MODULE IN FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

PREPARED BY:

RONELDA CHAVEZ JAIME

REGISTERED CRIMINOLOGIST
 INTRODUCTION

Fire is a complex chemical process, and fire investigators must

understand the basic chemistry and physics involved to enable them to
formulate opinions based on these scientific principles rather than on "old
fire investigators' tales."
Not being able to explain the technical aspects of fire behavior may
prevent an investigator from qualifying as an expert witness. Opposing
attorneys easily can use questions about the chemistry and physics of fire
to effectively discredit a fire investigator. The diffusion flame process
(fire) consists of three basic elements: fuel, oxygen, and heat. These basic
components have been recognized in the science of fire protection for
over 100 years. The diffusion flame process is defined by Richard Tuve in
the Principles of Fire Protection Chemistry as "a rapid self-sustaining
oxidation process accompanied by the evolution of heat and light of
varying intensities."

Arson continues to be a serious problem on a global scale resulting

in high costs in terms of property loss, injuries, and fatalities. It can be
defined as the deliberate and malicious burning of property having three
main elements. First, there has been a burning of property. Second, the
burning is incendiary in origin, and finally, the burning was started with the
intent of destroying the property. The motives for fire-setting behavior
have been classified by The National Center for the Analysis of Violent
Crime as vandalism, excitement, revenge, crime concealment, profit, and
extremism.

To prove that the crime of arson has been committed, the cause of
the fire has to be determined. Arson is a unique crime in that evidence at
the scene can be destroyed; however, a systematic investigation may
yield sufficient evidence to determine the cause. It is therefore important
that every fire scene is treated as a potential arson crime until proof of
natural or accidental cause has been established.

1
 TABLE OF CONTENT

MODULE 1
Lesson 1.1: Theories of Combustion 5
Fire Triangle Theory 5
Elements of Fire 6
Components of Fire 7
Heat Production 8
Heat Transfer 9
Oxygen and Oxidation 10
Fire Tetrahedron 11
Fuel and its Physical State 13

Components/Elements of the Fire Tetrahedron 15

Types of Energy 15
Product of Combustion 18
Types of Poisonous Gases 19
Nature of Fire 20
Properties of Fire 22
Vapor Density 24
Phases of Burning 25
Backdraft 27
Classification of Fire 29
Spontaneous Heating 34
Intensity of Fire 36
Flashpoint and Ignition Temperature 37
Oxidation 39

Lesson 1.2: Fire Suppression, Control, Extinguishment

& Extinguishing Agents 41
Methods of Fire Extinguishment 41
Extinguishing Agents 45
Water Extinguishes Fires 45

Lesson 1.3: Fire Extinguishers 51

Classes of Fire Extinguishers 52
Classification and Ratings
53
Common Extinguishing Agents Used 54
Parts of Pressurized Water Extinguisher 55
Soda-Acid Extinguisher 56
Steps to Operate a Wheeled Type Extinguisher 56
Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher 57
Loaded Stream Extinguisher 58
Dry Chemical Extinguisher
58
Types of Extinguishers 60
Phases of Fire 60
Smoke and Flame 62

Lesson 1.4: Flammable Materials 64

Liquids 65
Gases 67

2
 Solids 68
Combustible Metals 68

Lesson 1.5: Hazardous Materials 71

Hazard Classification 71
NFPA Standard No. 704, Fire Hazards of Materials 73
Color Scheme for New Cards 74
Hazardous Materials Placarding Requirements 75
Placarding Mixed Loads 76
Emergency Action Guide for Hazardous Materials 76

MODULE 2
Lesson 2.1: Principles of Structural Firefighting 77
Strategies Used in Firefighting 77
Factors to be considered in Extinguishment 78
Types of Ventilation 80
Advantages of Ventilation 83
Exposures 84
Type of Exposures 84
Rescue 84
Overhaul 84
Salvage 85
Hose Appliances and Tools 87

Lesson 2.2: Building Codes and Building Requirements 97

Intended Occupancy and Use 97
Life Safety 97
Fixed Fire Protection System 98
Spacing of Structures 98
Height Requirements 98
Fire Retarding Features 99

Lesson 2.3: Miscellaneous Hazards 100

Pre-Fire Plan 103
Purpose and Requirements for Pre-Fire Plan 103
Factors to be considered in Pre-Fire Planning 104
Basic Information Contained in Pre-Fire Planning 104
Types of Pre-Fire Planning 105
Aircraft Pre-Fire Planning 105
Pre-disaster Planning 107
Fire Department Responsibilities in times of Disaster 108
Natural Cover Fire Pre-fire Planning 109
Steps in the Size-up of a Natural Cover Fire 109

Lesson 2.4: Natural Cover Fires 110

Types of Natural Cover Fires 110
Parts of Natural Cover Fires 111
What to do combating this type of fire? 112
Methods of Natural Cover Fire 113

MODULE 3
Lesson 3.1: Fire Investigation 115
General Classes of Fire Causes 116

3
 Classification of Fire 117
Persons Responsible to Examine / Inspect the Fire Scene 117
Fire Investigation and Evidence Kit 118
Basic Steps in a Scene Examination 118
Areas to Conduct Fire Investigation 119
Steps on How to Determine the Point of Origin 120
General types of Burn Pattern 121
Types of Furnishing 121
Fire Report 121
Types of Fire / Arson Investigation 122
Character Traits of a Qualified Arson Investigation 123

Lesson 3.2: Photographing the Fire Scene 125

Photographing the Exterior 125
Where and What to Photograph 125
Photographing the Interior 126
Where and What to Photograph 126
Points of Entry and Security of Building 127
Where and What to Photograph 128
Importance of Photography in Arson Investigation 128

MODULE 4
Lesson 4.1: Laws on Arson 131
What Constitute Arson 132
Methods of Proof in Arson 133
What is Corpus Delicti? 133
Basic Lines of Inquiry 133
Points of Origin of Fire 133
Fire Setting Mechanism 134
Motive 134
A person with Motives 135
A person without Motives 135
Motives of Arsonist 135
Types of Pyromania 135
Techniques Used in Investigating Arson Incidents 136
Tell Tale Signs 136
Indication of Color of Smoke and Fire 136
Smoke Marks 137

Lesson 4.2: Legal Aspect of Fire Investigation 138

Destructive Arson 138
Art. 321 Other Forms of Arson 138
Art. 325, RPC 140
Art. 326, RPC 140
Legal Requirements in Preserving Physical Evidence in Arson 141
Steps in Tracing the Origin of Fire and Searching for Evidence 142
Look for the Prima Facie Evidence of Arson 143
Guidelines 144
Fire Scene 144
Post Investigation 145
Fire Investigation Report 145
Inventory of Evidence 146

4
Glossary 147
References 149

MODULE 1
Objectives: At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. Understand the fire triangle theory;

2. Enumerate the elements of fire;

3. Explain and describe the fire tetrahedron;

4. Discuss the components of the fire tetrahedron;

5. Understand and discuss the common sources of fire;

6. Define what combustion is;

7. Enumerate and identify the types of poisonous gases;

8. Enumerate and discuss the product of combustion;

9. Define what is flame and identify the types of flames;

10. Understand the nature of fire;

11. Understand the properties of fire; and

12. Discuss the phase of burning or the three stages of fire.

Fire has fascinated humanity since the beginning of time. Our

ancestors worshipped it; we still respect it. Its value as a weapon of war
and as a tool of devastation has long been recognized.

Fire is a series of chemical reactions. It is often defined as the

visible, active phase of combustion.

Lesson 1.1 Theories of Combustion

Fire Triangle theory – the graphical representation of the three

elements of fire, namely: Oxygen, Heat, and Fuel.

Each side is just as important as either of the other two sides.

There cannot be fire without all three parts presents in equal proportion.

Using the same theory, there are three ways to extinguish the fire:

1. Remove the fuel

5
 2. Cut off the oxygen supply
3. Reduce the temperature (cooling)

Figure 1: Fire Triangle Theory

Elements of Fire:

Heat, Oxygen, and Fuel

1. Heat – a form of energy generated by the transmission of some

other form of energy, as on combustion or burning.
Heat Sources:
1. Open flame
2. Electrical circuit
3. Sparks
4. Hot surfaces
5. Friction
6. All sources of ignition

Combustion is a chemical process accompanied by the evolution

of heat and light. More accurately, it is a rapid oxidation of fuel to produce
flame (burning gases), heat, and light.

The most common form of combustion, and that to which we

address our attention, is oxidation. This occurs when an atom, the
fundamental principles of matter, combines (i.e., forms a chemical bond)
with a molecule of oxygen. Though there are other types of combustion

6
supported by other gases, such as nitrous oxide (laughing gas), the
overwhelming majority of the fires are oxygen-related.

Components of Fire
Traditionally, fire has been described as having three components:
heat, oxygen, and fuel. This triad was illustrated by the fire triangle, which
symbolized, in the most basic terms, a chemical relationship that would
have required hours to explain. We now realize, however, that the fire
triangle falls short of integrating all the components involved in producing
flaming combustion.

Today, the fire triangle is used to technically explain glowing

combustion, which occurs when a fuel mass glows without flaming. This
is called a solid-to-gas reaction (fuel being a solid, and the oxidizing
agent a gas).

The additional component needed to explain flaming combustion is

the chemical chain reaction. Such a reaction yields energy or products
that cause further reactions of the same kind, and thus the process is self-
sustaining. To show the interrelation of all four components, a more
sophisticated geometric figure than the triangle is needed; the three-
dimensional and four-faceted tetrahedron is the most appropriate and is
commonly used.

In flaming combustion fuel and the oxidizing agent are both in the
gaseous state; hence this is referred to as a gas-to-gas reaction.

Heat
A fire/arson investigator must understand and recognize how heat
is produced and transferred, and how it applies to the ignition and
development of the fire. Heat should not be confused with temperature,
which is the measurement of the relative amount of heat energy contained
within a given substance.

7
 Heat is a measurement of quantity and is given in British thermal
units (Btu). One Btu is the amount required to raise one pound of water
one degree Fahrenheit (1 F):

Heat Production

There are five ways to produce heat:

1. Chemical – as we have already seen, chemically produced heat is
the result of rapid oxidation. The speed of the oxidative reaction is
an important factor; rust is also the product of oxidation, but a very
slow one.
2. Mechanical – heat is the product of friction. Our ancestor rubble
sticks together to generate enough heat to start a fire. Internal
metal components of machinery can overheat, due to lubricant
breakdown or ball-bearing failure, and cause ignition of available
combustibles.
3. Electrical – heat is the product of arcing, shorting, or other
electrical malfunctions. Poor wire connection, too much resistance,
loose ground, and too much current flowing through an improperly
sized wire are other sources of electrical heat.
4. Compressed gas – when a gas is compressed, its molecular
activity is greatly increased. Consider the operation of a diesel
engine. The gaseous fuel is compressed within the cylinder,
increasing its molecular activity. The heat generated by this activity
eventually reaches the ignition temperature of the fuel itself. The
result contained explosion forces the piston back to the bottom of
the cylinder, and the process repeats over and over again. The
drive train converts energy into mechanical action that causes the
vehicle to move.
5. Nuclear – nuclear energy is the product of the splitting of fusing
atomic particles (fission or fusion, respectively). The tremendous
heat energy in a nuclear power plant produces steam for turbines.
When more heat is produced than is lost (transferred), there is
positive heat balance. When more heat is lost that is produced,
there is a negative heat balance.

8
Heat Transfer
There are only three ways to transfer heat: conduction, convection,
and radiation.

Conduction – refers to the transfer of heat by molecular activity

within a material or medium, usually a solid. If you touch a hot stove, the
pain you feel is the first result of conducted heat passing from the stove
directly to your hand. Direct conduct is the underlying factor in heat
transferred through conduction.

In a structural fire, superheated pipes, steel girders, and other

structural members such as walls and floors may conduct enough heat to
initiate fire in other areas of the structure.
Convection – heat transfer by convection is chiefly responsible for
the spread of fire in the structures. Convection entails the transfer of heat
by a circulating medium, usually air or liquid. The superheated gases
evolved from the fire are lighter than air, and consequently, rise. As they
travel and collect in the upper reaches of the structure, they can and do
initiate additional damage. In large fires or BLEVE (Boiling Liquid
Evaporation Explosion), the high fireball that accompanies the incident is
referred to as a firestorm and is an example for convicted heat.

Radiation – radiated heat moves in waves and rays much like

sunlight or X-rays. Radiated heat (energy) travels at the same speed as
visible light: 186,000 miles per second. It is primarily responsible for the
exposure hazard and develops and exists during a fire. Heat waves travel
in a direct or straight line from their source until they strike an object. The
heat that collects on the surface of the object or building in the path of the
heat waves is subsequently absorbed into its mass through conduction.

9
 2. Oxygen – a colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions of
air which is approximately 21% by volume.

Oxygen sources:
1. 21% of normal oxygen
2. 78% of nitrogen
3. 1% of other gases
4. 12% - no fire
5. 14% - flash point
6. 21% - fire point

Oxygen and Oxidation

For combustion (specifically oxidation) to take place, combustible
fuel and an oxidizing agent (oxygen) must come together. The air we
breathe is 21% oxygen. If the oxygen levels drop below 15% a fire may be
extinguished in time or literally smothered, due to a lack of oxygen. This is
an example of an oxygen-regulated fire.
Certain unusual fuel, due to their chemical composition, does not
follow this basic rule. For example, pyroxylin plastics (e.g. cellulose nitrate,
used in lacquer coatings and monoxide asphyxiation is the adhesives)
contain enough oxygen to maintain decomposition, (smoldering) or even
partial combustion in the absence of additional oxygen in the air. Other
exceptions include sodium nitrate, potassium chloride, potassium nitrate,
and ammonium nitrate fertilizer.
The production of carbon monoxide is very common at most fire
scenes; carbon monoxide asphyxiation is the primary cause of death in
fatal fires. Carbon monoxide is also a fuel with an ignition temperature of
1128 F, and is the likely cause of most back drafts or smoke explosion.

3. Fuel – Any substance which reacts chemically with oxygen and

produces flames.

Fuel Sources:
1. Solid – molecules are closely packed together
2. Liquid – molecules are loosely packed
3. Gas – molecules are free to moved

10
 Common types of solids:
a. Bulky – coal, wood, wax, and grease
b. Finely divided – plastic, paper, cork and leather
c. Dust – saw dust, sugar, grain, and others

Common types of gases:

a. Natural gas
b. Propane
c. Butane
d. Hydrogen
e. Acetylene
f. Carbon monoxide and others

Common types of liquid:

a. Gasoline
b. Kerosene
c. Turpentine
d. Alcohol
e. Cod liver oil
f. Paint
g. Varnish
h. Lacquer
i. Olive oil

Fire Tetrahedron
The triangle theory describes the three elements of a fire as shown
in Figure 1. Another explanation of the requirement of combustion uses a
four-side figure called tetrahedron as shown in Figure 2. Both theories are
used to explain what causes fire. The fourth element of the tetrahedron
explanation is known as chemical reactivity, or chemical reaction.

11
 Figure 2: Fire Tetrahedron Theory

Figure 3: Chemical Chain Reaction

For Combustion to occur, four elements are necessary:
1. Oxygen (oxidizing agent)
2. Fuel
3. Heat
4. Self-sustaining chemical reaction

These elements can be graphically described as the fire

tetrahedron. Each element of the tetrahedron must be in place for
combustion to occur. This theory is extremely important to students of fire
suppression, prevention, and investigation. Removing any one of the four
elements combustion will not occur. If ignition has already started, the fire
is extinguished, if one of the elements is removed from the reaction.

When a fuel is heated, it gives off vapor which if mixed with the
correct amount of air, can then be ignited by a heat source. Figure 3
shows you the formation of fire according to the tetrahedron concept. The
pan filled with liquid fuel as an example shown in this figure must give off
vapors before it can ignite. The vapor area is close to the fuel. As the
temperature of the liquid fuel rises, the molecules separate, or break down
into elements of hydrogen atoms, carbon atoms, and lighter hydrocarbon
molecules causing these particles to react with the oxygen of the

12
surrounding air. In this area, the oxygen is introduced and begins to mix
these particles, and the reaction starts. This is the reaction area.

Fuel and its Physical State

Fuel is matter, and matter exists in three physical states: gas,
liquid, and solid. Solids melt to become liquids, and these may vaporize
and become gases.
The basic rule, unusual conditions, and circumstances
notwithstanding, is that at high enough temperatures, all fuel can be
converted to gases. Gasoline as a liquid does not burn; it is the vapors
rising from the liquid that burns. Likewise, wood, the most common solid
fuel, is not itself decompose, yielding other flammable vapors.

Gas
Gaseous fuels are those in which molecules are in rapid movement
and random motion. They have no definite shape or volume and assume
the shape and volume of their container. Other properties include
compressibility, expandability, and diffusion.
Diffusion is the uniform distribution, seemingly in contradiction to
the laws of gravity, of molecules of one substance through those of
another. The rate at which gas diffuses is inversely proportional to the
square root of its density. (Graham’s Law)
Permeability means that other substances may pass through or
permeate a gas.

Liquid
Liquid, like gases, assume the shape of their containers and may
diffuse. Unlike gases, they have a definite volume (though they may be
compressed slightly).
Liquid exhibits a free surface and, if left to stand uncovered, will
evaporate, evaporation occurs when individual molecules of the liquids
escape as gas into the surrounding atmosphere. An increase in
temperature will cause an increase in the rate of evaporation and,
consequently, an increase in the vapor pressure. The temperature at

13
which a liquid turns into a gas by producing continuous vapor bubbles is
called its boiling point.
Flash point temperature at which a liquid gives off enough vapor
(gas) to form an ignitable mixture (that is, a mixture within the explosive
range).
Fire point temperature at which a liquid produces vapors that will
sustain combustion. This is several degrees higher than the flash point.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) defines a
flammable liquid.

Solid
Solids have a definite shape and volume. A solid fuel’s
combustibility is directly affected by the size and configuration of its mass.
Finely divided, powdered fuels differ in combustibility from bulky or large-
dimension solid fuels because of the obvious difference in their masses;
the larger the mass of the solid fuel, the greater the potential loss due to
conduction.
The temperature at which a solid turns into liquid is called its
melting point. A solid (other than an explosive) that is likely to ignite due to
friction is called a flammable solid.

Pyrolysis – is the chemical decomposition of matter through the

action of heat. This decomposition may take place in the absence of
oxygen, and the vapors released may include both combustible and
noncombustible gases.

Pyrolyzable – solid fuels include many of the ordinarily accepted

solid combustible: wood, paper, and so on. The vapors released by their
chemical decomposition support flaming combustion. This exemplifies a
gas-to-gas reaction: the vapors released mix with oxygen in the air to
produce a flame.

Nonpyrolyzable – solid fuels are difficult to ignite. A common

example is charcoal. The liquid charcoal lighter that people commonly use
to start their barbeque is necessary to raise the temperature so that the
surface fuel will interact directly with the oxygen in the air. Chemical

14
decomposition does not occur because there are no pyrolyzable elements
present. No vapors are released. The glowing combustion that results is
an example of a gas-to-solid reaction.

Components/Elements of the Fire Tetrahedron:

1. Oxygen (Oxidizing Agent) – Oxidizing agents are those materials

that yield oxygen or other oxidizing gases during the process of a
chemical reaction. Oxidizers are not themselves combustible, but they
support combustion when combined with fuel. For purposes of discussion,
the oxygen in the air in the surrounding area is considered the primary
oxidizing agent.

2. Fuel (Reducing Agent) – Fuel is the material or substance being

burned in the combustion process. In scientific terms, the fuel in a
combustion reaction is known as the reducing agent. Most common fuels
contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxygen.

3. Heat (Temperature) – Heat is the energy component of the fire

tetrahedron. When the heat comes in contact with fuel, the energy
supports the combustion process.

Combustion Reaction/Process:
- Causes pyrolysis or vaporization of solid and liquid fuels and the
production of ignitable vapors or gases;
- Provides the energy necessary for ignition;
- Causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or
gases to continue the combustion reaction.

Types of Energy: (Common Sources of Heat)

1. Chemical energy – It is the most common source of heat in

combustion reactions. When any combustibles is in contact with

15
 oxygen oxidation occurs. The reaction of this process results in the
production of heat. Examples: Heat generated from a burning
match, self-heating (spontaneous heating)
2. Electrical Energy – Electrical energy can generate temperatures
high enough to ignite any combustible materials near the heated
area.

Factors involving Electrical Heating:

- Current flow through a resistance
- Overcurrent or overloading
- Arcing
- Sparking
- Static
- Lightning

3. Nuclear Energy – Nuclear heat energy is generated when atoms

either split apart (fission) or combine (fusion). Examples:
a. Fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce
electricity
b. The solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction (a form
of nuclear energy)

4. Mechanical Energy – An energy created by friction and

compression.

- Heat of Friction is the movement of two surfaces against each

other. This movement produced sparks being generated.
- Heat of Compression heat is generated when a gas is
compressed in a container or cylinder

16
 Figure 4: Mechanical Heat Energy

5. Self-Sustained Chemical Reaction (the fourth element) –

combustion is a complex reaction that requires a fuel (gaseous or
vapor state), an oxidizer, and heat to combine in a very specific
way. Once flaming starts, it can only continue when enough heat or
energy is produced to cause the continued chain reaction. Chain
reaction is a series of events that occur in sequence with the results
of each reaction being added to the rest.

Figure 5: Combustion a self-sustaining chemical reaction may be

slow or very fast

Combustion
Fire and combustion – are terms that are often used
interchangeably. Technically speaking, fire is a form of combustion.
Combustion is a self-sustaining chemical reaction producing energy or
products that cause more reactions of the same kind. Combustion is an
exothermic reaction. Fire is a rapid, self-sustaining oxidization process
accompanied by the release of heat and light of intensities. The time it
makes a reaction to occur determines the type of reaction that is
observed.

17
Product of Combustion
Four (4) Categories of products of combustion:

1. Fire gases – those that remain when other products of combustion

cool to normal temperature. Common combustibles contain carbon,
which forms carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide when burned. Other
fire gases include hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen
cyanide, nitrous and nitric oxide, phosgene, and hydrogen chloride.

The fire gases that form depend on the chemical composition of the
fuel, the percent of oxygen present, and the temperature of the fire.

The records of fatal fires show that more people died from inhaling
these super-heated and toxic gases than from any other cause.

The complete combustion of fuels containing carbon will produce

CO2, but seldom will there be enough oxygen for complete combustion.
When only part of the carbon is oxidized, carbon monoxide is formed.
While carbon monoxide is not the most toxic fire gas, it causes more
deaths than any other because it robs the body of oxygen.

It burns rapidly when combined with oxygen at high temperature,

causing dangerous backdraft explosions. Carbon monoxide, which is also
produced by slow oxidation, is found in sewers cavers, well, mines, stoves
furnaces and automobile exhaust.

Types of Poisonous Gases:

1. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) – a fire gas formed during fires
involving organic material containing sulfur, such as: rubber,
hair, wood, meat, and hides. It is colorless, highly toxic gas with
the strong odor of rotten eggs. Exposure for even a short time is
dangerous. It will ignite at 500 degrees F (260 degrees C).
2. Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) – a toxic fire gas found in oxygen-
starve fires involving nitrogen-containing materials such as
wool, silk, urethane, polymides, and acrylics. This gas is also
used as a fumigant which can pose serious danger to

18
 firefighters working in recently fumigated buildings. Hydrogen
cyanide smells like bitter almonds which may not be easily
detected.
3. Hydrogen Chloride (HCL) – a gas which can be fatal after only a
few breaths is produced in fires involving chloride-containing
plastic. Plastics can be found anywhere; from furnishings to
electrical insulation, conduit and piping’s.

2. Flame Define

It is luminous body of burning gas which gets hotter and less

luminous when mixed with more oxygen. Flame fades when carbon burns
completely, so flame is considered a product of incomplete combustion.
It is the manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased
combustion.

Types of Flames:
A. According to color and completeness of combustions
1. Luminous flame – a reddish-orange in color it deposits soot
because it is a product of incomplete combustion; it has lower
temperature.
2. Non-luminous flame – bluish in color; it does not deposit soot
because it is a product of complete combustion; it has a higher
temperature than luminous flame.
B. According to Burning Fuel and Air Mixture:
1. Premixed flame – example of a Bunsen burner
2. Diffusion flame – example of flame of the oxyacetylene torch
(diffused-dispersed, widely spread).
C. Base on Smoothness:
1. Laminar flame – (smooth flame) flame is laminar when a particle
follows a smooth path through a gaseous flame.
2. Turbulent flame – (rough flame) those having unsteady,
irregular swirls and eddies.

Nature of Fire

19
 Even the most flammable materials (capable of being easily ignited)
do not actually burn. The vapor given off by a material is the part that
burns. When a piece of wood is ignited, the fire is not from the burning
wood, rather, from the vapors that are given off by the wood. The heat
causes the substance in the wood to vaporize. The heated vapors mix
quickly with oxygen in the air and fire results. This process is known as
Pyrolysis.

Pyrolysis defines
It refers to the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most
solid part of the fuel. It is thermal decomposition of a solid fuel through the
action of heat.

Figure 6: Pyrolysis

The Process of Pyrolysis involves the following:

1. The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point;
2. Decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is converted to
vapor;
3. Decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the
surface of the fuel. These combustible vapors are technically
termed as free radicals;
4. Free-radicals undergo combustion of proper amount of oxygen is
present.

The most common type of free-radicals – (combustible vapors)

1. Hydrogen gas
2. Carbon monoxide
3. Carbon dioxide

20
 4. Nitrogen
Most fires will involve incomplete combustion, producing CO and
carbon particles along with heat, water vapor, and CO2.
A fire involving material other than hydrocarbons and oxygen will
produce combustion products composed of the atoms and molecules
forming the material together with the oxidizer used for the support of the
combustion. This is the reason a poisonous fuel may give off poisonous
fumes and smoke.

3. Heat define
A form of energy measured in degree of temperature; it is the
product of combustion that spread the fire. It causes burns and other
injuries such as dehydration, heat exhaustion, and respiratory tract
injuries. Heat, oxygen depletion and carbon monoxide formation are the
primary hazard in fires.
Energy transferred from one body to another when the
temperatures of the bodies differ. Heat is the most common form of
energy found on earth. Temperature is an indicator of heat and is measure
the warmth or coldness of an object based on some standard. In most
cases of present, the standard used is based on the freezing (32 degrees
F and 0 degrees C), and boiling points (212 degrees F and 100 degrees
C) of water. Temperature is measured using degrees Celsius (8C) in SI
and degrees Fahrenheit (“F) in the customary system.

Figure 7: Comparison of Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales

4. Smoke define
It is the visible product of incomplete combustion, usually a mixture
of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, finely divided particles of soot and

21
carbon, and miscellaneous assortment of product released from the
burning material.

Figure 8: Products of Combustion

Properties of Fire:

A. Physical Properties

1. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the weight of a solid or substance

to the weight of an equal volume of water.
2. Vapor Density – the weight of a volume of pure gas compared to
the weight of a volume of dry air at the same temperature and
pressure.
3. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the
surface of the liquid at equilibrium.
4. Temperature – the measure of thermal degree of the agitation of
molecules of a given substance; the measure of the molecular
activity within a substance.
5. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

22
 6. Ignition Temperature or Kindling Temperature – the minimum
temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in
order to initiate or cause self-contained combustion without the
addition of heat from outside sources.
7. Fire Point – the temperature at which the material will give off
ample vapors to keep burning. There is usually about 5 to 10
degrees difference between the flashpoint and the firepoint of
most materials. Since these two are just a few degrees apart.
8. Flashpoint – the temperature at which a material is not hot
enough to keep burning, but still gives off enough vapors to
cause a flame to “flash” across the surface. The term “flashpoint”
is used to express the condition of a fuel vaporizing, whether or
not it is vaporizing fast enough to keep burning.

B. Chemical Properties:

1. Endothermic Reaction – are changes whereby energy (heat) is

absorbed or is added before the reaction takes place.
2. Exothermic Reaction – reaction or changes that release or give
off energy than the reactants
3. Oxidation – a chemical change in which combustible material
(fuel) and an oxidizing agent react.
4. Combustion/Flame – the manifestation of fire when the fire is in
its gas-phased combustion. A matter that is produced by fire.

Vapor Density:

The term used to explain the weight of vapors is “vapor density”. In

order to measure the weight of these vapors we usually compare them to
air, which is considered to have a vapor density of 1.00. Therefore, if we
say that a substance has a vapor density of 1.5, it means that it is on and
a half times as heavy as air, weighting only 7/10 as much as an equal
volume of air.

23
 Figure 9:
Vapor Density

The following chart list the Vapor Density (air = 1) for some of the
more common flammable materials:

Materials Vapor Density

Acetylene 0.9
Butane 2.0
Gasoline 3-4
Hydrogen 0.1
JP-4 3.0
Kerosene 3.0
Propane 1.6

PHASES OF BURNING / THE THREE STAGES OF FIRE:

The methods firefighters use to extinguish a fire will depend largely

on the phase in which they find the fire.

Factors to be considered in determining phases of burning:

1. The amount of time the fire has burned;
2. The ventilation characteristics of the confining structure; and
3. The amount and type of combustibles present.

24
 Figure 10:
Incipient Phase

Fires generally have three (3) progressive stages based on the

above factors:

1. Incipient/Beginning phase – it is the initial stage of fire.

Characteristics:
a. Normal room temperature
b. Oxygen plentiful
c. Thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point.
d. Flame temperature of 1000 degrees F
e. Producing pyrolysis products: ( CO2, CO, SO2, water
vapor, & other gases)

2. Free-Burning Phase – the second phase of burning in which materials

or structures are burning in the presence of adequate oxygen.

Characteristics:
a. Fire has involved more fuel
b. Oxygen supply is depleted
c. Heat accumulates at upper area
d. Temperature exceeds 1,300 degrees F (705 degrees C)

25
 e. Area is fully involved

Figure 11: Free-Burning Phase

3. Smoldering Phase - the final phase of burning wherein flame ceases

but dense smoke and heat completely fill the confines room.

Characteristics:
a. Flames may die and leave only glowing embers or super-
heated fuel under pressure with little oxygen.
b. Intense heat will vaporize lighter fuel components, such as
hydrogen and methane, increasing the hazard.
c. Temperature throughout the building is very high and
normal breathing is not possible.
d. Oxygen deficiency may cause backdraft.

26
 Figure 12: Smoldering Phase

Backdraft

Firefighters operating at fires in buildings must use precautionary

measures when opening a building to gain entry, by providing ventilation
either by horizontal/cross ventilation (opening doors or windows) or
vertical ventilation (opening a hole at the highest portion of the affected
part of the building). As the fire grows in a confine area, large volumes of
hot, unburned fire gases can collect in unventilated spaces. These gases
may be at or above their ignition temperature but have insufficient oxygen
available to actually ignite. Any action taken during firefighting operations
that allows air to mix with these hot gases can result in an explosive
ignition called backdraft (See figure 14).

The danger for backdraft can be minimized with proper application

of vertical ventilation causing the unburned gases rise and release through
the opening before an entry is made.

27
Conditions that indicate the danger for backdraft
a. Pressurized smoke exiting small openings
b. Black smoke becoming dense gray yellow
c. Confinement and excessive heat
d. Little or no visible flame
e. Smoke leaving the building in puffs or at intervals
f. Smoke-stained windows

Figure 13: Pre-backdraft

Figure 14: Backdraft

Flashover
Flashover occurs when a room or other area is heated enough that
flames sweep over the entire surface. Firefighters originally believed that

28
combustible gases released during the early stages of the fire cause
flashover by collecting at the ceiling and mixing air until they burst into
flames.

Combustible material is grouped into one of four classifications.

These classes of fuel help to simplify firefighting methods and techniques.

Classification of Fire

By knowing the classes of fire a certain will fall into, you will be able
to make intelligent firefighting decisions.

A. Based on Cause:
1. Natural fire
2. Accident fire
3. Intentional fire

B. Based on Burning Fuel

Figure 15: Class A Material

Four (4) Classes of Fire

1. Class A – Materials involving vegetable fibers, wood, paper

straw, grain, and grass; combustible minerals such as coal and coke.
Nearly all thrash fires are considered as Class A.

2. Class B – Materials including petroleum products such as

gasoline, fuel oils, lubricating oils, and greases; animal fats such as butter,
lard, and tallow; vegetable extracts such as alcohol, linseed oil, and
turpentine; vegetable compounds such as shortenings and
oleomargarines; natural gases and compressed gases such as butane,
propane, hydrogen and acetylene.

29
 Figure 16: Class B Material
3. Class C – This type of fire involves electrical motors, electrical
appliances and apparatus. Actually a Class C fire is composed usually of
Class A and B materials or a combination of both. Use of water is usually
dangerous because of the risk of electrical shock.

Figure 17: Class C Material

30
 4. Class D – These are materials involving combustible metals,
alloys, or metal compounds either in a solid, semi-solid or liquid state.
They may further reduce in shaving, grinding, granules, or dust. Some
liquid metals are kept in a liquid state under pressure. Usually, these liquid
metals are extremely dangerous. Some of the more titanium, sodium
potassium, and uranium as well as pyrophoric organometallic reagents
such as alkylithiums, grignards and diethylzinc. These types of materials
burn at high temperatures and will react violently with water, air, and or
other chemicals.

Figure 18: Class D Material

5. Class K – These are materials involved in the kitchen fires. This

classification was added to the NFPA portable extinguishers Standard in
1998.

Figure 19: Class K Material

31
 Figure 19.1: An extinguisher with this label is suitable for Class A
fires, but not suitable for Class B and C fires

Figure 19.2: The “picture-symbol” marking system for an

extinguisher intended for Class B and C fires, but not for Class A
fires

Figure 19.3: An extinguisher with this marking is suitable both for

Class A, B, and C fires

Spontaneous Heating

Spontaneous heating and spontaneous ignition start as result of a

chemical reaction within the material – a reaction independent of any
outside source of heat. Spontaneous heating begins a cycle of oxidation

32
that builds up heat very slowly in its first stage. The condition that builds
up temperature high enough to cause ignition is called spontaneous
heating. At this point, it becomes spontaneous ignition. In most materials
this process develops slowly and does not reach its ignition point for days
or even weeks; consequently, fires may break out today that were actually
started days before. Usually there is enough air to allow oxidation, but not
enough air to carry the heat from the area. Some of the common materials
that may spontaneously heated and ignited are animal oils, mixed fish oils,
linseed oil, coal, coke, charcoal, sawdust, grain and cotton.

Propagation of Fire

Propagation of fire simply means the spread of fire. As a substance

burns, fire propagation will be increased by the transmission of heat by
nearby materials. This condition causes additional vapors to be released
thereby spreading the fire.

Types of Heat Transmission:

1. Conduction – it is the transmission of heat through an
object/medium or conductor, such as pipe, metal, hot-air duct, wire or
even wall.

33
 Figure 20: Conduction

2. Radiation – the transmission through the discharge and spread

of heat from a heated or burning source. This radiation takes place
through space that cause another flammable object to ignite.

Figure 21: Radiation & Convection

3. Convection – is the transmission of heat by the moving currents

of liquid or gas. When these gases or liquids are heated, they start to
move within themselves; and by their free motion, circulation starts.

4. Flame Contact – Heat may be conducted from one body to

another by direct flame contact. Fire spreads along or through burning
material by flame contact. When a material is heated to the point where
flammable vapors are released, the vapors may be ignited. Any other
flammable material may be heated to its ignition temperature by direct
contact with the flame or burning vapors.

34
 Figure 22: Direct Flame Contact

Intensity of Fire

Intensity of fire means simply “how hot the fire is burning”. Some
types of fuels naturally burn hotter (more intensity) than others. For
example, a gasoline fire burns hotter than a wood fire, while an acetylene
flame is hotter than a gasoline flame.

Factors to determine the intensity of fire:

1. Type of fuel
2. Percentage of oxygen present

Explosive Limits

The term “explosive limits” means the amount (expressed in

percent) of fuel vapor that can be mixed with air to form and explosive or
flammable mixture. If less that this amount is used, the mixture will not
burn. This is known as “lean” to burn. If more than this amount is used, the
mixture is called to “rich” and will not burn.

There is a minimum proportion of vapor-to-air below which the

vapor will not burn and there is also a maximum proportion of vapor-to-air
above which the vapor will not burn. The minimum (lower) and maximum
(upper) limits of the proportion of vapor-to-air in which the mixture will
ignite or explode are known as the lower and upper explosive limits.

Magnitude of Fire

The Magnitude of fire means the size of a fire, and it is governed by

the surface area of fuel exposed to the air. The magnitude of fire is not
always determined by the amount of fuel involved but more often buy the
amount of fuel
exposed to the air.

35
 Figure 23: Magnitude of Fire

Flashpoint

The temperature at which the material is not enough to keep

burning, but still gives off enough vapors to cause a flame to “flash” across
the surface.
Firepoint

The temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to
keep burning. There is usually about 5 to 10 degrees difference between
the flashpoint and firepoint of most materials. Since the two are just a few
degrees apart, the term “flashpoint” is used to express the condition of a
fuel vaporizing, whether or not it is vaporizing fast enough to keep burning.

Ignition Temperature

Ignition temperature is the degree of heat necessary to ignite

flammable vapors. This temperature can come from an external source
(match, spark, and friction): or if the fuel itself is raised to this temperature,
auto-ignition (self-ignition) will occur.

The following are explosive limits (percent by volume in air) for

some of the more common fuels:
FUEL LOWER LIMITS UPPER LIMIT
Acetylene 2.5% 80.0%
Butane 1.9% 8.5%
Gasoline 1.4% to 1.5% 7.4% to 7.6%
Hydrogen 4.0% 75.0%

36
 JP-4 1.3% 6.5%
Propane 2.2% 9.5%

The following are the Flashpoint and Ignition Temperature for some
of the more common fuels.

FUEL FLASHPOINT IGNITION

TEMPERATURE
60 to 80 Octane – 45
Gasoline 536-700 degrees F
degrees F
JP-4 30 degrees F 468 degrees F
Kerosene 100 degrees F 444 degrees F
Cleaning Solvents 100-110 degrees F 450 degrees F
Approx. 250-300
Paper Approx. 475 degrees F
degrees F
Approx. 350-400
Wood Approx. 750 degrees F
degrees F

Oxidation
In nearly all fires, oxidation takes place by using the oxygen that is
present in the atmosphere. However, in some cases, certain chemical
compounds known as oxidizing agents are involved. Though not
flammable themselves, when they are heated or when they come in
contact with water, they give off oxygen which in turn, supports the
burning of flammable materials.

Figure 24: Rate of Oxidation

37
The more common Oxidizing Agents:
1. Nitrates
2. Chlorates
3. Peroxide

If a small quantity of potassium chlorate is added to a pile of sugar,

flour, or starch, and heat is applied, the mixture will burst into flame and
burn violently. Without the addition of the oxidizing agent, these fuels
would be extremely slow in igniting.

Exercises (Lesson 1.1)

1. What are oxidizing agents and what effects do they have of fire?
2. What are the more common oxidizing agents?
3. In a confine room, where would you find the coldest air; Why?
4. The fire tetrahedron differs from the triangle, in that a fourth
element has been added. What is the added elements?
5. What is the composition of a typical poisonous smoke?
6. Spontaneous heating and spontaneous ignition start as a result
of what actions?
7. Fire propagation will be increased by what actions?
8. Other than the type of fuel involved, what factor has a bearing on
the intensity of fire?
9. The magnitude of fire is governed by what factor?
10. What will happen if the temperature of a fuel is raised to its
ignition temperature?
11. What cause any flammable substance to burn?
12. At what levels would you expect to find fuel vapors having the
following densities: a.) 0.1 b.) 1.35 c.) 0.29
13. The term “firepoint” is used to express what condition?
14. Explain the nature of fire
15. What is oxidation?

38
Lesson 1.2 – Fire Suppression, Control and Extinguishment, and
extinguishing Agents

Objectives: At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. Understand the fire suppression, control and extinguishment;

and

2. Discuss the methods of fire extinguishment and how it works.

The proper selection of an agent or method of control or

extinguishment is the most important factor in determining the degree of a
success of a firefighting operation.

39
 Fire Suppression – means slowing down the rate of burning,
whereas, control means keeping the fire from spreading or holding the fire
to one area. Extinguishment is putting the fire completely out.

Four Methods of Fire Extinguishment and how it Works

Extinguishing a fire is somewhat comparable to the elimination of

life. For example, the cooling of the fire may be compared to asphyxiation
(elimination of the oxygen supply), and the separation may be compared
with malnutrition or starvation. The tetrahedron concept adds a fourth
element chemical reaction.

Under the triangle-of-fire-concept, there are three (3) ways of

suppressing, controlling, and extinguishing a fire, namely:

1. Cooling – the cooling process uses an extinguishing agent whose

primary characteristic is heat absorption. Water is the best general cooling
agent for firefighting purposes. Used on Class A fires, the water absorbs
the heat generated at the surface of the burning material, thus, reducing
the temperature of the material below its flash point. Water can be also
used on Class B fires, which include flammable petroleum products. As
with a Class A fires, the water absorbs much of heat, reducing the
vaporization rate of the liquid fuel. This is the most noticeable in a fire
involving lubricating oil, whose flashpoint is between 300 to 450 degrees
F. It is of less value in a fire involving gasoline, with its flashpoint at 45
degrees F. Water could never cool gasoline below its flashpoint. The
extinguishing ability of the water is broken into fine particles to accelerate
heat absorption.

Figure 25: Cooling Method of Extinguishment

40
2. Smothering – excludes the oxygen from the fuel so that the gases or
vapors of the fuel cannot ignite and continue the combustion. CO2 and
AFFF are used for this purpose.

Figure 26: Smothering Method

3. Separation – the removal of the fuel, as in the example of turning off a

valve in a gas line prevents the fuel and oxygen from coming together. If
fuel is not available, then heat, regardless of the temperature, cannot
affect the fuel, therefore, there is no fire.

Figure 27: Separation or Starvation Method

These three methods of extinguishment explain how fires are

extinguished with the used of water, CO2, and foam. They do not entirely
account for the results obtained by vaporizing liquids or dry chemicals.

Vaporizing liquids could not possibly absorb enough heat to have

the same effect as water, and dry chemical do not exclude sufficient
oxygen to smother a fire in the same manner as carbon dioxide.

41
 The next paragraph will explain the fourth elements, the chemistry
of fire in terms of the theory of reactivity.

4. Chemical Chain Reaction – the fourth method of extinguishment is

known as inhibition or the interruption of chemical reaction.

Figure 28: Chemical Inhibition/Interruption

The sequence of events in suppressing or extinguishing a fire with

dry chemicals or vaporizing liquids includes some aspects of the first three
methods.
Using the potassium bicarbonate (dry chemical) as an example,
you can follow the process of the process of the fourth method of
extinguishment. Remember this s a rapid reaction and does not
necessarily happen one step at a time, as shown in Figure 28.

First, the heat of the fire vaporizes the potassium bicarbonate

thereby producing water, carbon dioxide, and potassium dioxide. In the
process of vaporization and the change of these compounds, a substantial
amount of heat is absorbed by the water and some smothering occurs due
to the release of CO2.

Second, the chemical reaction resulting when the potassium

dioxide unites with the water formed by the fire creates an amount of
potassium hydroxide.

Third, some potassium hydroxide reacts with certain products

release from the fuel, thus forming water and potassium monoxide. Other
potassium hydroxide molecules react with the free hydrogen of the
combustion to form a potassium atom and molecules of water.

42
 Finally, this combination of reactions halts the process of fuel
uniting with oxygen of the air, thereby breaking the chemical chain
reaction and stopping the fire.

Figure 29: Extinguishing Chemical Chain Reaction

Extinguishing Agents
The effectiveness of an extinguisher on a particular fire depends on
the amount and type of agent in the extinguisher. Different extinguishing
agents can be used to put out a certain class of fire by one or more
methods.
1. Removing oxygen;
2. Removing the fuel;
3. Removing heat; and
4. Interrupting the chemical chain reaction.

Some extinguishing may be able to extinguish more than one class

of fire. They are marked with multiple letters or multiple numerical-letter
ratings.

The following are the most common extinguishing agents, the class
of fire they are used, and the extinguishing methods used:

1. Water – used only on Class A fires. Water is the most effective in

cooling the burning material below its ignition temperature. It is the most
commonly used agent in firefighting.

43
 In its natural state, it is highly stable and may be used to its
conductive properties, water should not be used on electrical fires.

Additives:
There are many additives for water used in firefighting. Each of
these has specific purpose and effect on the water.

Ways or Methods Water Extinguishers Fires

Cooling – The outstanding heat absorbing qualities of water make

it an excellent cooling agent. In the cooling process water is applied in
large enough amounts to reduce the temperature of the surface of the
burning material to below its flashpoint. The amount of water required
depends on the burning material (temperature) and the manner in which
water is applied (straight or fog stream).
Smothering – When water is used to smother a fire, stream must
be generated in sufficient amounts to exclude or displaced air. If the steam
generated is confined in the combustion zone, the smothering action will
be enhanced. In ordinary combustibles, the cooling effect of the water not
the smother-normally causes extinguishment. The smothering effect does
not completely extinguish the fire; rather, it has a tendency to suppress
flaming.

Usage – Water is generally used on Class A fires. Fires involving

high flashpoint liquids (such as heavy fuel oil, and asphalt) may be
extinguished when water is effectively applied in spray form. Water may
also be used to extinguish Class C and Class D fires in some cases. In
these cases, used extreme caution to avoid injury to personnel and or
damage to equipment.

2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) – A number of its properties make CO2 a

desirable extinguishing agent. It is non-combustible and non-reactive with
most substances. CO2 provides its pressure for discharge from storage
cylinders or extinguishers. Being a gas, CO2 can penetrate and spread to
all parts of fire.
Effects:

44
 Extinguishment with CO 2 is primarily by smothering. It covers or
blankets the burning materials and reduces the oxygen content to below
levels needed for combustion. Even though it is very cold, it has little
cooling effect on a fire when compared with equal amounts of water. This
is the reason when fires that have been apparently extinguished with CO2
re-ignite from hot surfaces or embers as the CO 2 dissipates.

Usage:

Due to its non-conductivity, CO2 is very effective for use on Class

C fires. It is also used on Class B fires, but another agent is needed in
blanketing or smothering on large are fires to prevent re-ignition.
CO2 can cause unconsciousness and death in connections needed
for extinguishment. A 9% concentratio0n is about all most people can take
without becoming unconscious within just few minutes.
3. Dry Chemical – The dry chemical extinguishing agents in use today
are mixture of powders and various additives that improve the storage,
flow, and water repellency of the powders. Sodium bicarbonate, potassium
bicarbonate, and mono ammonium phosphate are some of the powders
commonly used today. Dry chemical is stable at low temperature, but it
has an upper storage temperature of 140 F. At temperatures above 140 F
some caking or sticking of the powder occurs. These agents are said to be
non-toxic, but in discharging large amounts they may cause some
breathing and visibility problems.

Effects:
Flames banish almost at once dry chemical is applied directly to the
fire area. But the exact chemistry and mechanism of the extinguishing
agent are not fully known. It has been suggested that the dry chemical
agents inhibits the certain reaction in the combustion zone has a greater
effect in the extinguishment than the smothering or cooling actions and
radiation shielding have.

Usage:
There are two basic types of Dry Chemical:

45
 a. Ordinary and Regular Dry Chemical – generally refer to those
powders that are intended for use on Class B or Class C fires.

b. Multi-purpose Dry Chemical – refers to powders listed for use on

Class A, B, C fires.

Be careful not to confuse ordinary, regular, or multi-purpose dry

chemical with “dry powder”.

4. Dry Powder – Dry powder is a generally term for agents used to

extinguish combustible metal fires. No one dry powder has been found to
be effective on all types of combustible metals.

Effects:
Dry powder generally extinguishes fires by excluding air from the
combustible metal. To some extent, heat is absorbed by the powder to
lower the temperature of the metal to below ignition point (as with G.I.
powder).

Usage:
Dry powder is used primarily on Class D fires and should not be
used on other types of fire, due to its limited value on these fires.

5. AFFF – Aqueous Film Forming Foam has replaced protein foam for all
around firefighting purposes. Protein base foam is now used primarily for
runway foaming operations and for some training purposes.

Effects:
The quick “knock-down” and “heat reduction” properties of AFFF
have proven it to be a highly effective agent. These properties, combined
with its ability to seal the surface of burning hydrocarbon fires it prevent
“flashback”, make it an outstanding and effective extinguishing agent with
which to work. When AFFF is applied to the surface of a flammable liquid

46
fire, the surface-active material (surfactant) provides a vapor sealing
effect. This is not only extinguishing the fire but also prevents the release
of fuel vapors which could result in flashbacks. This vapor seal is also very
hard to break-up by walking, or moving some hose lines through it.

Usage:
As with any other extinguishing agent, its effectiveness depends on
the proper application. The AFFF is designed to be applied at a 6%
mixture (94 parts water to 6 parts AFFF concentrate). This mixture should
be applied in a rainfall manner, or lobbing effect to allow rapid spreading
over the surface. It is used primarily to extinguish on Class B fires. It may
be used in Class A fires but may be less effective than plain water. Foam
spray (fog) is more conductive than plain water fog, because the material
contained in the foam allows the water to conduct electricity.

6. Halon (Halogenated Agents) – These agents have been used for over
50 years. Continuous research has brought these agents to the present
high degree of effectiveness in interrupting the chain reaction they
possess along with a decrease in life safety hazard.

The older (better known) agents such a carbon tetra-chloride

(Halon 104) and Chlorobromomethane (Halon 1011) are less effective and
more than the newer agents now in use.

Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluoromethane) is a gas at normal

temperature, but with the relatively high boiling point (+25 F), requires
pressurization to expel it at a satisfactory rate for extinguishment. Halon
1211 is discharge both partly a liquid spray and partly as a gas.
Halon 1301 (bromotrifluoromethane) is treated as a liquefied gas,
like carbon dioxide, requires no pressurizing agent expulsion at normal
temperature. Nitrogen may be added to storage containers when
temperature is below 0 F, to ensure adequate discharge pressure.

Halon 1301 is the least toxic of the Halons. This low toxicity allows
for safe discharge from total flood systems occupied spaces such as
computer rooms.

47
 Halon is a generic term for halogenated hydrocarbons and is a
chemical compound that contains carbon plus one more element from the
halogens series (fluorine chlorine, bromine or iodine).

Although a very large number of halogenated compounds exist,

only a few are used to a significant extent, only a few are used to a
significant extent as fire extinguishing agents. Halogenated vapor is a non-
conductor of electricity and is effective in fighting surface fires in such
commodities as flammable liquids, most solid combustible materials, and
electrical fires.

Effects:

Halogenated agents work chemically to extinguish fire. They stop

combustion process by breaking then fire chain reaction and prevent
further fire propagation. This chemical fire-stopping action happens with
only a low concentration of halogenated agent used. Application of the
agent may be applied locally by using a compressed bottle of non-
combustible gas similar to a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher. This type of
application is effective in controlling or extinguishing surface fires involving
flammable liquid, solids, or gases, such as dip tanks, quench tanks, spray
booths, oil-filled transformers or vapor vents.

Usage:

Halogenated agents are very effective on Class B and Class C fires

and have some effect or success on Class A fires.

Exercises: Lesson 1.2

1. How do dry powder agents extinguish fires?

2. What determines the effectiveness of 6% aqueous film forming foam on
a fire?

48
3. How Halon 1301 treated?
4. What are the advantages, if any, of the vapor-sealing effect of AFFF?
5. What factor makes such an excellent firefighting agent?
6. What determines the amount of water needed to extinguish a fire?
7. Why is pressurization needed for Halon 1211?
8. Why is carbon dioxide so effective for use in extinguishing Class C
fires?
9. What sometimes causes fires to reignite when carbon dioxide is used in
extinguishment?
10. What can happen to dry chemical agents when temperature above
140 degrees F are reached?

LESSON 1.3 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Objectives: At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. Define what is fire extinguisher;

2. Discuss the semi-portable/wheeled extinguisher;

3. Explain carbon dioxide extinguisher; and

4. Differentiate dry-chemical extinguisher and dry powder

extinguisher;

First aid is the immediate and temporary care given to an injured or

sick person before or until arrival of qualified personnel/doctor. When the
term first aid is used to describe a piece of equipment, the same general
meaning applies.

49
 Portable (first-aid) free extinguishers are designed to be used on fires
as soon as possible after start and before the fire gets too far along.
These: extinguishers may be able to extinguish the fire or hold it in check
until larger firefighting equipment arrives.

Extinguishers are designed primarily for use by people other than

firefighters. The skill and knowledge in their operation may mean the
difference between using one small fire extinguisher or a big operation
involving many fire trucks and dozens of people to extinguish a fire.

Fire Extinguisher Defined:

It is a mechanical device usually made of metal, containing

chemicals, fluid, or gases for stopping fires, the means for application of
its contents for the purpose of putting out fire

Classification of Fire Extinguishers:

Portable Fire Extinguisher

First aid firefighting equipment are essentially portable first aid

devices used to extinguish fire. The ease of handling, the ability to provide
the necessary extinguishing agent to put out the fire quickly and efficiently,
the fact the extinguisher are ready for use when needed, make the
extinguishers a necessary part of firefighting operations.

However, the extinguisher are designed to cope with fires in their

infancy and are not intended to act as substitute for automatic sprinklers,
standpipe and hose or the fire department. There are various types of first
aid fire extinguisher. Each type is of value, but all are not equally effective
upon all classes of fires.

Consideration must be given to the class of fire involved and the

proper type of extinguisher to be used. Based upon the classification of
fires extinguishment potentials as determine by fire test, portable fire

50
extinguishers are classified for use on certain classes of fires and rated for
relative extinguishing effectiveness. Fire extinguisher classification consist
of a LETTER which indicates the class of fire on which an extinguisher
has been found to be effective, preceded by a rating NUMERAL (Class A
and B only) which indicates the relative extinguishing effectiveness.

Class “A” Extinguisher – the rating NUMERAL preceding the

letter “A” indicates the size of fire to be extinguished.

Class “B” Extinguisher – the rating NUMERAL preceding the

letter “B” is a proportionate indication of the square-foot area of burning
flammable liquid of appreciative depth which a trained operator can
extinguish.

Class “C” Extinguisher – No NUMERAL is used since Class “C”

fires are essentially either Class “A” or “B” fires involving energized electric
wiring and equipment.
- The size of the different suitable extinguishers installed
should be commensurate with the size and extent of the
Class “A” and/or Class “B” components of the electrical
hazard or containing equipment being protected.

Class “D” Extinguisher – No NUMERAL is used. The relative

effectiveness of these extinguishers for use on specific combustible metal
fires is detailed on the extinguisher nameplate. This type of extinguisher is
termed only as Dry Powder.

51
 Figure 30: Types and Classes of Extinguisher
Extinguishers which are effective on more than one class of fire
have multiple LETTER and NUMERAL-LETTER classifications and
ratings. For example, an extinguisher rated and classified as 4-A: 20B: C
indicates the following:

- It should be approximately twice as much Class “A” fire a

2-A (2-1/2 gallon water) extinguisher.
- It should extinguish approximately twenty time as much
Class “B” fires as a 1-B extinguisher.
- It should extinguish approximately twenty square feet of
flammable liquid fire of appreciable depth when used by
an operator trained in the use of the specific extinguisher.
- It is suitable for use on energized electric equipment

Types and Uses of Fire Extinguishers

In accordance with fire classification, a number of fire extinguishers
have been develop for use in firefighting and fire protection. It is extremely
important that instructions regarding maintenance are fully adhered to.

Fire extinguishers must always be fully charge and in condition

which will permit efficient operation at any
moment without delay. There are numerous types
of fire extinguishers now in use, or now on the
market, hence, reference is made only to those
normally used in firefighting operations.

- Water extinguisher
- Soda-Acid extinguishers
- Foam extinguishers
- Carbon Dioxide extinguishers
- Loaded Stream extinguishers
- Dry Chemical extinguishers
- ABC Dry chemical extinguishers

52
Water Extinguishers
- These extinguishers are effective on small fires in ordinary
combustible materials such as wood, paper, textiles, rubbish, etc. (Class A
fires) where the quenching and cooling effect of water or solution
containing a large percentage of water is of first importance.
-These extinguishers are not effective in fires involving flammable
liquids, greases. Etc., in vats, tanks, open vessels, or any other Class “B”
fires where the blanketing effect is essential.
- There are four types of water extinguishers most commonly found
in the fire service:
1. Pressurized Water Extinguisher

53
2. Pump Operated Water Extinguisher

3. Cartridge Operated Water extinguisher

54
 4. Indian Fire Pump

Soda-Acid Extinguishers
-These extinguishers are effective on small fires in ordinary
combustible materials, such as wood, paper, textiles, rubbish, etc. (Class
“A” fires) where the quenching and cooling effect of water or solution
containing a large percentage of water is of first importance.
-These extinguishers are not effective in fires involving flammable
liquids, greases. etc., in vats, tanks, open vessels, or any other Class “B”
fires where the blanketing effect is essential.
- These extinguishers can be used, however, on small fires on floors
made of combustible materials soaked with oils, greases, etc., where the
cooling and quenching effect of water is important.
- The use of these extinguishers in connection with Class “C” fires in
electrical equipment such as panel boards, switchboards, motors etc., is
not recommended.

Foam Extinguishers

55
 - These
extinguishers
are effective on
fires in small
quantities of
flammable
liquids,
greases, etc., in
vats, tanks,
open vessels, on floors, or any other Class “B” fire where the foam may be
retained as a blanket on the burning material.
- Unless specially noted on the nameplate, these extinguishers are
not to be used on fires involving alcohol, ether, acetone, lacquer thinner or
carbon disulfide, because without the proper additive the foam bubbles
are broken down rendering the smothering action ineffective.
- While these extinguishers are primarily intended for use on Class
“B” fires, these are somewhat effective on incipient fires in ordinary
combustible materials such as wood, paper, textiles, rubbish, or other
Class “A” fires because 85% of the weight of the extinguishing agent is
water.
- Therefore, they have some value in controlling fires where the
cooling and quenching effect of water or solutions containing large
percentages of water is important.
- The use of these extinguishers in connection with fires in electrical
equipment such panel boards, switchboards, motors and other Class “C”
fires is not recommended.

Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher

- These extinguisher are effective on fires in small quantities of
flammable liquids, greases, etc., in open vessels, tanks, vats, or on floors
or any other Class “B” fires where a smothering action is required to
extinguish the flame.
- These are effective on small fires in electrical equipment or Class
“C” fires where a non-conducting extinguishing agent is of importance.

56
 -
The
se

extinguishers are suitable for use on automobiles, motorboats, etc., but

are not recommended for use on deep-seated fires of ordinary
combustible materials such as wood, paper, textiles, rubbish, or other
Class “A” fires which require the quenching and cooling effect of water for
complete extinguishment.

Loaded Stream Extinguishers

- These extinguishers are effective on small fires in ordinary
combustible materials such as wood, paper, textiles, rubbish or other
Class “A” fires where the quenching and cooling effect of quantities of
water or a solution containing a large percentage of water is of first
importance.
- These extinguishers are somewhat effective on fires in small
quantities of flammable liquids, greases, or other Class “B” fires in vats or
open vessels, or on floors made of combustible materials soaked with
grease or oil.
- The use of these extinguishers in connection with electrical fires
such as panel boards, switchboards, motor and other Class “C” fires is not
recommended.

57
Dry Chemical Extinguishers
- These extinguishers are effective on fires in small quantities of
flammable liquids, greases, and other Class “B” fires in open vessels or on
floors where the cloud of chemical may be employed to smother the flame.
- These are effective on small fires in electrical equipment such as
panel boards, switchboards, motors, and other Class “C” fires where a
non-conducting extinguishing agent is of importance.
- These are suitable for use on fires involving automobiles, boats,
etc.
- These are not recommended for deep seated fires in ordinary
combustible materials such as wood, paper, textiles, rubbish and other
Class “A” fires which require the quenching and cooling effect of water for
complete extinguishment.
- These may be of some value for surface fires in small quantities of
material where the smothering effect of the extinguishing agent may be
effective.
- The fire extinguishing agent used is a specially treated sodium
bicarbonate in dry powder form with components for producing free flow
and water repellency.
- When the pressurized extinguisher is operated, gas or air expels
the dry chemical from the chemical chamber in a cloud from the nozzle.
- In cartridge operated extinguisher, release of the gas from the
cartridge is done by pushing the handle down which punctures a sealed
disc in the cartridge.

58
ABC Dry Chemical Extinguishers
- These extinguishers are approved for all classes of fires, and are
available in three sizes: 5lb, 15lb and 25 lb.
- The poundage denotes the weight of the powder contained in each
in each unit.
- The chemical action of the powder, upon contact with fire, has the
following effect on the various classes of fire:
1. Class A – insulation is provided automatically by the
deposit formed by the powder on the burning material.
Cooling is effected because the change from powder to
deposit utilize and absorbs heat.
2. Class B – the powder has a smothering and cooling
effect on fires of his classification.
3. Class C.T – his powder is a non-conductor of electricity
and is approved for live electrical fires requiring a non-
conducting extinguishing agent.
- Magnesium (combustible metal). The powder forms a cooling,
insulating armor on burning materials which require a heavy smothering
and cooling extinguishing agent.
- Units are pressurized with nitrogen at 150 p.s.i.
- Powder contents are discharge by squeezing the grip on the
operating lever.

59
 - The powder cloud is nontoxic and nonabrasive.
- The unit is operable to 40˚F

Structural fires are generally classified by extent of danger:

© Those that are extinguished quickly and cause little damage.

© Those that, although extinguished, cause extensive damage to a
limited area of the burning.
© Those that cause almost complete or total structural destruction.

Phases of fire
No two fires are exactly the same. They vary in many ways from
incident to incident.

1. Incipient Phase – this earliest phase of fire may or may not

occur unnoticed. The degree to which t is observable depends almost
entirely upon the magnitude and source of ignition and the type of fuel.
This phase may last anywhere from a fraction of a second several hours
or days.
2. Emergent Smoldering – during this phase, the product of
combustion become increasingly more pronounced. There is no
meaningful change in the oxygen content of the air. Water vapor, carbon
dioxide, and other gases, including minute traces of unburned fuel, may
rapidly reach the level of olfactory detection.
3. Free burning – during this phase of the fire, the rate and
intensity of open burning increases geometrically. The intensity of the fire
doubles with each 18F (10 C) rise in temperature (Q). Heat, rapidly
evolving from the original point of the fire, is convicted and collects in the
uppermost areas of the structure or room.
4. Oxygen-Regulated Smoldering – if the room or area of the
fire’s origin is adequately airtight, thereby limiting the amount of oxygen-
rich air being drawn into the area, then the open burning that occurs in
free-burning phase 3 will deplete the available oxygen. The gradual
cessation of oxygen supply causes flaming combustion to end, replacing it
to a large extent by flowing combustion. The room becomes completely

60
filled with dense smoke and gases, which are forced from all cracks under
pressure.
5. Backdraft – is an explosion resulting from the sudden
introduction of ar (oxygen) into a confined space containing oxygen
deficient superheating products of incomplete combustion. A backdraft
may result if someone opens a “hot door”. One of the superheated gases
produced by fire is carbon monoxide.
6. Diction and Rate of Spread – flames and superheated gases
are lighter than air and, therefore, rise. Heat from a fire in the open rises
as a column of hot gas called plume.
7. Smoke and Flame Color – smoke is the visible evidence of
incomplete combustion; it is a suspension of the unburned by-products of
solid, liquid, and gaseous products. The color of smoke and flame
associated with a particular fire can show the type of material or fuel that
is burning. The colors observed in the early stages of a fire could be
indicative of burning accelerants.

Smoke and Flame Color of Certain Fuels

Smoke Color Flame Color Fuel

Gray to brown Red to yellow Wood/paper/cloth
Black Red to white Gasoline
White to gray Yellow to White Benzene
Black to Brown Yellow to White Turpentine
Black Dark Red to Orange- Kerosene
yellow
Black Blue White to white Naptha

Flame Colors and Temperature (F) Ranges

Flame Color Temperature in F
Light red 900-1000
Dark red 1000-1100
Dark cherry 1100-1200
Medium cherry 1200-1300
Light cherry 1300-1400

61
Bright red 1400-1500
Salmon 1600-1700
Orange 1700-1800
Lemon 1800-1900
Light yellow 1900-2100
White 2150-2250
Bright white 2500 and over

Exercises: Lesson 1.3

1. Which type of water extinguisher must have a CO2 cartridge

weight-checked?

2. What would be an indication of a rupture safety disk on a 15

pound carbon dioxide extinguisher?

3. When should the excellent gas cartridge be replaced in a dry

chemical extinguisher?

4. What should you check about the pressure gage of a water

extinguisher?

5. What type of test normally performs on an extinguisher?

6. Why air pressure should not be used for hydrostatic test?

62
 7. What should be done with an extinguisher that has been burnt in
a fire?

8. How often should a stored pressure water extinguisher undergo

a hydrostatic test?

LESSON 1. 4 CHARACTERISTIC OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS

Objectives: At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. Understand the characteristics of flammable materials;

2. Discuss the combustible metals; and
3. Explain the fire retardant treatment.

A firefighter must be able to determine the classification of a fire in

order to select the best agent to apply and the best method of
extinguishment to use. In a real fire situation however; such a building fire,
firefighters may never combat a single class of fire, but a combination of
fire classes. Buildings are made of many kinds of materials, such as wood,
masonry, steel, and tile. Almost all buildings are provided with electricity,
and some have gas stoves and furnaces.

Aircraft fires or crashes may present many fire combinations

because all aircrafts use some kind of flammable fuel. With all the

63
electrical equipment on board, an extra hazard of a Class B and Class C
may be encountered. The danger of Class D fire will also be present
because certain parts of the aircrafts are made up of alloys such as
aluminum, magnesium, and others that support combustions.

The differences between materials that will burn are very important.
Simply knowing that a material will burn helps you very little. “Wood will
burn” is a general statement; the kind of wood-hard or soft-thick or thin will
you to know when and how fast it will burn. This still doesn’t give you
enough information on flammable materials.

The size of the wood particles (log, boards, shavings, dust),

whether dry, wet painted or unpainted; if the wood is painted, is it
flammable paint or a fire-retardant paint; is the wood treated, and if so, for
what reasons? All these information though helpful still isn’t enough.

Petroleum products are those which are manufactured from crude

oil as it comes the ground, has weight, can burn, can be vaporized, has
color, pour less easily if chilled, and has many other means of
identification. These are, in general sense much the same. However, if
you were to say that crude oil and gasoline are identical because they
both can burn, then you would not be distinguishing between two
materials. Both materials can vaporize, but that doesn’t make them alike
either. Therefore, we cannot identify a product by its general properties
until the product is broken down its specific temperatures, weights, colors,
and etc.

The specific differences in the properties are known as

characteristics, and all flammable materials have characteristics peculiar
to themselves. All matter, including flammable materials will exist in at
least one of three states.

These states or groups are known as:

1. Liquids
2. Gases

64
 3. Solids

As firefighters, you should know the contents of a container to

determine the pressure buildup when the container is near a fire. Too high
a pressure is liable to burst the tank or otherwise endanger life or lives.

Liquids defined

Liquids are fluids that do not generate more than 40 psia when
heated to 100 degrees F (psia is pound-per-square inch absolute).

To determine whether a fluid should be classed as a gas or a liquid,

it is tested.

Procedure in testing

1. Placed the fluid in a closed container equipped with pressure

gauge, then raised the temperature of the container and contents to 100
degrees F. As the fluid vaporizes and creates a pressure, the gauge will
show it.

2. Add the gauge reading to the atmospheric pressure, an absolute

pressure reading is obtained. The atmospheric pressure is the normal sea
level pressure of 14.7 psia.

Suppose the gauge reading is 29 psi plus the atmospheric pressure

of 14.7 psia, the total would be 43.7 (29. + 14.7) psia. This would identify
the fluid as a gas. (Over 40). If the gauge reading is 25 psi and the
atmospheric pressure is 14.7, the sum would be 39.7. The fluid then would
be just within the liquid class.

Types of Liquid

A. Flammable liquids – these are liquids with a flashpoint below 100

degrees F and a vapor pressure not over 40 psia at 100 F. They called
Class I liquids which are subdivided into the following classes:

65
 Class IA – any liquid that has a flashpoint below 73 F, and a boiling
point (BP) below 100 F.

Class IB – any liquid that has a flashpoint below 73 F, and a boiling

point at or above 100 F.

Class IC – any liquid that has a flashpoint below 100 F, but not
below 73 F.

B. Combustible Liquids – liquids that have a flashpoint at or above 100 F.

They are subdivided into the following categories:

Class II – any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 100 F and

below 140 F.

Class IIIA – any liquid having a flashpoint at or below 140 F and

below F.

Class IIIB – any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 200 F.

Gases
Gases are classified by their chemical, physical properties and
usage.

A. Chemical Properties – chemical properties of gases are of prime

interest to firefighters, as they reflect the ability of the gas to react within it
or with other materials. The chemical properties of gases may be broken
down as follows:

1. Flammable gases – any gas that which burn in normal

concentrations of oxygen in the air. These gases are subjected to the
same conditions as flammable vapors.

66
 2. Non-flammable gases – any gases that will not burn in air. Some
of these will support combustion and are called oxidizers. Those that do
not support combustion are called inert gases.

3. Reactive gases – any gases that will react within itself or with
other materials under conditions other than fire, i.e. shock, heat and etc.

4. Toxic gases – any gases that may complicate firefighting efforts

due to its serious life hazards.

B. Physical Properties – is the physical behavior of a gas both outside

and inside its container and when accidentally released, these are of
prime interest to firefighters.

The Physical Classification are the following

1. Compressed gases – matter which is solely in a gaseous state in

its container with a lower pressure limit of 25 psig (pounds per square inch
gauge) at normal temperature of 70 F to 100 F.

2. Liquefied gases – matter which exist partly as gas and partly as

a liquid at normal temperatures inside the container and remain under
pressure as long as any liquid is in the container.

3. Cryogenic gases – gas which remains far below normal

temperature.

C. Usage – Classification of gases is made by their usages. However,

there will be much overlapping in these usages.

1. Fuel gases – gases which burn with air to produce heat, power,
or light.

2. Industrial gases – gases used in industrial processes such as:

water treatment, welding and cutting, refrigeration, and etc.

67
 3. Medical gases – gases used for medical purposes such as
therapy and anesthesia.

Solids
Combustible solids are those ignite burn and change chemically
when subjected to heat or fire. The heat must be approximately 350 F or
higher. Above this temperature, ordinary materials will give off enough
vapors or gases to burn. Example are wood, paper, and cloth.
There are 0ther combustible solids which may ignite or detonate at
lower temperatures.

These combustible solids are classed as hazardous chemical and

should be kept in suitable containers. They should be separated from
each other materials which react with them.

Combustible Metals – most of combustible metals are chemical

elements which are part of earth’s composition. Very few if any, are found
in the natural state, as in gold. The pure metal is extracted from mineral
ore deposits by chemical processes.
Some of the combustible metals are the following:

1. Sodium 5. Magnesium
2. Titanium 6. Potassium
3. Uranium 7. Lithium
4. Zirconium 8. Sodium-potassium alloys

Fire Effects on Building Materials

Building materials have varying degrees of resistance to fire,
depending on their composition, arrangement, and the amount of heat
generated in the fire. There is no such thing as “fireproof,” since all
building materials are affected by fire.

Effects of Fire on Various Materials:

68
 1. Wood – wood burns with an open flame and it chars depending
upon its type, condition, thickness. Laminated wood girders, etc., will burn
more readily than solid timbers of that same dimensions.

2. Steel – in its usual form is non-combustible, however, steel wool

and filing can be ignited under certain conditions.

3. Masonry – in general, brick, stone, and concrete are considered

fire resistant. Under conditions of prolong exposure to heat, may crack or
spall (crumbled). If suddenly cooled by the water from a hose stream, the
surface of a heated masonry wall may crack or spall with a near-explosive
force and destructive effects on the wall.

4. Miscellaneous Construction Materials – in addition to the three

most common building materials, there are number of other materials that
are used in all type of buildings. These types of materials are normally
used for interior finisher, roofing, or decorative purposes.

- Plastic sheeting
- Glass
- Asphalt-asbestos siding roofing and shingles
- Clay tile
- Fiberboard
- Gypsum board
- Plastic and synthetic resins
- Acoustical and insulation materials

Fire Retardant Treatment

Two General Types of Fire-Retardant:

1. Surface Coating – is usually used in combination with a paint,

decompose at the point of contact of a flame or other heat source to form
a blister filled with an infinite number of tiny bubbles.

69
2. Impregnation – it is usually done at a processing plant of factory by
forci8ng solutions of fire-retardant chemicals, under pressure, into the
pores of the materials to be protected.

Exercises: Lesson 1.4

1. Where are most of the hazards associated with combustible metals

found?
2. Define combustible solid
3. If a fluid generates 28 psi at 100 degrees F and at sea level, is it
considered a liquid, or gas?
4. What is a combustible liquid?
5. What is a flammable liquid?

LESSON 1.5 HAZARDOUS MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION

Objectives: At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. Understand and identify the hazard classification.

Hazard Classification
In the year 1976, the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) used a
hazard classification and identification system all its own for explosives
and other dangerous materials.
After many years of study, the DOD implemented the present
classification system based on a system recommended for international
use by the United Nations Organization (UNO)

70
 Below are the listing of all nine UNO Classes of Dangerous
Materials:

Class 1 – Explosives
Class 1 is divided into four (4) divisions which indicate the type of
hazards expected.

A. Class Division 1.1 Class 1.

Mass detonating explosives comparable to Quantity-Distance (Q-D)
Class 7 and M designated items.

Assigned to this class are principally blast hazards. They may be

expected to mass detonate when a small portion is initiated by any means,
such as fire, severe concussion or impact impulse of an initiating agent.

B. Class Division 1.2

Non-mass detonating, fragment producing explosives. These items
for which the principal hazards may be fragments, toxicity, or blast.

C. Class Division 1.3

It includes explosives that present a mass fire hazard. Items
assigned to this class usually burn vigorously with little or no possibility of
extinguishing fires that have gained headway in storage situations.
Explosions normally are confined to pressure propagating shock
waves or damaging blast pressure beyond the specified magazine
distance.
A serious fire-spread hazard can exist from projected burning
fragments of propellant, incendiary materials, packing materials, etc.

D. Class Division 1.4

It includes explosives with a moderate fire hazard, but no blast
hazards. Items assigned to this class primarily present fire hazards
producing no blast and virtually no fragmentation or toxic hazards beyond
the normal fire hazard (clearance) distance.

Class 2 – Gases: Compressed, liquefied or dissolved under pressure.

71
Class 3 – Flammable liquids
Class 4 – Flammable Solids
Class 5 – Oxidizing Substances and Organic Peroxides
Class 6 – Poisonous (toxic) and Infectious Substances

Class 6 is divided into 2 divisions

A. Class Division 6.1 – poisonous (toxic) gas, vapors or substances:

These materials are comparable to Q-D Class 8, which includes

those CB agents and items not normally assembled with explosive
components, or where explosive components present little or no blast of
fragment HAZARDS. No quantity-distances separations have been
specially established for this class as a whole. Special safety criteria or
instructions have not been provided with the stock involved and safety
separation appears necessary because of agent persistency, volatility,
toxicity, or other particular feature, requests for information should be
made to higher headquarters.

B. Class Division 6.2

Substances containing disease-producing organisms. This class

division category is included for information only.

Class 7 – Radioactive substances

Class 8 – Corrosives

Class 9 – Miscellaneous dangerous substances (substances which

present a danger not covered by the other classes).

Figure 31: The 704 Diamond

NFPA Standard No. 704, Fire Hazards of Materials

72
 Visually illustrates the hazards to firefighters fighting fires in fixed
installations such as chemical processing areas, storage and warehouse
facilities, and laboratory entrances. The “704 Diamond” colored numbers
is used to illustrate the degree of hazard in health and the flammability and
reactivity of hazardous materials.

The higher the number (0-4), the degree of hazard. These numbers
and symbols are easily recognized by firefighters and they can take
immediate steps to protect themselves. Unfortunately, this method has not
been widely adopted by the general public or governmental units other
than the fire departments.

The Department of Transportation (DOT) labeling system is

perhaps the most widely used. New and more descriptive placards and
labels have been selected that permit fire fighters and emergency service
people all over the world to visually understand the hazards they face at
the scene of an emergency.

Some of the more common labels and placards are described here
(see Figure 32) and should be explored in depth.

Figure 32: Hazardous Material Placarding Requirements

73
COLOR SCHEME FOR NEW CARDS

PLACARDS COLORS
Upper and lower triangles in red;
DANGEROUS
Inscription in black and white
Orange background; symbol and
EXPLOSIVE A and EXPLOSIVE B
Inscription in white
Green background; symbol and
NON-FLAMMABLE GAS
Inscription in white
OXYGEN, OXIDIZER and Yellow background; symbol and
ORGANIC PEROXIDE inscription in black
POISON GAS, POISON and White background: symbol,
CHLORINE Borderline in black
Red background; symbol and
FLAMMABLE and COMBUSTIBLE
inscription in white
White background with seven
FLAMMABLE SOLID vertical red stripes; symbol and
inscription in black
Triangle at top blue with white
symbol; rest of placard white with
FLAMMABLE SOLID
seven vertical red stripes and
inscription in black
Top portion yellow with black
RADIOACTIVE symbol lower portion white with
black inscription
Center and lower areas black;
CORROSIVE inscription in white; symbol in
black and white

Note: The word “Gasoline” may be used in place of “Flammable” for

highway transportation of gasoline. The word “Fuel oil” may be used in
place of “Combustible” for highway transportation of fuel oil that is not
classed as a “flammable liquid.”

IMPORTANT!!!

74
1. All four sides of the vehicle must be placarded. Placement of the front
placard may occur on either the cab or the cargo body.

2. Placard must be placed at least 3 inches away from any other marking
or sign. Double placarding should be adjacent to each other.

3. Combinations of vehicles, each of which contains hazardous materials,

shall be each placarded in accordance with the above chart.

Figure 33: Hazardous Materials Placard Chart

75
 MODULE 2
Objectives: At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. Understand the main feature of a good firefighting plan;

2. Identify factors to be considered in extinguishment;
3. Discuss the types of ventilation;
4. Identify the factors in determining the location for the
opening/ventilation; and
5. Enumerate and discuss the steps in the procedure for vertical
ventilation.

LESSON 2.1 PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL FIREFIGHTING

This chapter will point out the main features of a good firefighting
plan. Firefighting is, has been, and always will be one of the main
objectives of fire protection. A well-manned, well-equipped, and well-
trained fire department provides a solid based upon which effective
firefighting depends. The strategy and tactics used to suppress fire
evolved from this base.

The following are the strategy used in firefighting:

1. Locate the fire
2. Confine the fire
3. Extinguish the fire
4. Exposures

In addition to the basic tactics the following are also added:

1. Rescue

76
 2. Overhaul
3. Ventilation
4. Salvage

Location – locating the fire sound like a simple matter. In an open

lumber yard where flames are reaching for the sky, it is simple matter. But
finding or locating a fire in a room in a cellar of a three-story dormitory or
building which is filled with dense smoke is not an easy task.

Confinement – confining the fire is the next step in strategy.

Judgment, skill and experience must be used to the utmost to determine
whether or not the fire is to be routine or a disaster. Confining the fire
simply means to restrict its spread to its point of origin or at least6 to the
area involved.

Extinguishment – extinguishing the fire may take as like water as

that use in a booster line, or it may take thousands of gallons played
through heavy appliance. The decision rests upon the judgment, skill,
training, and experience of the officer-in-charge.

Figure 34:
Extinguishment

Factors to be considered in Extinguishment:

Time of Day

77
 A. The hour of the day can have a direct bearing on the life and fire
hazards involved.
B. Time also has a direct bearing on the speed of the response of
fire firefighter and rescue vehicle.
c. During hours of darkness, special lighting equipment may be
needed. Night operations may require auxiliary firefighting
personnel.

Weather

Some of the Weather factors that must be considered:

A. Temperature
B. Humidity
C. Wind and precipitation

The direction of wind determines where the greatest exposure

dangers are located. High humidity means a smoky fire and difficulty in
operating in the building without thorough ventilation. In a situation where
pungent fumes are encountered, more additional hardship and danger for
the firefighters operating and fighting fire in the street and particularly in
narrow alleys at the rear or sides of the building on fire.

In this type of fire situation, it is frequently impossible to get in close

enough to do inside work, and it is necessary to operate from the outside
of the building unless suitable respiratory protection is provided.

Reviewing these entire situation, there are also other factors such
as excavations or other obstructions in the street in the immediate
neighborhood of the fire that may have a direct bearing upon the operation
of the fire department, as well as the amount of apparatus and personnel
that will be needed.

The Fire

78
Factors to be evaluated at the Fire Scene:
A. Extent of the fire;
B. Its location in the building;
C. the type of contents involved;
D. The life hazard/s;
E. The fire conditions; and
F. Type of construction

Occupancy
Determine the number of people that occupy the building,
including the materials that are found in it. Also note the nature of the units
occupying the building.

Ventilation
It is a method used for clearing the building of smoke and
gases, localize the fire, and reduce smoke and forcible entry damage.

Types of Ventilation:
1. Vertical Ventilation – the method to establish vertical ventilation
is it must be worked from the top and down. Heated gases and smoke rise
to the highest point and, if confined, will tend to “mushroom” or rise to the
highest point of the building, exerting their heating effect on everything
they touch. (Watch YouTube FF I – Vertical ventilation #13)
2. Cross or Horizontal Ventilation – if the smoke and gases have
not reached the higher levels, cross ventilation can clear the building one
floor at a time. Windows are the easiest and generally most available for
the common types of building, but the indiscriminate opening of windows
and doors can defeat the purpose of ventilation.
3. Mechanical or Forced Ventilation – a process or method of
ventilation whereby a devise such as smoke ejector is utilized to remove
faster excessive heat and dense smoke in a confined building.

79
 Figure 35.1: Horizontal Ventilation
Figure 35.2 Horizontal Ventilation

Factors to determine the location for the opening/ventilation:

1. Location of intensity of fire
2. Highest point on the roof
3. Direction of wind
4. Existing exposure

80
 5. Extent of fire
6. Obstruction

Figure 36: “Mushrooming” effect of heated gases

Steps in the procedures for vertical ventilation:

1. Check the condition of the roof support to make sure that they
have been burned away or weaken to a point where there is a possibility
to collapse under your weight. Feeling the roof for hot spots helps you
determine if the fire has reached the point to cause weakening.

2. Plan a way of escape from the roof in case of an emergency,

such as roof collapse. Have a lifeline, especially on a peaked roof, to
prevent falling.

3. Use any available openings that are part of the roof construction,
such as skylights or roof trap doors.

4. Make certain passageway for the smoke and heat extends down
through the ceiling of the room. A hole in the roof is of no use if there is no
relief for gases, heat, and smoke in the room below.

81
 5. The opening should be large enough to provide a rapid exit for
the smoke and gases.
6. Work with the wind at your back, keeping in mind the heat,
explosive characteristics, and toxic effects of escaping gas.

Steps in the procedure for cross, Horizontal ventilation:

1. Open the windows on the leeward side first, and then open the
windows on the windward side.
2. After one floor is clear, ventilate the nest floor in the same manner
3. If at all possible, avoid making openings below the level of the fire.
4. If the opening is made at the same floor level as the fire, hose
lines should be available for immediate use.
5. Avoid ventilating a building in such a way that fire is withdrawn
through any building part that is not involved.
6. When making an opening, exercise great care to prevent the
spread of the fire to exposures, and have hose lines available to
protect the exposures.

Advantages of Ventilation:
1. Aids Rescue Operations – proper ventilation simplifies and
expedites the rescue of victims by removing smoke and gases that
endanger occupants trapped or unconscious, and make the
conditions safer for firefighters.
2. Speed Attack and Extinguishment – the removal of smoke, gases,
and heat from the building permits firefighters to move rapidly and
locate the area and proceed with extinguishment. It will also reduce
the danger of asphyxiation.
3. Reduces Property Damages – rapid extinguishment of fire reduces
property damage.
4. Reduces Mushrooming – when sufficient heat is confined in the
area, the temperature of combustible materials rises to their ignition
points. These materials will not ignite, however, unless sufficient
amount of oxygen is available to support combustion. In this
situation, a very dangerous condition exists because the admittance
of an air supply is all that is needed to create the overheated area

82
 into an inferno (backdraft). In order to prevent this critical situation
from occurring top ventilation must be provided to release
superheated fire gases and smoke.

Exposures
It is an action taken by the firefighters to cover or recue other
building/s, people from exposing themselves near the affected area
or danger from fire.

Type of Exposures
1. Fire Exposures – refers to the property exposed to the fire such as
property directly across alleys or besides the fire building.
2. Life Exposures – refers to the danger to the lives of the occupants
of any building that is in line with the travel of dangerous fumes or
gases thrown off by fire as well as to the occupants of any building
on fire. All other firefighting actions (tactics) stem from this basic
strategy.

Rescue
Any action taken by the firefighters to remove occupants/persons
from a burning building/hazards to a safety place.

Overhaul
A complete and detailed check of the structures and materials
involved in the fire to make sure that every spark and ember has
been extinguished and to have an assurance against re-ignition.
Salvage
An action taken by the firefighters in preventing excessive damage
by fire, smoke, and water with the use of a salvage cover or by
removing materials out from the burning building.
Methods for Salvage Covers

83
Figure 37.1: Salvage Cover Basin

Figure 37.2 Window Drain Chute

Figure 38: Stairway Drain

84
 Figure 39.1 Counter Payoff

Figure 39.2 One-man Cover Throw

Figure 40: Fold for large cover & Accordion fold for small cover

Hose Appliances and Tools used in Structural Firefighting Operations

Structural firefighters must be completely familiar with firefighting
operations involving hose layout. A complete hose layout consists of one

85
end of the hose connected to a water source and the other end of the
hose is connected to the nozzle.

Two Categories of Devices in Hose Layout:

A. Hose Appliances – any piece of equipment used with a fire hose
for delivering water. Hose appliances have water running through them.

B. Hose Tools – used with the hose line.

The Hose Tools

1. Universal Thread Adapter – universal thread adapter is a very useful

tool on any fire vehicle. It can make a very quick connection to damage or
unusual size male hose connections. On one side of the adapter is a
standard 2 ½ inch male connections with National Standard Threads.

Figure 41: Universal

Thread Adapter

2. Hose Jacket – a hollow cylindrical or barrel-shape device that opens

lengthwise through the center on a set of hinges. It is a rubber lined to
make it water tight. When the jacket is clamped around the leaking portion
of a hose or over a leaking hose connection, the water is confined by the
hose jacket. This tool can prevent the disablement of the entire hose
layout. They come in 2 ½ and 3 inch sizes.

Figure 42: Hose Jacket

86
3. Hose Clamp – a toll used to stop the flow of water in a fire hose without
shutting off the source of water supple.

Figure 43: Hose Clamp & watch youtube Ch 15 hose clamp

Uses of Hose Clamp

a. Stop the flow of water through a hose while a hose lay i8s being
completed.
b. Cut-off the flow of water in a charge line.
c. Replaced a busted hose without shutting down the water supply.
d. Extends hose line while shutting down the water supply from the
clamped hose.
e. Advances a charge hose line up stairs apply the hose clamp to a
section of hose approximately six (6) feet from the coupling.

Types of Hose Clamps:

a. Screw-down
b. Press-down
c. Hydraulic down

General Rules in using Hose Clamp:

- Apply the hose clamp at least 20 feet from the pamper

87
 - Apply the hose clamp at least 5 to 6 feet from the coupling on
the incoming water side.
- Stand to one side when applying or releasing the hose clamp as
the handle has a tendency to snap open suddenly.
- Place the hose in the center of the jaws to avoid pinching the
hose.
- Close and open the hose clamp slowly to prevent water
hammer.

Spanner Wrench and Hydrant Wrenches

Figure 44: Tightening of coupling using Spanner Wrench

A. Spanner wrench is used to tighten leaking connections and to

loosen connections that are too tight to “break” with hands alone. Can be
used as a wedge for prying. It has a slot for pulling nails, and a surface for
hammering

A B F G
D E
C

Figure 45: Parts of Spanner Wrench

88
 A. Belt Mode Eyelet
B. Hammer Head
C. Spanner Center Lug Claw
D. Uncoupling Center Claw
E. Pry Heel or Fulcrum
F. Gas Cockslot
G. Window Jimmy

B. Hydrant Wrenches are used to open and close fire hydrant and to
remove hydrant outlet caps. Some are designed to tighten or loosen
coupling connections. It is usually equipped with a pentagon opening in its
head that fits most standard fire hydrant opening nuts.

Figure 46: Spanner and Hydrant Wrenches

4. Hose Strap

It is a 36 inch length of cloth strap with a handle on one end and a

hook on the other. It
is used for moving
hose layouts,
usually up ladders
or staircases.

89
 Figure 47: Hose strap

5. Rope

It is a safety line used for hoisting tools for various floors of a

structure and used for anchoring to stationary objects, ladders, charged
hose lines, and other
accessories (consists of
100 foot lengths of ¾ Manila
hemp rope with one eye
splice in one end).

Figure 48: Rope

6. Hose Bridge (Hose Ramp)

A hose tool used to prevent damage to the hose when vehicles

cross a street, or where the traffic cannot be diverted.

90
 Figure 49: Hose Bridge

7. Chafing Blocks

Tools used to prevent damage to the hose where the hose is

subjected to rubbing from vibrations.

8. Rubber Mallet

A hose tool used to strike the lugs of a coupling to tighten or loosen

the coupling without damaging the lugs. It is used to make a coupling
completely airtight.

9. Hose Roller (Hose hoist)

These are hose tools used to

prevent damage to hose lines when it is
being dragged over sharp objects such as
roof edges and window sills.

The hose Appliances

91
1. Valves – it controls the flow of water in a hose lines, hydrant, and at
pumpers.

Types:
- Ball valves – these are valves used in pumper discharges,
gated wyes and fire piping systems.
- Gate valves – used in a fire hydrant.
- Butterfly valves – it is used on large pump intakes.
- Clapper valves – it is used in Siamese appliances that allow
only one intake hose to be connected and charge before
adding more hose.

2. Valves Devices – these are hose appliances that increase or decrease

the number of hose lines being used during the firefighting operations.

Types:
- Gated wyes – these are used to divide a line of hose into
two or more lines. The most common types used are the
following:
- Siamese – appliances that have two (2) or more female
inlet connections and one male discharge connection.
- Fittings – these are appliances used to close off, change
water flow direction, or to connect hoses of different sizes
and thread types.
- Intake Devices – these are appliances attached to the
drafting end of suction hose to keep foreign objects which
would pass through the pump.

92
 Siamese Gated Wye
Figure 49: Valve Devices

Butterfly
Valve Ball Valve
Gate Valve

Figure 50: Valves

Exercise (Lesson 2.1)

1. Point out the main features of a good firefighting plan.

2. Define Rescue operation.
3. What is the meaning of the term “exposures”?
4. Why fire confinement is an important objective of firefighting strategy
and tactics?
5. Enumerate and discuss the importance of ventilation on firefighting
operations?
6. What is overhaul and why is it an important feature in firefighting
strategy?
7. Explain what is salvage as used of firefighting operation is?
8. What are the factors to be considered in fire extinguishment, point out
its importance in firefighting operation.
9. What are the factors to be evaluated at the fire scene?
10. Why forced/mechanical ventilation necessary in a confined building.

93
11. Name at least 3 hose tools and its uses in structural firefighting.
12. What is hose appliances? Enumerate and discuss the common type
used in structural firefighting.
13. In firefighting operation, the senior fire officer in-charge must plan and
evaluate the strategy to be used. What is the basis of this plan?
14. What are some of the weather factors to be considered involving
firefighting strategy? Enumerate and discuss.

LESSON 2.2 BUILDING CODE & BUILDING REQUIREMENTS

Objectives: At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. Understand and discuss the building code and building

requirement; and

2. Explain the miscellaneous hazards.

Building Code – a standard rules for safety in the construction of

buildings. Building codes vary in their fire-resistance requirements on
accordance with the occupancy classification.

94
Building Code Requirements:
1. Intended Occupancy and Use
2. Life safety
3. Fixed fire protection system
4. Spacing of structures
5. Height requirements
6. Fire retarding features

Intended Occupancy and Use

A building design is based upon the occupancy of the individual

structure, considering both the combustibility of the contents and the
human factors of occupancy. Buildings wherein large occupants are
assembled such as dormitories, schools, hospitals, where crowds may
generate panic hazards, call for a higher and greater degree of fire safety
protection than do warehouses and building which are less populated.
Buildings that contain high combustible materials call for a greater degree
of fire resistance in the structure.

Life Safety

The provision of adequate exits is the most important features in

designing a building for life safety. Once fire is notified, occupants can
leave the building in the least possible time through exits free from fire,
heat, and smoke. Although panic in a burning building may be
uncontrollable, it can be eased with the measures designed to help
prevent panic an example of this is the exit signs. Panic seldom develops
in a burning building as long as the occupants are moving towards exits
that have no obstruction in the path of travel.

The life safety factor is affected by many building designs and

features-designs and features that prevent, reduce, or retard the spread of
the fire such as: fire stops, fire walls, and fire doors.

Fixed Fire Protection system

95
 Fixed fire protection system installed will be in accordance with
sound economical and engineering practices. These systems insure the
maximum life safety or maximum degree of property protection where the
size, type of construction, occupancy, or other conditions create monetary
fire-loss potential.

Spacing of Structures

Planning and construction of an adequate separation of buildings

and structures is very important to prevent the spread of fire from an
adjacent building or from area to area. Spacing requirements that restrict
types of occupancies or specified areas have an important bearing upon
fire safety. Consideration will be given to convenience, efficiency, and
savings. When buildings have different occupancies and different types of
construction are adjacent, maximum spacing requirements have to be
observed.

Height Requirements

Owing to the life hazard involved, it is a good practice to limit the

height of structures that have an unusually high degree of combustibility.

The height of buildings of masonry or concrete wall and wood

construction is generally limited to a height assumed to be the maximum
at which the fire departments can operate and fight fire effectively, working
from the street level. The operational limit is usually three (3) or four (4)
stories. Wood frame construction is generally given lower height limits.
Fire resistive buildings are commonly permitted without any height limit, on
the theory that the structural integrity of the buildings will be maintained.

Fire Retarding Features

While a facility is still being designed, everything possible should be

planned and done to make the facility eventually fire safe. Fire retarding
features must be specified in the plans. For the safety of personnel,

96
important provisions in preventing the spread of fire (both vertically and
horizontally in buildings should be constructed).

a. Fire stops – wood is used as a fire stops, it must be at least 2

inches thick. Concealed spaces in the building should be filled with
noncombustible materials. Fire stops must be inspected during the
construction.

b. Fire Partitions – fire partitions are installed to separate areas of

hazardous occupancies from areas of ordinary or light hazard
occupancies that6 resist the passage of fire from one area to another. Fire
partitions must be constructed to have fire resistance ratings of 1 or 2
hours. The degree of fire resistance will be governed by the following
factors:

- Type of building construction;

- Size of the hazardous area;
- The severity of the fire hazard.

c. Fire Walls – fire walls are installed for the purpose of preventing
the passage of fire area of a building to another area. Fire wall must be
structurally sound and may serve as an important wall if no combustible
structural members are framed into the walls. It has a particular fire
resistance rating depending on its construction and thickness. Fire walls
must have a parapet with a minimum height of three (3) feet above the
roof for all types of roof construction except roofs top floor assembling with
a minimum fire-resistance rating of two (2) hours. Wing walls are required
except where exterior walls of building are concrete or made up of
masonry construction. Fire walls will be bonded into exterior walls.

Combustible eave construction should be interrupted by fire wall

parapets corbelled out two (2) feet beyond building wall. Fire wall returns
at exterior building walls will be twenty (20) feet long of unbroken exterior
concrete or masonry without windows, doors or other openings, and
without combustible cornices or roof overhangs.

97
Miscellaneous Hazards

The following are some of the hazards that can be found

everywhere:

1. Sparks – live sparks from chimneys, refuse burners, stacks, and other
similar sources must be given priority consideration. During periods of low
humidity and high wind velocity, special attention or precautions must be
taken in those areas where fire risk is possible or not negligible.

2. Mechanical Devices – engines of any type, or other machines in which

friction is created, are possible sources of fire. An overheated bearing of
an engine or machine is one good example. Elimination of lint and dust
from the surroundings of the moving mechanical device, an all excessive
flammable lubricants should be cleaned or remove promptly to avoid
possible combustion created from friction. Grinding wheels and other
spark-producing equipment are a frequent cause of fires and should not
be allowed in areas which might contain g\highly flammable gas or vapors.
Neither should flammable material of any type be left in an area where
sparks may fall upon them.

3. Acids and other Chemicals – all kinds of strong acids, such as nitric,
and hydrochloric, although they are not themselves flammable or supports
of combustion.

4. The chief hazard of these acids is the possibility of their leaking or

spilling from their containers. Fire or explosion is possible if they are come
in contact with other acids.

- Heat may cause nitric and hydrochloric acids to expand and

burst their containers. Strong acids should be stored in a cool
compartment unexposed to the not sun and free from all
flammable materials. Nitric Acids is capable of igniting some
flammable materials. Sulfur melts and flows while burning. It
should be stored away from heat and other chemicals. Handling

98
 of sulfur creates sulfur dust, which is subject to explosions.
Phosphorous, which ignites spontaneously upon contact with air,
is poisonous and is a serious fire and personnel hazard. It should
be kept under water in a tin container in complete isolation from
other chemicals. Care should be taken to prevent mechanical
injury to the container.
- Chorine – a heavy, greenish, poisonous gas, given off by many
manufacturing processes. Is not flammable itself but any cause
fire or explosion when in contact with ammonia, turpentine, or
finely powdered metals. Ventilation is of paramount importance.
- Chlorates, nitrates, and peroxides are all hazards because they
emit large quantities of oxygen when heated. Some of them may
be detonated or explode when in contact with materials such as:
starch, sugar, dust, organic matter, and sulfur compounds. Many
peroxides may ignite nearby flammables when exposed to
moisture.

5. Coal-Tar Derivatives – coal-tar derivatives in both crude and refined

forms are being used quite extensively. Dyes, medicines, and explosives
are manufactured from these coal-tar products. Since coal-tar derivatives
are hazardous, many fires and explosions have been caused by
carelessness. The preparation handling and storage of these materials
require the same precautionary methods and do gasoline, benzene, and
similar flammable liquids.

6. Effects of the Sun – the sun is frequently responsible for fires, though it
usually assisted by manmade implement. A forest fires have been known
to start from discarded bottles or other fragments of glass left by careless
campers. The sun rays, shining through a piece of glass which may be
ideally curved and placed as to act as a lens, are concentrated so as to
ignite a piece of paper. Similarly, curtains be ignited by a window pane
containing a bubble or some other irregularity. Fire may also result from
the sun’s shining through such things as laboratory flasks, fish bowls,
water bottles, and concave mirrors (which reflects heat). The sun also
contributes to spontaneous heating, thus aiding ignition. The possibility
that the sun will start a fire is somewhat remote. However, when we

99
consider the numerous conditions which may create these so called freak
fires and the fact that any of them may completely destroy a building, we
realize that these possibilities given careful consideration.

LESSON 2.3 PRE-FIRE PLAN

Objectives: At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. Discuss the purpose and requirement for pre-fire plan;

2. Enumerate and explain the types of pre-fire plan;
3. Evaluate the pre-disaster planning;
4. Discuss the classification of disaster;
5. Understand the natural cover fire pre-fire planning;
6. Explain the steps in the size-up of a natural cover fire;
7. Understand the natural cover fire; and

100
 8. Identify and explain the types of natural cover fire.

It is process of an advance and organized planning of possible

firefighting operations in a particular building or groups of buildings.

Fire departments are organized to protect lives and property from

fire within the areas they serve. Common sense dictates that firefighters
particularly the senior fire officer should have to analyze the problems
encountered intelligently to perform an efficient and effective job. Fire
defenses should be organized to prevent as many fires as possible from
occurring, while at the same time be prepared to combat, in an organized
way, those that cannot be prevented.

Purpose and Requirements for Pre-fire Plans

Plans are prepared to explain procedures and geographically

important information required during fire suppression operations.

Building pre-fire plan are carried on the assistant fire chief’s vehicle
and each first pumper or fire engine.

Aircraft pre-fire plans are carried on each fire chief’s and assistant fire
chief’s vehicle. Copies of each pre-fire plan (building and aircraft) are
maintained in the fire alarm communications center.

The first thing to be considered in any pre-fire planning is the

specific risk that be involved for each physical situation such as:
- The street, roads, and alleys between the fire station and
the scene of the fire;
- Location of the water supply and the volume and
pressure available;
- Exposure is also be given consideration.

Factors to be considered in Pre-fire Planning

- To recognize the specific problems involved when a fire
occurs in a given building;

101
 - The questions of availability of equipment;
- The availability of manpower.

Basic Information Contains in Pre-fire Plan

- Data on life hazards in each building, including where

people sleep, the location of doors, windows, stairways,
and fire escape; an outline of the most logical means of
rescue.
- Information on interior and exterior exposures and how
best to protect them, high value storage, the placement
of fire streams, and similar factors. Distances involved
should be indicated.
- Consideration of special building or facility hazards such
as the location of flammable stores, hazardous
operations, and the area most likely to be the origin of
fire.
- The location of hydrants or other water sources,
indicating the amount of water available and the
pressure; also the necessary lengths of ladder and their
proper placement to reach the required areas.
- The best approaches to the buildings, apparatus that will
respond, most advantageous hose-laying procedures,
and placement of streams.
- The cutting-off utilities, including electric power and gas
supply, indicating how and by whom it is to be done.
- The effect of seasonal changes on the accessibility to a
building and the response time.
- Installed fire protection or detection system, including
locations and procedures for connecting pumpers to
installed extinguishing systems.

Types of Pre-fire Planning:

Aircraft Pre-fire Planning

102
 There are few areas in fire protection that demand more effort that
the pre-fire aircraft pre-fire planning. However, the formulation of plans for
the particular fire protection is very complex and involved. Aircraft pre-fire
planning is not that simple. Aircraft incident planning is possibly even more
important, because of the vast number of possibilities and complex
situations.

Important Factors involved in this Planning:

1. Location
2. Mission
3. Climate
4. Terrain

Factors Common in Aircraft Pre-fire Plans

1. Aircraft
2. Equipment
3. Personnel

Aircraft – hours of planning may save only a second or two in reaching the
scene of the crash. Weeks of planning may save only a minute in
controlling a blaze or removing a victim, but in fire protection, time is
precious! A split second may save a life. Knowledge of the aircraft may
enable a firefighter to save time, thus protecting the most important thing-
HUMAN Life

Factors to Consider in Aircraft Pre-fire Plans

1. What type of aircraft?
The plans must include each type of mission-assigned aircraft.

2. How many people are on each aircraft?

The safety of each individual on the aircraft is the first concern;
therefore formulate the plans around the number of people to be
rescued. Vital information, such as the number of people actually
on board each aircraft, it’s of concern for normal flights as well as
emergencies. Each members of the fire protection squad should

103
 also know how many occupants each type of aircraft will
accommodate, to anticipate his role in rescue operations.

3. What is the proper firefighting and rescue procedure for each

type of aircraft?
One of the best sources of firefighting and rescue procedure is the
aircraft itself and directives which will provide the characteristics of
and information about a particular aircraft that must be included in
the pre-fire plans.

4. How much fuel is the aircraft carrying?

This type of information may save lives and properties and huge
sum of money.

5. When and where is the aircraft most likely experience difficulty?

Each members of the responding crews knows the weaknesses of
each type of aircraft, and anticipate the most likely time and place of an
emergency.

6. What kind of emergency is the aircraft experiencing?

The type of emergency will determine where to best locate crash
equipment to be used.

7. Is the aircraft carrying weapons?

It is important that the senior firefighter and crew members should
understand the type and character of weapons that aircraft carry. Each
member should be well-versed in the emergency procedures for the many
different types of weapons and their locations on the aircraft.

@ Equipment – select a predetermined location for each piece of

equipment, including rescue and re-supply vehicles. Careful planning for
all possible situations and choosing the most favorable for the equipment
when an actual crash occurs. Consider the uses of other emergency
equipment on the installation and in the area. Plan the location and
application of emergency and keep other emergency organizations
informed.

104
 @ Personnel – the final area of consideration in aircraft pre-fire
planning is the use of personnel. The use of manpower and equipment go
hand in hand, but each must be considered separately to be successful. A
master recall file should be established and used for all recall operations.
In an aircraft pre-fire planning, as in other types of emergency plans,
consider the resources available under the provisions of mutual aid.

Pre-disaster Planning
Training and evaluating fire protection personnel is utmost
important. In addition, it is the responsibility of the supervisor the safety
and well-being of subordinate personnel. Moreover, fire protection
personnel may be needed to aid neighboring communities. Unexpected
acts of nature, such as: earthquakes, typhoons, and floods, may place an
unusual demands on the equipment and personnel. The fire department
must ready to offer assistance when and where it can.

Classification of Disasters

1. Domestic Disasters – this type of disaster includes all

emergencies which the general public and civil emergency crews can
handle. It is not feasible to attempt to formulate a concise pre-disaster
plan for each type of domestic disaster because of the many variables
involved. However, consideration should be given to factors that are likely
to be involved in each type of domestic disaster.

Types of Domestic Disaster:

a. Explosions involving large areas
b. Floods
c. Earthquakes
d. Hurricanes/Typhoons
e. Tornadoes

The domestic disaster pre-plan may well be the most difficult plans
to develop. In addition, the assistance required in major disasters, the fire

105
department may be called on to assist in other domestic emergencies
such as the following:

a. Drowning
b. Heart attacks
c. Household accidents
d. Transportation accidents

The fire department is only one of the many organizations that are
involved in these emergency procedures. Two of others are the Medical
authorities and the Police. The best pre-disaster plans can be developed
only when the Military and Fire Department, Police Department, Medical
authorities coordinate and prepare one Master Plan.

2. Military Disasters – all Military Installations must be considered

as possible targets, because the enemy knows that all installations can
assist in retaliation. It is also reasonable to predict that highly concentrated
areas of industry, population, and military installations will be likely targets.
Some areas and installations are considered prime targets areas, while
others are less important.

Fire Department Responsibilities in times of Disaster

a. To survive and help others to survive;

b. To do everything possible to restore normal functions and
operations;
c. To furnish aid and support to neighboring communities and
installation.

Natural Cover Fire Pre-fire Planning

Natural cover fires or forest fire, like each of the other types of fires,
present some unusual problems to the firefighter. The huge and
tremendous areas involved and the number of men needed to combat this
type of fire makes it impossible to develop completely an adequate pre-fire
plans. Limited water supplies require specialized tactics and equipment.

106
 Hand tools and Manpower – rather than motorized vehicles are
the backbone of natural cover firefighting.

Size-up – the most important consideration in firefighting a natural

cover fire is to choose the proper point from which to begin the attack. The
selection of this starting point must not be made haphazardly; it must be
based upon a careful analysis of the present and future conditions of the
fire as determined by fuel conditions, weather conditions, and terrain.

Steps in the Size-up of a Natural Cover Fire

1. Determine the size of the fire;
2. Check the wind directions;
3. Find out what kind of fuel the fire is burning and toward what kind
of fuel it is headed;
4. See if there are any natural barriers nearby to help stop the fire.
Such as:
a. streams
b. roads
c. plowed fields
d. burned-out areas.
5. Locate the hotspots, where the fire is burning most intensely, and
estimate when and where it may jump or throw sparks into a new supply
of fuel;
6. Set-up personnel evacuation procedures.

Attack – the aim of the initial attack is to stop the spread of the fire
as quickly as possible. If there are numerous spot fires ahead of the main
blaze which may “take off”, they will need the first attention. Otherwise, as
a general rule, the attack should begin at the point or points where the fire
is spreading or will spread most rapidly under sever conditions. Such
points where should be found on the uphill adjacent to accumulations of
highly flammable fuel, on the uphill side of the fire on steep slope, or on
the side of the fire which is being or will be driven by the prevailing wind.

Natural Covers Fires

107
 Natural covers fires involve grass, weeds, grain brush, forest or any
other plant life. Forest fires are the most dangerous of all natural cover
fires from the standpoint of a national problem. It involve more than
immediate monetary loss; this is insignificant compared with the effect on
the future water supply and timber supply with the loss of hunting, fishing,
and recreational facilities.

Types of Natural Cover Fires

Natural covers fires are divided into four distinct types. Each of
these types of fires is subject to variation in speed of fire propagation;
size, type, and quantity of fuel involved; and the procedures required for
extinguishments.

1. Ground fires (“undergrowth” or “duff” fires) – ground fires travel at

ground level or below the surface. Dry leaves, humus, peat, and other
organic materials that have become part of the soil.

2. Surface fires – surface fires burn over grass, weeds, grain, brush, and
shrubs. This type of fire travels rapidly if the wind is high and when the fuel
is abundant. The heat is intense but short-lived because of the quick-
burning characteristics of the fuels.

3. Crown fires – crown fires are in the tops of trees and in high brush.
When the heat generated by flash fuels at them surface is intense, the fire
advances upward on the dried lower limb of trees and continues to burn in
the treetops. This condition occurs mostly in dense forest and then only on
steep slopes, in draws and canyons, or during high winds. A crown fire is
the most feared of all natural cover fires. The enormous flame area draws
the air for hundreds of yards from the fire line; this in turn, generates such
heat that direct control is impossible. Indirect methods, such as firebreaks
(either natural or man-made) and backfiring, are the best means of
controlling large crown fires.

4. Spot fires – spot fires are started in advance of the heads by windblown
sparks or bits of burning material. They are capable of creating a very
dangerous situation. A number of spot fires may merge and create a new

108
head in advance of the main fire. Men and equipment may be trapped
between these fires, and losses may result. A well-organized patrol must
be constantly on the alert to locate spot fires and get them under control
before extensive damage results.

Parts of Natural Cover Fire

The HEAD is the point where the fire line is progressing faster. A
natural cover fire may have number of heads, defending on the type,
abundance, and location of the fuel. Fire heads generally travel with the
wind; the stronger the wind, the greater the speed of the fire. Because of
frequent directional changes of the wind, varying types and quantities of
fuel, and topographic conditions, natural cover fires have irregular
perimeters, making control difficult and often dangerous.

The windward or upward portion of the fire is called the TAIL.

Usually the tail is in or near the general vicinity of the origin of the fire. All
portions of the fire line between the tail and the various heads and those
slower burning areas between the heads are called the FLANKS.

The rate of burning of this type of fire depends primarily on the

velocity of the wind, type and abundance of fuel, and the general
topographic conditions. The head of the fire travels at a rate proportional
to the wind velocity. Wind carries additional oxygen to the fire and
increases the rate of burning. The hot air rising from the fire causes a
partial vacuum. Cold air, with a fresh supply of oxygen, rushes in at the
base. The larger and hotter the fire, the stronger is the draft created by the
fire.

The fire heads move faster uphill and through draws or canyons
than on level grounds or downhill, other conditions remaining equal.
Heads burning uphill dry out and vaporize fuel faster than those burning
on level grounds or downhill. The upward rush of cold air acts like the draft
in a chimney and speeds burning accordingly.

109
 Heads running up draws, valleys, or canyons cause the inrush of
cold air with a new oxygen supply to be concentrated in a small area and
as a result, the fire propagation rate is greatly increased.

This condition is similar to a forced draft in a blacksmith’s forge,

fanning the fire to a greater speed and intensity.

What to do in combating this type of fire?

1. Never attempt to control a running fire from the uphill directions;
2. Men or equipment should never approach the head of a fire from, when
the approach necessitates travel in a draw, valley, or canyons.

The correct point to begin control is at the tail on the upward side to
the fire line, or at the head of the fire when it reach a crest and starts its
slower, downhill burning.

Methods for Controlling and Extinguishing Various Types of Natural

Cover Fires

1. Sectional Method – the sectional method consists of placing a unit on a

specific section of the fire line. Its mission is to stop the progress of the
fire, extinguishing it at the fire line, and execute mop-up patrol work. The
unit has the full responsibility for that section of the fire line. This method is
best used against a slow-moving fire.

2. One-Lick Method – it is the fastest and easiest method to use on a

running fire. A firefighting team is placed at the location designed as the
fire line and ordered to work in a specific direction.

From one to several individuals of a team knock down the hottest

portions of the fire with backpack pumps, when water is available, and
proceed along on the flank. Behind the initial unit, individuals pass through
with axes and mattocks, each person taking one-lick with his specific tool
at the obstacle that most impedes the progress of the group in
constructing a firebreak.

110
Methods of Natural Cover Fire Control

1. Direct Method of Control – this method is very effective against

natural cover fires but can be used only on moderately hot fires.
Either the sectional or the one-lick attack may be used.

2. Indirect Method of Control – this natural cover fire control method

entails the use of firebreaks or barriers. Natural fire barriers consists
of lakes, rivers, creeks, deserts, or rock formation.

These barriers will stop a natural cover fire if they are wide enough
to prevent the spread of spot fires. Natural barriers may be augmented by
artificial firebreaks.

Firebreaks – artificial firebreaks are consist of roads, highways,

survey lines, or cleared areas. Specific lines may be cut to prevent the
progress of fires that may break out in the future. Firebreaks must be at
least twice as wide as the height of the surrounding natural cover types.
These breaks should be cleared to conform as nearly possible with the
ridge lines and to connect natural barriers. Firebreaks must be cleared of
brush and grass to keep fire from traveling through these flash fuels. Most
permanent firebreaks include small trails built in conjunction with the
breaks.

Backfires – backfires are employed to burn back toward the

advancing heads, thus creating a fast break and stopping the fire because
of a lack of fuel. Backfires are normally used where suitable network of
firebreaks already exists. Backfiring should not be attempted except on
orders of an officer who is fully aware of the existing conditions. Improper
backfiring causes loss of control of the fire and may trap personnel
working on the line. Great damage and loss of life and equipment may
result when backfires are improperly executed.

The whereabouts of all personnel and equipment must be known

before backfiring is started. Before backfire is lighted, sufficient personnel
and equipment must be in the area and ready for use to control the

111
resultant fire. Wind directions and velocity must be considered in
conjunction with either natural and or artificial firebreaks.

Exercises: Lesson 2.3

1. In natural cover firefighting, what is the most important factor to be

considered, why?
2. In preparing a pre-fire plan on a specific building. What is first thing that
you must consider?
3. Why are pre-fire plans prepared for a selected building?
4. What are the two factors to be considered after recognizing the specific
problems involve in pre-fire planning, why?
5. What are the factors involve in preparing aircraft pre-fire plan, explain
the importance of these factors.
6. Enumerate the building code requirements, discuss its importance.
7. What is a pre-fire plan?
8. Enumerate and discuss the most effective means of combating natural
cover fire before the fire actually occurs.
9. Discuss the four distinct types of natural cover fires.
10. Explain how One-lick method controls and extinguish natural cover
fire.

112
 MODULE 3
Objectives: At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. Understand the nature and basis of fire investigation;

2. Discuss difficult problems to solve in determining the cause of
fire;
3. Explain the use of photographs to document evidence; and
4. Discuss the importance of photography in arson investigation.

Lesson 3.1 Fire Investigation

This module will point out the main features of fire investigation.
Fire investigation is by nature the basis for fire prevention program. Only
an in-depth analysis of what sequences of event enable a fire to start,
enable it to spread, and how and where it was controlled (e.g. firefighting,
structural design, lack of fuel) can help prevent future fires. Additionally,
fire investigation includes the observations of everyone involved, and at
the fires themselves there are many firefighters who will able to shed light
on the nature of the fire, its progress, and so forth.

One of the most difficult problems to solve is to determine the

cause of the fire, since the flames generally consume any evidence of
what occurred. This is the reason that the cause of most fires cannot be
determine without a long and careful investigation.

Firefighters often make snap judgments at the scene as to the

cause of a fire, without an adequate evidence of sufficient investigation on
which to base their decision. Apparently, there is hesitation on the part of
the firefighters to admit that they do not really know the real cause of the
fire, since few fires (approximately 4% of those reported) are listed as
“cause known.” Instead, the fire is attributed to various causes without
apparent regard to actual evidence or to lack of it.

Some of the favorite causes listed by firefighters, when they are not
certain of the actual cause, are faulty wiring, children playing with

113
matches, spontaneous combustion, sparks from stove, burning rubbish,
and careless disposal of smoking materials.

The very general and indefinite nature of these causes indicates

that, in most cases, they are based assumption rather than on evidence.

In this relation, the material or book will assist you in performing or

conducting investigation to determine the causes and origin of a fire.
No matter how small, fire must be investigated. Fire investigations
provided authorities with information needed to guide fire prevention
educational programs, help fire inspectors in spotting and eliminating new
or previously overlooked hazards, and develop meaningful information for
training fire protection personnel.

As far as fire investigation is concerned, they must be define as:

Cause – that which made the fire start; and

Reason – that which led to the cause of a fire (a motive leading to the
action).

Both cause and reason must be established to satisfactorily complete a

fire investigation. The “cause” explains the existence of fire, or the WHAT
of investigation; while the “reason” establishes the WHY of the fire and
investigation. Both are required to correctly classify the fire, and also to
provide guidance in establishing corrective action to preclude a recurrence
of the incident.

The importance of the establishment of a fire cause is the

knowledge of the physical aspects of fire.

Four General Classes of Fire Causes

1. Natural Fire – fire caused naturally without human intervention or
aid; such as lightning, spontaneous ignition, mechanical malfunction of
equipment.
2. Accidental Fire – fire causes where human action is involved
directly or indirectly. i.e.

114
 a. Careless disposal of smoking materials;
b. Workers using welding-cutting equipment.
3. Arson – fire cause as a result of the willful and criminal action of
some persons, i.e., incendiary fire.
4. Unknown Fi9re – fires which are not classified as to cause.

Three General Classifications of Fire

1. Innocent fire – e.g. natural and accidental causes

2. Incendiary fire – e.g. arson cases
3. Unknown fire – e.g. fire of unknown causes.

Persons Responsible to Examine and Inspect the Fire Scene

(American Settings)

Fire Marshall
Fire Chief
Assistant Chief for Technical Service
Fire Inspector responsible for the specific building
Senior Fire Officer at the scene
Photographer
Utilities Personnel (particularly electrician)

The first four individuals provide technical experience for the

investigation. The Senior Fire Officer from the fire incident is present to
explain what was observed during the fire and to report on the mechanics
or what transpire during the extinguishment of the fire.

Photographer provides complete coverage, beginning with pictures

during the firefighting operations; including exterior, interior, special
features, circumstances and the activities of the investigators at work.

Utilities personnel provide technical assistance, particularly as to

the condition of electrical circuits and appliances.

115
Fire Investigation and Evidence Kit

Evidence kit provides equipment for use in the investigation and for
the preservation of any evidence found at the scene after evidence has
been photograph in its original location.

© Special clothing such as: coverall, gloves, boots used to protect

uniform;
© Flashlight and electric lantern;
© Measuring tape and small ruler for making measurements;
© Labels (gummed and stringed) used to identify items;
© New or sterile glass jars with rubber airtight seals used for the
collection of samples
© Envelopes, boxes, plastic bags, metal cans used for the
collection (assorted sizes) used for collection of samples.

Basis steps in a Fire Scene Examination

Search systematically – make a plan, have in mind what you will

look for, the way you will look, and what you will do with each item found
and collected. Be thorough, complete, and orderly.

Observe – use your eyes, ears, nose, and camera if possible to

note the conditions. Observe the fire and the spectators

Take photograph – the camera records more details than the

naked eye. Establish visual reference through numerous photographs.
Photograph each area several times during the various phases of
investigation. Infrared photography may prove extremely valuable since it
is sensitive to differences in heat.

Work by the Process of Elimination – establish a checklist and

check off each item. Settle one item before attempting another if possible.
Avoid backtracking.

116
 Check and Verify – do not assume or take for granted. Don’t jump
to conclusions.

Take note – write down all the details

Draw diagrams – amplify notes with diagrams depicting locations

of incidents described.

Areas to Conduct Fire Investigation

Exterior – determine where the fire vested first by comparing burn, char,
smoke, and heat patterns around windows, doors, and roof.
Look for the following:
 Exterior points of origin;
 Unusual burn patterns of flammable liquid;
 Tools and flammable liquid containers; and
 Footprints and scuff marks at suspected points of entry.

Interior – conduct a cursory examination or general survey of the entire

structure of interior for the extent of fire damage. Establish the class of fire
duration (brief or long) and the approximate burn time by checking the
following:

 Window glass condition;

 Depth of wood char, at or in close proximity to the point
of origin;
 Penetration of fire restrictive wall coverings by fire;
 Electric clock that has been stopped by fire damage.; and
 Note the time stopped and compare with alarm time. The
time factors should be estimated and considered as
approximation only.

117
Steps on How to Determine the Point of Origin

1. Examine the entire interior of the building and determine which room or
areas has received the most severe fire damage. Generally, this will be
the area where the fire burned extensively or the longest and will very
likely be where it originated.

2. Determine the level or origin within the room by examining and

comparing the bottom side of the tables, shelves, and chairs.

3. Examine the ceiling and look the following patterns:

a. Fire penetration and
b. Heaviest fire exposure

4. Examine the light bulbs within the room. The side of the bulbs which is
initially exposed to heat begin to swell or bulge and lose shape at about
900 degrees F when expose to heat for 10 minutes or more actually point
to the area of fire origin.

5. Examine walls within the room and look for fire patterns or fire cones.
Fires generally burn upward and outward, leaving corresponding fire
patterns on wall as a result of heat transfer through convection and
radiation. The steepness or relative pitch of the angle seen on the fire
cone is indicative of the type of burning, e.g. smoldering or flaming.

Debris
Examine the fire debris and the floor in the following manner:

 Conduct a detailed search of the debris, examining it

layer by layer until the floor is reached;
 Completely clean the floor on all debris and char dust.
The floor and floor covering should be clean enough to
observe and photograph the significant burn and char
patterns and should be dry;
 Carefully reconstruct and replace furnishing and other
articles in their original positions by using burn patterns

118
 and corresponding protected areas. During fire progress,
legs and bases of furniture and other items on the floor
will protect the floor, leaving unburned marks which aid in
repositioning.
 Examine the floor coverings and floor for significant
patterns.

Furnishing

Examine fire damage furnishing such as: upholstered furniture

couches, chairs, beds, etc.

Two (2) General Types of Burn Pattern

 Burn pattern that involves a surface burning of the item.

This pattern is indicative of the presence of a smoldering
source of ignition. Examination of supporting springs will
disclose that tension still exists.
 Burn patterns involving deep penetration of one portion
with corresponding collapse of springs and frame
destruction. Spring collapse is caused when the heating
process occurs over an extended length of time, causing
the springs to lose their tension and collapse of their own
weight.

Type Furnishing
 Upholstered furniture;
 Television sets and table radios;
 Drapes and curtains;
 Kitchen range

Fire Report

Fire reports of all fires, regardless of sizes, should be completed.

This report should be initiated and completed without delay. The contents
of the fire report may contain the following:

119
 1. Time of incidents;
2. Location of incident;
3. Size and nature of fire;
4. Fire involvement;
5. Fire department plant response;
6. Injuries and fatalities;
7. Time fire extinguished;
8. Most probable cause;
9. Follow-up and corrective action required.

Types of Fire / Arson Investigation

Basic Investigation

Purposes:
1. To determine what property was damage;
2. What the causes and reason were;
3. The number and extent of injuries or fatalities; and
4. The recommended corrective actions to prevent
recurrence.

Technical Investigation

It is and in-depth investigation to determine more specific details of

the cause and effects, and to establish necessary corrective action.

Reasons in Conducting Technical Investigation

1. There is suspicion of arson in connection with any fire;

2. There is suspicion of negligence or violation of regulations;
3. The cause of any fire as undetermined (to establish the most probable
cause);
4. There is evidence of negligence or mismanagement in the fire
suppression or rescue operation;
5. Loss of life or disabling as a result of fire.

120
Arson Investigation

The direct result of the basic or technical investigation or it may be

brought about from outside knowledge.

Character Traits of Qualified Arson Investigator

1. He should possess knowledge of investigative techniques;
2. He should have an insight of human behavior;
3. He should have a firsthand knowledge of the chemistry of fire
and its behavior;
4. He should be resourceful.

Exercise Lesson 3.1

A. – Indicate whether given statements concerning the cause of fire is

correct, mark it True, if a statement is invalid mark it False and correct the
wrong phrases:

1. ____ If after completing the investigation of a fire, and the exact cause
of the fire could not be established, then the fire should be classified as
unknown.
2. ______Any fire (other than arson) which results from either direct or
indirect human action should be classified as accidental.
3. ______ as far as fire investigator is concerned, the word “cause” may
be defined as “that which made the fire start,” while “reason” means “that
which led to the cause of a fire.”
4. _______ both the “cause” and “reason” are required to correctly classify
the fire.
5. _______ when the classifying the cause of a fire that resulted from
mechanical malfunction of equipment, that fire is classified as accidental.
6. ______ during a fire investigation, most other causes of fire must be
eliminat6ed before assuming an incendiary cause.
7. ______ when a fire results due to the malfunctioning of equipment, the
cause for that fire may be lack of proper care and maintenance of the
equipment.

121
B. – Given a series of incomplete statements concerning personnel that
make fire investigations, complete the statement by filling in the correct
word(s) and / or phrases(s).

1. When technical assistance is required as to the condition of certain

electrical circuits and or the appliances, the personnel to be consulted
should be _______________.
2. As a fire chief, the proper selection of personnel on a fire investigation
team to be relied upon are the ____________, _____________,
_________________.
3. The person who are to examine and inspect during the fire investigation
to explain the mechanics of extinguishment of the fire, that person should
be _____________.

C. – Point out how and or why given actions/functions are performed as a

part of a fire investigation.

1. Why must an investigator take photograph, make notes and sketches,

and gather and record evidence?
2. How accurate are “stopped clock” in fire investigation?
3. The depth of wood char at, or in close proximity to the point of origin,
will help to establish what factor?
4. How many infrared photography prove valuable in fire investigation?
5. How would you determine where the fire started first?

122
Lesson 3.2 Photographing the Fire Scene

The use of photographs to document mush of the evidence and to

support the observations, opinions and conditions the investigators wish to
make as to the cause of the fire will support the investigator’s findings.

Photographs also provide evidence which would counteract

arguments of alternative causes of the fire which might be suggested at a
later date. Photographs are also useful for jogging the investigator’s
memory at the time of writing the report or before appearing in court. Also
in extremely dark fire scene the photographs could detail which may not
be available using torch light.

Photographs provide a pictorial representation which is easily

understood and evaluated. In making a report, the investigator should
provide at least one or two photographs wherever possible to support
each observation he/she wishes to present. The photographs should be
numbered and captioned and referred to as “photographs 1, 2, etc.

A plan should also be made showing the view angles of each

photograph or alternatively the photographs should be presented in a
sequence which will provide some type of continuity to allow the reader or
determine the view angle of each one.

Photographing the Exterior

Where to photograph and what to photograph

1. From all side or at least to opposite corners of the building to
show the overall degree of fire damage and the locations of the various
entrances and windows;
2. The location of the building to neighboring buildings or firefighting
access areas;
3. Any object which may be material to the circumstances of the
fire;
4. Type of tracks, footprints and the location of explosion debris are
photographed in close details, as well as from a distance.

123
 The exterior photographs generally shows the nature and material
of construction and the locations of the doors, windows, chimneys, flues,
electricity fuse box or gas meter. The openings where the fire vented are
usually clearly shown in the exterior photographs. Exterior burn patterns
are generally easier to interpret than the equivalent interior burn pattern as
they generally provide good color and texture contrast, and are less
affected by smoke.

Panoramic views are valuable in reports as they provide in great

detail an overall view of the scene. It can be produced by joining together
a sequence of photographs or by using a wide angle lens or a disposable
camera equipped with wide angled lens.

Photographing the Interior

Photographs of the interior of a building are generally more difficult

for the viewer to interpret than the exterior photographs as the interior
surfaces are usually burnt and covered with a layer of soot. A good quality
flash unit is essential as the photographs need to provide as much detail
as possible to allow the investigators to familiarize themselves with the
nature of the damage and possibly the identity and purpose of the room
before the fire.

Where to photograph and what to photograph

1. All rooms and areas indie the building affected by the fire, the
photographs should be sequentially presented in a report from the areas
of least damage to the area of greatest damage, or to the area of fire
origin, if this is not the area of greatest damage.

2. The peripheral areas where the fire had not originated;

3. The area of fire origin should be photograph before excavation will

commence and again photograph should be taken during excavation, if
the process has yielded points of interest;

124
4. At areas where an accelerant is suspected, the areas of localized
damage to the floor as well as the overhead damage should be
photograph;

5. The burn patterns at doorways should be photograph to show the

spread of the fire between rooms. The burn patterns on the walls in
hallways normally show the room from which the fire originated and the
direction of spread of the fire;

6. Appliances suspected of causing the fire should be photographed a

distance and in close up in the location where they were found. The
remains should be taken outside to allow closer inspection and be
photographed in sunlight or later at the laboratory.

Points of Entry and Security of Building

Fire brigade personnel will usually give an account of the security of

a building as they found it. In many cases their accounts will need to be
verified at each point of entry by an inspection of the burn patterns and
soot deposits to surface around the point of entry, and an examination for
tool marks.

Where to Photograph and what to Photograph

1. The doors should be first photograph in the position in which they
were found. If the door was found closed then both sides of the door
should be photograph.

2. The burn patterns and soot deposits around the door and the
door – frame should be photograph as they normally ascertai8n the
position of the door at the time of the fire;

3. Any parts of the door or lock which may have been dislodged as
a result of some type of forced entry should be photograph at the location
where they were found and later reconstructed at their original position.

125
On Windows

1. The position at the time of the fire should also be determine and the
evidence used for such an evaluation should be photograph;
2. The position of the window frames in the case of a sliding aluminum
window;

3. The position of the falling glass could both indicate the position of the
window at the time of the fire;

4. The smoke and heat patterns above a window can also indicate the
position of the window at the time of the fire should also be photograph.

5. The window locks should also be recovered and photograph.

Importance of Photograph in Arson Investigation

Without evidence, arrest and prosecution of an arsonist is

extremely difficult. Photography is an effective tool in recording and
preserving the evidence of set fires. Much of the actual evidence may be
destroyed during firefighting, or if it survives the fire, it may be impossible
to preserve.

Every effort should be made to photograph the scene of a fire,

whether or not arson is suspected, before it is disturbed by other
operations. Pictures may be used to prove the intent to commit arson.

Photography in Arson Investigation:

1. Show the areas in which the fire started or was set.
2. Help identify spectators. An arsonist often remains to watch the fire.
3. Provide information about the speed of combustion and direction of
spreading.

126
4. Show the progressive stages of burning and firefighting from various
angles. If possible keep a record of the time each picture was taken.
5. Help investigators determine the type of material’s burning. This is
where the use of color film is recommended. The steam, color, and
quantity of smoke and the color and size of flames are indications of what
type of material is burning. The color of smoke often indicates whether an
accelerant, such as gas, was used to speed the burning process.
6. Give particular attention to the most burned charred areas. The
structure should be photographed from all sides or angles to show the
damaged areas. Other things to look for are incendiary devices and
combustible materials, such as matchbox/es, paper, liquids (such as gas,
and paint thinner), and fuses. Although they may have burned completely,
there could be a visible trail, defective wiring and electrical or gas
appliances that may have been the cause of the fire.

Figure 51 – Photographing the Point of Origin

127
 Figure 52 – Photographing the Exterior

Exercise: Lesson 3.2

1. What makes photographs very important in the field of fire /

arson investigation?

2. Enumerate the different areas to be photograph and discuss its

importance in an arson investigation.

128
 MODULE 4

Objectives: At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:

1. Understand what constitute an Arson;

2. Discuss the reason that contribute to the spread of fire;
3. Discuss the legal authorities for investigating fire and prosecuting
people who arranged for a fire; and
4. Enumerate and identify motives of Arsonist.

Lesson 4. 1 Laws on Arson

This module will present and point out what are the reasons that
contribute to the spread of fire. There are three principal causes of fire
namely: men, women, and children. This statement still has considerable
significance because most of the more than one and a quarter million
building fires that occur every year in the United States and Asian
countries particularly the Philippines are caused by human errors either of
omission or commission. For that reason considerable importance is
placed upon educating the public along fire prevention lines or programs.
For many years we have referred to the “causes” of fire. This was not
always strictly correct. For example, flammable liquids have been listed as
one of the causes of fire, yet flammable liquids cannot alone cause a fire
unless some ignition source is provided, and one may well ask, “What
caused the fire, the flammable liquid or the ignition source?

In the United States, the investigation of fires for their cause and
the detection and apprehension of arsonists is correctly the function of the
fire department. Arson and the malicious activities of many persons cause
a significant impact each year in this country and abroad. There are many
motives that contribute to these crimes.

129
 The legal authority for investigating fires and prosecuting people
who arranged for a fire is usually given to the State Fire Marshall. But
proving a case of arson against one or more persons is another matter
entirely, and may not be possible no matter how convinced the
investigator may be of the guilt. The choice of whether to prosecute is up
to the District Attorney’s office as part of the criminal justice system.

In the Philippines, under the DILG or PNP Law, the Bureau of Fire
Protection and Public Safety is the main government agency responsible
for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on buildings,
houses and other structures, forest, land transportation vehicles and
equipment, ships or vessels docked at piers or major seaports, petroleum
industry installations, plane crashes and other similar incidents, as well as
the enforcement of the Fire Code (P.D. 1185) and other related.

It has the major power to investigate all causes of fires, and if

necessary, file the proper complaints with the proper authority that has
jurisdiction over the case (R.A. 6975; sec 54).

What Constitute Arson?

1. Burning – there must be burning or changing, i.e., the fiber of the wood
must be destroyed or decomposed, its identity or physical state changed.

2. Willfulness – the act was done purposely and with intention.

3. Motive – the moving cause that induces the commission of the crime.

4. Malice – it denotes hatred or a desire for revenge.

5. Intent – the purpose or design with which the act is done and involves
the will to do the act.

130
Methods of Proof in Arson

Most of the physical evidence in arson is often destroyed. To prove

arson was committed, Corpus Delicti (the Body of the Crime) must be
shown and the identity of the arsonist must be established.

What is Corpus Delicti?

It is the fact of that crime was committed.

Factor involve:
1. Burning – that there was fire that may be shown by direct
testimony of complaint, firemen responding to the crime, and other
witnesses of the fire incident. Burned parts of the building may also
indicate location.
2. Criminal Design – a willful and intent action done must be shown.
The presence of incendiary devices, flammable substances / materials
such as gasoline and kerosene may indicate that the fire is not accidental.
3. Evidence of Intent – when valuables were removed from the
building before the fire, the ill-feeling between the accused and the
occupants of the building involved or burned – absence of effort to put off
the fire and such other indications.

Basic of Lines of Inquiry

Points of Origin of Fire
Initially, the important point to be established is the point of origin of
the fire, or what particular place in the building the fire started. This may
be obtained or established by an examination of witness by the arson
investigator, by inspection of the debris at the fire scene, and by studying
the fingerprint of fire.

The Fingerprint of Fire

131
 This occurs during the free-burning stage of the fire, or when it
undergoes pyrolytic decomposition or heated gases move upward on the
walls leaving a burnt pattern.

Witnesses must be questioned as to:

 His identity;
 What attracted his attention;
 The time of observation;
 His position in relation to the fire at the time of his
observation;
 Exact location of the blaze;
 The rapidity or the speed of spread of the fire;
 Color of flame and odor if he / she is in position to
observe this;
 Size and intensity;
 Any other person in the vicinity seen by the witness.

Note Fire Setting Mechanism:

 Matches
 Candles
 Electrical system
 Mechanical means
 Chemical methods

Motive

Fires are set by:

1. Persons with motives
> Those with desire to defraud the insurer
> Employees or such other person who has grievance
> Those with desire to conceal evidence of crime
> Those who set fire for purposes of intimidation

2. Person without motives

> Those who are mentally ill
> Pathological fire-setters

132
 > Pyros (pyromaniac)
> Psychos

In determining motive, the arson investigator must concentrated on

the three (3) Major Factors namely:

1. Point of Origin
2. Modus Operandi
3. Beneficiaries

What are the common motives of Arsonist?

1. Burned Building – the type of building may indicate a set fire under
certain circumstances. A fire of considerable size at the time the first
apparatus arrives at the scene is suspicious if a modern concrete or semi-
concrete building is involved.

2. Separate fires – when two or more fire breaks out within a building, the
building, the building is certainly suspicious.

3. Color of smoke – some fire burn with little or no smoke but there are
exceptions to this. The observation of the smoke must be made at the
start of the fire since once the fire has consumed a major proportion; the
value of the smoke is lost, because the smoke will not indicate the
material used by the arsonist.
» When white smoke appears before the water from the fire hose
comes in contact with the fire, it indicates humid materials burning.
Example: hay, vegetables, phosphorous with garlic odor.
» Biting smoke indicates lack of air but if accompanied large
flames it indicates petroleum products and rubber.
» Reddish-brown smoke indicates nitrocellulose. SI, H2, SO4,
HNO3. HCI.

Indication of Color of /smoke and Fire

Color of Smoke Material/Substance

133
 Black smoke with deep red flame Petroleum products such as Tar,
rubber, plastics etc.
Heavy brown with bright red flame Nitrogen Products
White smoke with bright flame Magnesium products
Black smoke with red and blue Asphalt
green flame
Purple-violet flame Potassium products
Greenish-yellow flame Chloride or Manganese products
Bright Reddish-yellow flame Calcium products

4. Smoke Marks – an experienced investigator will determine the volume

of smoke involved at a fire and the character as residue deposited on
walls or elsewhere. Smoke marks have often been of assistance in
determining the possibility of a fire having more than one place of origin.

5. Color of Flame – the color of flame is a good indicator of the intensity

of the fire, it is an important factor in determining incendiarism.

 A reddish glow indicates heat about 5000 C., a real light

red about 1000C
 Red flames indicate presence of petroleum products.
 Blue flame indicates use of alcohol as accelerant.

6. Size of fire – the size of fire is important when correlated with the type
of alarm, the time received and the time of arrival of the first responder at
the fire scene. Fire makes what might be termed a normal progress. Such
progress can be estimated after an examination of the material burned in
the building, and the normal ventilation offered to the fire. The time
element and the degree of headway much by the flames became
important factors to determine possible incendiarism.

7. Direction of Travel – while it is admitted that no two fires burn in

identical fashion, yet it can be shown that the fire makes normal progress
through various types of building. Considering the type of construction, the
building materials, combustibility of contents, channel o0f ventilation and

134
circumstances surrounding the sending of alarm, an experienced
investigator can determine whether a fire has spread abnormally fast.

8. Intensity – the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color of its
flame often times indicate that some accelerant has been added to the
material normally present in a building and the investigator must look
further for more evidence used of such accelerant. Difficulty in
extinguishing the fire is often a lead to suspect presence of such fluid or
liquid as gasoline and kerosene.

9. Odor – the odor of gasoline, alcohol, kerosene and other flammable

liquids which are often used as an accelerant is a characteristics and often
times an arsonists is trapped because of this telltale sign. Most of fire-
setters are inclined to use substances which will make the blaze certain
and at the same time burn up any evidence of their crime.

10. Condition of Content- persons tending to set their house on fire

frequently remove objects of value either materially or sentimentally. Store
and other business establishments remove a major portion of their content
or replaced valuable merchandise with, out of style articles.

11. Doors and windows – Locked doors and obstructed entrance and
passageways are sometimes point to an attempt to impeded firemen in
their operation to put out the fire. Doors and windows showing signs of
forced entry may point to arson preceded by burglary or arson by
someone without a key to the premises.

12. Other suspicious circumstances – interested by-standers of familiar

faces and discovery of some objects which might be part of a mechanical
fire-setting device among debris.

135
Lesson 4.2 Legal Aspect of Fire Investigation

Arson and Crimes involving destructions

Art. 320 Destructive arson – the penalty of reclusion temporal in its

maximum period to reclusion perpetua shall be imposed upon any person
who shall burn:
1. Any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military powder or
fireworks factory, ordinance, archives or general museum of the
government.
2. Any passenger train or motor vehicle in motion or vessel out of
port.
3. In an inhabited place, any storehouse of factory of inflammable
or explosive materials.

Art. 321 Other form of arson – when the arson consists in the burning of
other property and under the circumstances given hereunder, the offender
shall be punishable:
1. By reclusion temporal or reclusion perpetua:
a. If the offender shall set fire to any building, farmhouse,
warehouse, hut, shelter, or vessel in port, knowing it to be
occupied at the time by one or more persons;
b. If the building burned is a public and value of the damage
caused exceeds 6,000 pesos;
c. If the building burned is a public building and the purpose is to
destroy evidence kept therein to be used in instituting
prosecution for the punishment of violators of the law,
irrespective of the amount of the damage.
d. If the building burned is a public building and the purpose is to
destroy evidence kept therein to be used in legislative, judicial
or administrative proceedings, irrespective of the amount of the

136
 damage; provided, however, that if the evidence destroyed is to
be used against the defendant for the prosecution of any crime
punishable under existing laws, the penalty shall be reclusion
perpetua;
e. If the arson shall have been committed with the intention of
collecting under an insurance policy against loss or damage by
fire.
2. By reclusion temporal:
a. If an inhabited house or any other building in which people are
accustomed to meet is set on fire, and the culprit did not know
that such house or building was occupied at the time, or id he
shall set fire to a moving freight train or motor vehicle, and the
value of the damage caused exceeds 6, 000 pesos;
b. If the value of the damage caused in paragraph (b) of the
preceding subdivision does not exceed 6, 000 pesos;
c. Of a farm, sugar mill, cane mill, mill central, bamboo groves or
any similar plantation is set on fire and the damage caused
exceeds 6,000 pesos; and
d. If grain field, pasture lands, or forest, or planting are set on fire
and the damage caused exceeds 6, 000 pesos.
3. By prision mayor:
a. If the value of the damage caused in the case mentioned in
paragraph (a), (c), and (d) in the next preceding subdivision
does not exceed 6, 000 pesos;
b. If a building not used as a dwelling or place of assembly,
located in populated place, is set on fire and the damage
caused exceeds 6, 000 pesos
4. By prision correctional in its maximum period to prision mayor
in its medium period:
a. If a building used as dwelling located in an uninhabited place is
set and the damage caused exceeds 1, 000 pesos;
b. If the value or the damage caused in the case mentioned in
paragraphs and
c. Of subdivision 2 of this article does not exceed 200 pesos.
5. By prision correctional in its medium period to prison mayor in its
minimum period, when the damage caused is over 200 pesos but

137
 does not exceed 1, 000 pesos and the property referred to in
paragraph (a) of the preceding subdivision is set on fire; but when
the value of such property does not exceed 200 pesos, the next
lower in degree than that prescribed in this subdivision shall be
imposed.
6. The penalty of prision correctional in its medium periods, if the
damage caused in the case in paragraph (b) of subdivision 3 of this
article does not exceed 6, 000 pesos but is over 200 pesos.
7. The penalty of prision correctional in its minimum and medium
periods, if the damage caused in the case mentioned paragraph (b)
subdivision 3 of this article does not exceed 200 pesos.
8. The penalty of arresto mayor and fine fifty to one hundred per
centum if the damage caused shall be imposed, when the property
burned consists fields, pasture lands, forest, or plantations when
the value of such property does not exceed 200 pesos. (As
amended by R.A.5467, approved May 12, 1969).

Article 325. Burning one’s own property as means to commit

arson – any person guilty of arson or causing great destruction of the
property belonging to another shall suffer the penalties prescribed in
this chapter, even though he shall have set fire to or destroyed his own
property for the purposes of committing the crime.

Article 326-A In cases where death resulted as consequence of

arson – If death resulted as a consequence of arson committed on any
of the properties and under any of the circumstances mentioned in the
preceding articles, the court shall imposed the death penalty.

Article 326-B Prima Facie evidence of arson – Any of the following

circumstances shall constitute prima facie evidence of arson:
1. If after the fire, are found materials or substances soaked in
gasoline, kerosene, petroleum or other inflammables or any
mechanical, electrical chemical or traces or any of the
foregoing.

138
 2. That substantial amount of inflammable substance or materials
were stored within the building not necessary in the course of
the defendant’s business; and
3. That the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the
building or locale under circumstances that cannot normally be
due to accidental or unintentional causes: Provided, however
that at least one of the following in present in any of the three
above-mentioned circumstances:
a. That the total insurance carried on the building and or goods
are more than 80% of the value of such building or goods at
the time of the fire;
b. That the defendant after the fire has presented a fraudulent
claim for loss.

4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more

than its actual value at the time of the issuance of the policy;

5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy

more than two fires have occurred in the same or other
premises owned or under the control of the offender and or
insured;

6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects

endured and stored in a building or property had been
withdrawn from the premises;

7. If a demand form money or other valuable consideration was

made before the fire in exchange for the desistance of the
offender or for the safety of the person or property of victim.

Legal Requirements in Preserving Physical Evidence in Arson

1. Admissibility of the object or substance: It requires full
accounting of the object or substance from the scene of the fire to the
court.

2. Admissibility of the results of Laboratory examination.

139
 3. Qualification of technician.

4. Safeguarding of the samples during analysis.

5. Result of the examination.

Interpretations of the Findings: (to be made in no-technical language);

1. Interview and interrogation

2. Time and place of questioning

3. Interview of firemen, neighbors, person who discovered the fire,

insurance agent, insured person and other person who has direct
connection regarding the burned property

4. Interrogation

5. Proof of the existence of the fire

6. To establish jurisdiction of the court

7. Corpus Delicti

8. Prof for incendiary origin of the fire

9. Proof of the guilt of accused.

Searching for Evidence

The safest procedure is for the investigator to start at the top of the
heap and carefully removing the objects one by one, laying them aside
until researching the bottom where he will find the “pot of gold”, the
evidence.

Steps in Tracing the Origin of Fire and Searching for Evidence

1. External / Outside Survey – careful conduct of inspection to the

burned building

2. Internal / Inside survey – enter the building to correlate the

same with the outside survey of the structure in question

140
3. Locate the point of origin of fire, the ceiling area must be
checked first.

Figure 53: External / Outside Survey

141
 Figure 54: Internal / Inside Survey

Look for the Prima Facie Evidence of Arson

1. Entering the building: when entering the building, the investigator

should observe the following

2. Look for mark on doors and windows not burned for forcible
entry.

3. Notice whether the intruder has discarded tools used for forcible
entry.

4. Notice unusual arrangement of the building content

5. Stocks or substitution of stocks, new expensive stocks have

been removed, substituted by second hand or old stocks.

Guidelines in the Investigation of Arson:

I. Arrival and Observation

Arrival

 Observe person/vehicle leaving the area

 Characteristics of person / vehicle leaving the area
 Unusual road / street condition
 Barricade showing the progress of response
 Vehicle parked in such a manner as to create obstruction
to the fire scene.

Observation

 Identify the person who called the fire department

 First person who leave the fire scene
 Did the fire occur during or after business hour?
 Was it during daytime or night time?
 Condition of traffic in the area

142
II. The Fire Scene:

Protecting the Fire Scene

 Cooperation of the firemen and the Police

 Assignment of guards

Mechanism of Search

 Planning
 Sifting of the debris
 Location of the point of origin of the fire
 General Rules /SOP’s

Collecting and Preserving of Evidence

 Photography
 Sketching
 Assistance of Qualified Experts
 Handling of Physical Evidence
 Forwarding of Physical Evidence

III. Post Investigation

Methods

Among the most likely method to be used by investigators are the

recording of the facts noted at the fire scene, sketches and photographs
as well as statements taken from the witnesses. And other sources of
information that may be useful in developing the investigation and
completing the reports, fire inspection reports and financial reports.

All notes should be thorough, accurate, detailed and neat so that

they are easily to transcribe and or read. They will readily assist in
correlating observations and developing leads. These notes are the
principal basis of all reports the investigator makes and submits.

143
The Fire Investigation Report

It is the final written results of taking notes, recording observations

and interviewing witnesses. It includes the written results of the
construction and size of the burned structure, what the firemen observed
and encountered upon their arrival at the fire scene, the color of the
smoke and flame, and the intensity and location of the fire.

Inventory of Evidence

As the evidence is collected and marked for identification purposes,

it should be entered on some type of inventory sheet. In all cases, it will
improve the admissibility of evidence by establishing chain of custody
necessary to prove during the trial on an arson case.

Exercise: Lesson 4.2

1. What are the elements of crime involving destruction?

2. Enumerate and discuss the legal requirements in preserving

evidence in arson.

3. Enumerate the circumstances that constitute prime-facie

evidence of arson.

4. State the basis of criminal liability in arso9n.

144
 PD 1185 Fire Code of Philippines
A used in this Fire Code, the following words and phrases shall
mean and be construed as indicated.

Abatement – any act that would remove or neutralize a fire hazard.

Administrator – any person who acts as agent of the owner and
manages the use of building for business.
Damper – a normally open device installed inside an air duct system
which automatically closes to restrict the passage of smoke or fire.
Distillation – the process of first raising the temperature in separate the
more volatile from the less volatile parts and then cooling and condensing
the resulting vapor so as to produce a nearly purified substance.
Duct system – a continuous passageway for the transmission of air.
Dust – a finely powdered substance which, when mixed with air in the
proper proportion and ignited will cause and explosion.
Ember – a hot piece or lump that remains after a material has partially
burned, and is still oxidizing without the manifestation of flames.
Fire – the active principle of burning, characterized by the heat and light of
combustion.
Fire trap – a building unsafe in case of fire because it will burn easily or
because it lacks adequate exists or fire escapes.
Fire alarm – any visual or audible signal produce by a device or system to
warm the occupants of the building or firefighting elements of the
presence or danger of fire to enable them to undertake immediate action
to save life and property and to suppress the fire.

145
Fire Hazard – any condition or act which increases or may cause an
increase in the probability of the occurrence of fire, or which may obstruct,
delay, hinder or interfere with fire.
Flash point – the minimum temperature of which any material gives off
vapor in sufficient concentration to form an ignitable mixture with air.
Horizontal exit – passageway from one building to another or through or
around a wall in approximately the same floor level.
Hose box – a box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves and other
equipment are stored and arranged for firefighting.
Jumper – a piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to bypass a
safety device in an electrical system.
Occupant – any person actually occupying and using a building or
portions thereof by virtue of a lease contract with the owner or
administrator or by permission or sufferance of the latter.
Overloading – the use of one or more electrical appliances or devices
which draw or consume electrical current beyond the designed capacity of
the existing electrical system.
Oxidizing material – a material that readily yields oxygen in quantities
sufficient to stimulate or support combustion.
Pyrophoric – descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously
when exposed to air.
Sprinkler system – an integrated network of hydraulically designed piping
installed in a building, structure or area with outlets arranged in a
systematic pattern which automatically discharges water when activated
by heat or combustion products from fire.
Standpipe system – a system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire
hoses can be attached on each floor, including a system by which water is
made available to the outlets as needed.
Vestibule – a passage hall or antechamber between the outer doors and
the interior parts of a house or building.
Vertical shaft – an enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from
floor to floor, as well as from the base to the top of the building.
Aircraft Service Station – That portion of an airport where flammable
liquids are stored or dispensed and shall include all facilities essential
thereto, such as underground tanks from which aircraft fuel and lubricants
maybe drawn through dispensing devices.

146
Assembly Occupancy – The occupancy or use of building or structure, or
any portion thereof by a group for civic, political, education, travel,
religious, social, amusement or recreational purposes.
Automatic Fire Suppression system – An integrated system of
underground or overhead piping or both connected to a source of
extinguishing agent or medium and designed in accordance with fire
protection engineering standards which when activated by its automatic
detecting device, suppresses fire within the area protected.
Blasting Agent – any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and oxidizer
used to set off explosive.
Boiling Point - The temperature which a liquid is transformed or
converted to vapor.

REFERENCES

Abis, Paz V. Fires in the Philippine Setting: A study of the

Technology and Investigating Techniques.

National Fire Protection Association, NFPA Handbook. Boston,

Massachussets, USA, 1976

Fire Protection Mission and Organization. Extension course

Institute, Air University. Gunter Air Force Station, Alabama USA Vol. 1 and
Vol 2.

147