs
and digestive system are immature, and
gas and nutrient exchange occur
through the placenta.
 Fetal vascular modifications, or "fetal
shunts," ensure that blood bypasses the
nonfunctional fetal lungs:
1. Ductus venosus diverts blood from
the umbilical vein to the inferior
vena cava, bypassing the liver.
2. Foramen ovale allows blood to
pass directly from the right atrium
to the left atrium, bypassing the
lungs.
3. Ductus arteriosus connects the
pulmonary trunk and the aorta,
allowing blood to bypass the lungs
and enter systemic circulation.
 At birth, these fetal shunts close, and
the circulatory pattern transitions to
that of an adult.
Changes in the Cardiovascular System with
Aging:
 With aging, signs of cardiovascular
system disturbances may appear, such
as weakened venous valves leading to
varicose veins and progressive
atherosclerosis.
  Atherosclerosis, the gradual filling of
blood vessels with fatty deposits, is a
common age-related condition.
 Loss of elasticity in blood vessels can
lead to hypertension and hypertensive
heart disease.
 Roughening of vessel walls increases
the risk of thrombus formation,
contributing to cardiovascular diseases
like strokes or myocardial infarctions.
 Cardiovascular diseases are prevalent
worldwide, with factors like diet,
smoking, stress, and lack of exercise
contributing to their development.
 Recommendations for maintaining
cardiovascular health include reducing
intake of animal fat, cholesterol, and
salt, avoiding stress, quitting smoking,
and engaging in regular, moderate
exercise.
Homeostatic Imbalance:
1. Pericarditis: Inflammation of the
pericardium leads to painful adhesions,
hindering heart movements.
2. Valvular Disorders: Malfunctioning
heart valves impair cardiac function,
causing backflow or increased
workload.
3. Angina Pectoris and Myocardial
Infarction (MI): Ischemia results in
chest pain (angina) or heart attack (MI)
due to oxygen deprivation.
4. Heart Conduction Disorders: Damage
to conduction pathways disrupts heart
rhythm, sometimes requiring artificial
pacemakers.
5. Fibrillation: Rapid, uncoordinated
ventricular contractions may occur due
to ischemia, posing a life-threatening
risk.
6. Heart Murmurs: Abnormal heart
sounds indicate turbulent blood flow,
often due to valve problems.
7. Congestive Heart Failure (CHF):
Weakened heart function leads to
inadequate circulation, causing
symptoms like edema and pulmonary
congestion.
8. Peripheral Congestion and Varicose
Veins: Failure of heart function leads
to swelling in extremities, while
weakened valves cause twisted veins.
9. Hypertension: Chronic high blood
pressure damages the heart and
arteries, increasing the risk of
complications like atherosclerosis.
10. Congenital Heart Defects: Structural
abnormalities present at birth, often
requiring surgical correction.