FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

Fires and Explosions and The fire Triangle

OUTLINES

• Introduction
• Fires And Explosions
• Difference Between Fires And Explosions
• The Fire Triangle
• Stages Of Fire
• Fuels
• Oxidizers
• What Can Oxidizing Materials Do?
• Classes Of Oxidizers
• Combustion

2
3
4
INTRODUCTION

Major Causes Of Industrial

Fires And Explosions

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INTRODUCTION (Continue..)

1- Combustible dust
Combustible dust is a major cause of fire in food manufacturing, woodworking, chemical
manufacturing, metalworking, pharmaceuticals, and just about every other industry you can
name.
2- Hot work
Hot work is one of the leading causes of industrial fires across all industries.
3- Flammable liquids and gasses
Generally speaking, flammable liquids will ignite (catch on fire) and burn easily at normal
working temperatures. Combustible liquids have the ability to burn at temperatures that are
usually above working temperatures.
4- Equipment and machinery
Faulty equipment and machinery are also major causes of industrial fires.
5- Electrical hazards
Electrical fires are one of the top five causes of fires in manufacturing plants. Here a non-
exhaustive list of specific electrical hazards:

6
INTRODUCTION (Continue..)

Accident Statistics

 Evaluation of the largest chemical

plant accidents indicates that most
of the large accidents are due to
fires and explosions.

 Explosions in the workplace are a

dramatic example of the industrial
dangers faced by workers in many
fields.
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FIRES & EXPLOSIONS

Fire
 Fire is a chemical reaction in which energy in the form of
heat is produced.
 The chemical reaction is known as combustion.
 A flame is produced during the ignition point is the visible,
gaseous part of a fire.
Explosion
 A sudden oxidation or decomposition reaction with increase
of temperature, pressure or both at the same time.
 Sudden volume expansion and a release of great heat
energy accompanied by a pressure wave.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

 The distinction between fires and explosions is the rate of energy release
 FIRE: release energy slowly, rapid exothermic, oxidation, with flame.
 EXPLOSION: higher energy release rate (mixture) pressure or shock
wave.
 Fires can also result from explosions, and explosions can result from fires
 EFFECTS
1. Injuries/casualties
2. Property losses
3. Process interruption

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THE FIRE TRIANGLE

 The essential elements for combustion are fuel, oxidizer, and an ignition
source.

 These elements are illustrated by the fire

triangle shown the figure.
 Tow common examples of the three
components of the fire triangle are:
1. Wood, air, and a match.
2. Gasoline, air, and a spark.

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THE FIRE TRIANGLE

 The combustion always occurs in the vapor phase;

 When fuel, oxidizer, and an ignition source are present at the necessary
levels, burning will occur.

This means a fire will not occur if

1. Fuel is not present or is not present in sufficient quantities.

2. Oxidizer is not present or is not present in sufficient quantities.

3. The ignition source is not energetic enough to initiate the fire.

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STAGES OF FIRE

• Ignition

• Growth

• Fully developed

• Decay (Burnout)

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FUELS

 Various fuels, oxidizers and ignition sources common in

the chemical industry are:-
1. Liquids
Gasoline, acetone, ether, pentane.
2. Solids
Wood, charcoal, coal and coke, waste.
3. Gases
Acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide, hydrogen.

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OXIDIZERS

1. Gases
Oxygen, fluorine, chlorine.
2. Liquids
Hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid, Perchloric acid .
3. Solids
Metal peroxides, ammonium nitrite.

14
WHAT CAN OXIDIZING MATERIALS DO?

 Speed up the development of a fire and make it more intense.

 Cause substances that do not normally burn readily in air to burn rapidly.
 Cause combustible materials to burn spontaneously without the presence
of obvious ignition sources such as a spark or flame.

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CLASSES OF OXIDIZERS

Class 1 Oxidizers:
Aluminum nitrate, barium peroxide, hydrogen peroxide, magnesium nitrate,
potassium nitrate, and silver nitrate
Slightly increase the burning rate, do not cause spontaneous ignition
Class 2 Oxidizers:
Magnesium perchlorate, nitric acid, potassium permanganate, and sodium
permanganate
Increase the burning rate, May cause spontaneous ignition
Class 3 Oxidizers:
Potassium bromate, potassium chlorate, sodium chlorate, and ammonium
dichromate
Severely increase the burning rate, Will cause sustained and vigorous decomposition
Class 4 Oxidizers:
Ammonium perchlorate, ammonium permanganate, and hydrogen peroxide
Will increase the burning rate, Can cause combustibles to ignite spontaneously
16
COMBUSTION

17
FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

Fires and Explosions and The fire Triangle

OUTLINES

 Ignition Sources
 What Can You Do?
 Fire Prevention
1- Heat Safeguards
2- Fuel Safeguards
3- Oxygen Safeguards
 In The Event Of Fire
 Spread Of Fire

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IGNITION SOURCES

1- Thermal Ignition Sources

 Flames
 Hot Surfaces
2- Electrical Ignition Sources
 Electrical Current
 Electrostatic Charge
 Lightning
 Stray current
3- Mechanical Ignition Sources
 Friction heat
 Materials Fracture
4- Chemical Ignition Sources
 Exothermic reactions
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IGNITION SOURCES

21
STATIC CHARGE

22
STATIC CHARGE

23
WHAT CAN YOU DO?

 Understand and strictly follow your plant’s work permit procedures.

 Follow your emergency procedures in case of a flammable release.

 Look for potential ignition sources and report problems and make sure they
are fixed.

 Portable electronic devices such as cell phones and digital cameras are not
rated for use in hazardous areas.

 Be aware that a hot surface can be an ignition source

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FIRE PREVENTION

Fire Prevention:-
1. Ignition sources should be separated from combustible materials.
2. Hazardous processes should be isolated.

Elements of prevention:-
1. Maintenance of equipment, machinery and electrical.
2. Tidiness: accumulations of combustible waste must be removed.

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1- HEAT SAFEGUARDS

 Ensure employees are aware of their responsibility to report dangers

 Control sources of ignition
 Have chimneys inspected and cleaned regularly
 Treat independent building uses, such as an office over a shop, as
separate purpose groups and therefore compartmentalise from each other

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2- FUEL SAFEGUARDS

 Employees must know their responsibility to report dangerous incidents.

 Ensure furnishings and fittings in places of assembly comply with the
relevant codes of Practice.
 Take care if placing notice boards in escape corridors/ routes.
 Where there is a possibility of the presence of flammable gas/vapor,
conduct a full risk assessment.
 Where gas detection equipment is needed, ensure it is properly installed,
maintained and serviced.
 Operators of locations storing excessive quantities of substances with
flammable or explosive properties.
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3- OXYGEN SAFEGUARDS

 Oxygen should never be used to “sweeten” the air in a confined space.

 Be aware of the dangers of oxygen if in doubt, ask.
 Prevent oxygen enrichment.
 Check that ventilation is adequate.
 Always use oxygen cylinders and equipment carefully and correctly.
 Always open oxygen cylinder valves slowly.
 Do not smoke where oxygen is being used.
 Never use replacement parts which have not been specifically approved for
oxygen service.
 Never use oxygen equipment above the pressures certified.
 Never use oil or grease to lubricate oxygen equipment.
 Never use oxygen in equipment which is not designed for oxygen service.

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IN THE EVENT OF FIRE

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SPREAD OF FIRE

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MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

 Conduction:
A steel beam may conduct heat from one point to another to ignite
combustible materials.
 Radiation:
Radiated heat from fires has been known to ignite combustible
material over 30 m away.
 Convection:
Around 80% of the heat from fire is removed in this way by the hot air.

The heat in the hot air raises combustible material in their path to its
ignition temperature.

31
FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

Types of Fires and Extinguishers

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OUTLINES

 Types Of Fires
 Fire Extinguishers
 Water Extinguishers
 Foam Extinguishers
 Dry Powder Extinguishers
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers
 Halon Extinguishers
 Classifications Of Fire Extinguishers
 ABC Fire Extinguishers
 Fire Extinguishers Chart
 How To Use a Fire Extinguisher
 Dangers Of Using The Incorrect Fire Extinguisher

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TYPES OF FIRES

1. CLASS A fires
 Are those fuels by materials that, when they
burn, leave a residue in the form of ash,
such as paper, wood, cloth, rubber, plastics.
“Solid materials”.

2. CLASS B fires
 Involve flammable liquids and gases, such
as gasoline, paint thinner, kitchen grease,
propane and acetylene.

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TYPES OF FIRES

3. CLASS C fires
 Fires that involve energized electrical wiring or
equipment (motors, computers).
 NOTE: IF THE ELECRICITY TO THE EQUIPMENT IS CUT,
A CLASS C FIRE BECOMES ONE OF THE THREE TYPES
OF FIRE.
4. CLASS D fires
 Involve metals i.e. magnesium, sodium, manganese,
etc.
5. CLASS K fires
 Fires in cooking appliances that involve combustible
cooking media.

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TYPES OF FIRES

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FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

There are two groups of extinguishing agents:

1. Those which cool:
Water and dilute aqueous solutions.
2. Those which smother:
a) Foam,
b) Dry powder
c) Carbon dioxide
d) Halon

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WATER EXTINGUISHERS

 Is the best extinguishing agent for the general

protection of buildings and in ordinary solid
materials (CLASS A).

 Used for fires caused by various organic

materials including fabrics, textiles, coal, wood,
cardboard and paper.

 It should not be used for kitchen fires

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FOAM EXTINGUISHERS

 Is best for fires in flammable liquids

contained in tanks.

 May be used for fires caused by various

organic materials.

 Should not be used for fires caused by

flammable metals, kitchen fires and fires
that involve electrical equipment.

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DRY POWDER EXTINGUISHERS

 Also known as ABC extinguishers.

 Can also be used for fires involving electrical

equipment.

 May be used for fires caused by various organic

materials including wood, coal, textiles, fabrics,
cardboard and paper among others.

 Special dry powder extinguishers are typically

used only on flammable metals such as
magnesium and titanium.
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CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) EXTINGUISHERS

 Are mainly used for electrical fire risks.

 They also put out Class B fires.

 CO2 extinguishers suffocate fires by

displacing the oxygen the fire needs to burn.

 This type of extinguisher has a black label.

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HALON EXTINGUISHERS

 Are designed for use on Class K fires, involving

cooking oils and fats.

 They can also be used on Class A fires.

 Smother fires by forming a barrier between the fuel

and source of oxygen.

 The label color for this type of extinguisher is yellow.

 Can also be used for fires caused by various organic

materials including wood, coal, textiles, fabrics,
cardboard and paper.
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CLASSIFICATIONS OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

1. CLASS A Extinguishers
Will put out fires in ordinary combustibles, such as wood and paper.
2. CLASS B Extinguishers
Should be used on fires involving flammable liquids i.e. grease,
gasoline, oil, etc.
3. CLASS C Extinguishers
Are suitable for use on electrically energized fires.
4. CLASS D Extinguishers
Are designed for use on flammable metals.
5. Multi-class Ratings
Many extinguishers available today can be used on different types of
fires. E.g. A-B, B-C etc.
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ABC FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

 Most portable extinguishers are rated for use

with more than one classification of fire.
 For example, an extinguisher with a BC rating
is suitable for use with fires involving
flammable liquids and energized electrical
equipment.
 An extinguisher with an ABC rating is suitable
for use with fires involving ordinary
combustibles, flammable liquids and
energized electrical equipment.
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FIRE EXTINGUISHERS CHART

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HOW TO USE A FIRE EXTINGUISHER

1. Pull the pin at the top of the

extinguisher.
2. Aim the nozzle toward the base of the
fire.
3. Stand approximately 2.5-3 m away
from the fire and squeeze the handle
to discharge the extinguisher.
4. When you release the handle, the
discharge will stop.
5. Sweep the nozzle back and forth at the
base of the fire.
6. After the fire appears to be out, watch
it carefully since it may re-ignite.

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Dangers Of Using The Incorrect Fire Extinguisher

 During a fire, panic may set in and all you might focus on is putting the blaze
out as fast as possible, using whatever fire extinguisher you have to hand.

 However, there are different types of fire extinguishers for different types of
fires, each must be used exclusively for the type of fire they are designed for to
avoid making things worse.

 Watch the short videos and see what happens when somebody uses the wrong
fire extinguisher.
DANGERS OF USING THE INCORRECT FIRE EXTINGUISHER

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DANGERS OF USING THE INCORRECT FIRE EXTINGUISHER

49
DANGERS OF USING THE INCORRECT FIRE EXTINGUISHER

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DANGERS OF USING THE INCORRECT FIRE EXTINGUISHER

51
Dangers of Water Fire Extinguishers

 The danger of using a water fire extinguisher on an electrical fire is that you put
yourself at risk of receiving an electric shock.

 Water conducts electricity, and although the fire may be preoccupying your thoughts
and appear to be the only danger, there is still an electrical current to deal with.

 Water fire extinguishers have a low fire fighting rating because they are cumbersome
(to cope with more aggressive fires) and can only be used on certain types of fire.

 Environmentally friendly additives, however, can be found in some types of water

extinguisher that reduce their conductivity, making them safe to accidentally use on
an electrical fire.
Dangers of Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers

 Here, you must be careful to ensure that the fire doesn’t reignite once it has
been extinguished.

 Dry powder fire extinguishers can choke a fire out, but they do not have a very
good cooling effect, so if the fire is not 100% extinguished it could return.

 The powder does not cool the fire well, fires which seem out can reignite.

 You must also be careful not to inhale the powder, so do not use these
extinguishers in a confined space.

 Cleanup can be arduous too – the powder can damage soft furnishings, like
carpets and fabrics, and computer hard drives.
Dangers of Foam Fire Extinguishers

 Foam extinguishers can work in the fight against all manner of fires, even
electrical.

 “Jet” foam can conduct electricity back to you. But “spray” foam is much less
likely to do so.

 Nevertheless, the strong chemical composition of the foam makes it dangerous

for use in certain environments, especially if a child might accidentally discharge
the extinguisher.

 A water extinguisher might be better if children are likely to be in the area.

Dangers of CO2 Fire Extinguishers

 The main danger with CO2 extinguishers is that they will cause upset in a
confined space.

 They starve a fire of oxygen, but in a confined space they’ll also reduce the
amount of oxygen available to breathe.

 Again, if children are going to be around the fire extinguisher, you have to be
careful of accidental discharge. Also, if the source of the fire is not removed,
once the CO2 has dispelled the fire could reignite.

 They must never be used for dealing with fat or cooking oil fires and must have a
frost-free handles.
FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

Flames and Flash point

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OUTLINES

 Fires And Flames

 Color Of Smoke And Flames
 Jaipur Fire
 Potential Health Effects Of Industrial Smoke
 How To Reduce Air Pollution From Factories
 Definitions
 Relationships Between Various Flammability Properties
 What Are Flammable Or Explosive Limits?
 What Is An Autoignition Temperature?

57
FIRES AND FLAMES

Difference Between Fire and Flame

 Flame is the visible part of a fire.

 Fire is rapid oxidation of materials caused by

combustion.

 Flames are actually hot glowing gases.

 The color of flames is dependent upon the

material burning and the temperature of fire.

 Fire can be controlled as in a gas stove, or

uncontrolled as in flagrance
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COLOR OF SMOKE AND FLAMES

 Smoke is made up of particulates, aerosols

and gases, and identifying the
characteristics of each in a given smoke
plume can be helpful when fighting fires.
 Reading smoke can tell a firefighter what is
currently happening with a fire as well as
what might happen in the future.
 One particularly important factor in
predicting fire behavior is the color of the
smoke emitted.

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COLOR OF SMOKE AND FLAMES

Black smoke Heavy brown smoke White smoke

Petroleum products Nitrogen products. Magnesium.

Violet Flames Greenish-yellow Bright reddish-yellow

Potassium. Chlorine or manganese Calcium
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COLOR OF SMOKE AND FLAMES

White smoke:

 Can often mean material is off-gassing moisture and water vapor, meaning the fire is
just starting to consume material.

 White smoke can also indicate light and flashy fuels such as grass or twigs.

Thick, black smoke:

 Indicates heavy fuels that are not being fully consumed. At times, black smoke can be
an indicator that a manmade material is burning such as tires, vehicles or a structure.

 As a general rule, the darker the smoke, the more volatile the fire is.

Grey smoke:

 Can indicate that the fire is slowing down and running out of materials to burn.
JAIPUR FIRE

62
Jaipur Accident

 The Jaipur oil depot fire broke out on at the Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) oil depot's giant
tank holding 280,000 cu ft of oil, in Sitapura Industrial Area on the outskirts of Jaipur,
Rajasthan, killing 12 people and injuring over 200.
 The blaze continued to rage out of control for over a week after it started and during the
period half a million people were evacuated from the area.
 The incident occurred when petrol was being transferred from the Indian Oil Corporation's
oil depot to a pipeline.
 There were at least 40 IOC employees at the terminal when it caught fire with an
explosion.
 The first explosion which resulted in shattering of glass windows nearly 3 kilometers from
the accident site.
 The fire was a major disaster in terms of deaths, injury, loss of business, property and
man-days, displacement of people, environmental impact in Jaipur, the capital city of the
Indian state of Rajasthan and a popular tourist destination.
POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL SMOKE

 Smoke is essentially solid particles floating in

the air.

 There are many harmful effects of high

concentrations of industrial smoke.

 Smoke is linked to irregular heartbeats,

aggravated asthma, poor lung function, heart
attacks, and even premature death for people
with heart or lung diseases.

64
HOW TO REDUCE AIR POLLUTION FROM FACTORIES

The two most common ways companies can reduce their air pollution
emissions are:

1. Optimizing the factory’s operations

2. Destroying pollutants before they enter the atmosphere

 Regenerative Thermal Oxidizer uses high temperature to destroy

 Recuperative Thermal Oxidizer rely on high temperatures and

heavy-duty steel heat exchangers to destroy

 Catalytic Oxidizer

 Oxidizers with Rotary Concentrators

65
DEFINITIONS

 Minimum ignition energy (MIE):

The minimum energy input required to initiate fire
 Autoigintion temperature:
A fixed temperature above which adequate energy is available in the
environment to provide an ignition source.
 Flash point:
The lowest temperature of a liquid at which it gives off enough vapor to
form an ignitable mixture with air.
 Fire point:
The lowest temperature at which a vapor above a liquid will continue to
burn once ignited. It is higher than the flash point.
66
DEFINITIONS

 Flammability limit:
A range of compositions for the vapor-air mixture at which this mixture
will ignite and burn.
The mixture is flammable only when the composition is between the
LFL (lower flammable limit) and the UFL (upper flammable limit).
 Lower Flammability Limit (LFL): Below it = Partial pressure of fuel is
too low to keep reaction going
 Upper Flammability Limit (UFL): Above it = Partial pressure of
oxygen is too low to keep reaction going
 Lower explosion limit (LEL) and upper explosion limit (UEL) are used
interchangeably with LFL and UFL

67
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIOUS FLAMMABILITY PROPERTIES

68
WHAT ARE FLAMMABLE OR EXPLOSIVE LIMITS?

 A material's flammable or
explosive limits also relate to
its fire and explosion hazards.

 These limits give the range

between the lowest and
highest concentrations of
vapor in air that will burn or
explode.

69
WHAT IS AN AUTOIGNITION TEMPERATURE?

A material's autoignition or ignition temperature is the temperature at which a

material self-ignites without any obvious sources of ignition, such as a spark or
flame
Autoignition
Temperature
 Most common flammable and Fuel Flash Point (oC) (oC)
combustible liquids have Ethanol 70% 16.6 363
Gasoline -43 280
autoignition temperatures in Diesel >52 256
the range of 300°C to 550°C. Jet Fuel >38 210
Kerosene >38-72 220
 Some have very low Vegetable oil 327 424
Diethyl ether -45 160
autoignition temperatures Biodiesel 130
70
FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

Flammability Limits LFL and UFL

71
OUTLINES

 Why Do We Need To Estimate LFL And UFL

 LFL & UFL Estimation
 Flammability Limit Dependence On Temperature
 Effect Of Pressure On LFL & UFL
 Estimating Flammability Limits
 Limiting Oxygen Concentration (LOC)

72
WHY DO WE NEED TO ESTIMATE LFL AND UFL

 Its importance in fire safety engineering.

 Legislators have always been oriented on risk protection, prescribing the

adoption of a number of expensive measures:

 Sprinkler system for flame extinction,

 High structures fire resistance degree,

 Escape route systems, and

 Internal/external hydrant networks.

• Such actions are often inefficient, hence an accurate prediction of the

flammability limits is needed.
73
LFL & UFL ESTIMATION

LeChatelier equation

where
 LFLi is the lower flammable limit for component i (in volume %) of
component i in fuel and air
 UFLi is the upper flammable limit for component i (in volume %) of
component i in fuel and air
 yi is the mole fraction of component i on a combustible basis, and
 n is the number of combustible species.

74
EXAMPLE

 What are the LFL and UFL of a gas mixture composed of 0.8% hexane,
2.0% methane, and 0.5% ethylene by volume?
Volume Mole fraction on LFLi UFLi
% combustible basis (vol. %) (vol. %)
Hexane 0.8 0.24 1.2 7.5
Methane 2 0.61 5 15
Ethylene 0.5 0.15 2.7 36
Total
combustables 3.3
Air 96.7

75
Solution:
LFLmix = 2.65 by volume total combustible
UFLmix = 13.0 by volume total combustible

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑳𝑭𝑳𝒎𝒊𝒙 = 𝒚𝒊 = = = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟓
∑𝒏𝒊 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟖
𝟏 𝑳𝑭𝑳 + +
𝒊 𝟏. 𝟐 𝟓. 𝟎 𝟐. 𝟕

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑼𝑭𝑳𝒎𝒊𝒙 = 𝒚𝒊 = = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟎
∑𝒏𝒊 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟔𝟖
𝟏 𝑼𝑭𝑳 + + 𝟑𝟔. 𝟎
𝒊 𝟕. 𝟓 𝟏𝟓
FLAMMABILITY LIMIT DEPENDENCE ON TEMPERATURE

 As temperature increases:
 UFL increases, LFL decreases
 Flammability range increases

where
• ΔHc is the net heat of combustion (kcal/mole) and
• T is the temperature (°C).
 These equations are very approximate and only work for a very limited
number of hydrocarbons over a limited temperature range.
77
EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON LFL & UFL

 Pressure has little effect on the LFL except at very low pressures (<50 mm
Hg absolute) where flames do not propagate.
 The UFL increases significantly as the pressure is increased:

 P is the pressure (megapascal absolute) and

 UFL is the upper flammable limit (volume % of fuel plus air at 1 atm)

78
IN CLASS PROBLEM

What is the UFL of a gas mixture composed of 1% methane, 2% ethane

and 3% propane by volume at 50°C and 2 atmospheres.

Data:

Component MW Heat of Combustion UFL at 25

(kcal/mol) and 1 atm
Methane 16.04 212.79 15
Ethane 30.07 372.81 12.5
Propane 44.09 526.74 9.5

79
Solution

Procedure:
1. Correct for temperature
2. Correct for pressure (only for UFL)
3. Find for mixture
STEP 1: Correct for temperature
.
•
.
.
•
.
.
•
.

80
Solution (Continue ….)

STEP 2: Correct for pressure (only for UFL)

 Convert pressure to MPa:

•
•
•

81
Solution (Continue ……)

STEP 3: Find for mixture

• Total number of moles = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
• Mole fraction of Methane = 1/6 = 0.1667
• Mole fraction of Ethane = 2/6 = 0.3333
• Mole fraction of Propane = 3/6 = 0.5
 Now UFL of the mixture

82
ESTIMATING FLAMMABILITY LIMITS

 Flammability limits can be estimated using:

where Cst is the stoichiometric concentration (volume % fuel in fuel plus air).
 The stoichiometric concentration for most organic compounds is determined
using the general combustion reaction:

it follows that:

where z has units of moles O2/mole fuel.

ESTIMATING FLAMMABILITY LIMITS

Substituting z:
EXAMPLE

Estimate the LFL and the UFL for hexane, and compare the calculated limits to
the actual values determined experimentally.

Solution:

m = 6; x = 14; y = 0.
• versus 1.2
. . . . × . × . ×
vol. % actual
• versus 7.5 actual
. . . . × . ×
LIMITING OXYGEN CONCENTRATION (LOC)

 Explosions and fires can be prevented by reducing the oxygen

concentration.

 Below the LOC, the reaction cannot generate enough energy to heat the
entire mixture of gases.

 LOC can be estimated using the stoichiometry of the combustion reaction

and the LFL.
EXAMPLE

Estimate the LOC for butane (C4H10).

Solution:
C4H10 + 6.5O2 → 4CO2 + 5H2O

 LFL for butane = 1.8% by volume.

 The combustion of butane is preventable by adding nitrogen, carbon

dioxide, or even water vapor until the oxygen concentration is below 11.7%
FIRES AND EXPLOSIONS

Flammability Diagram
OUTLINES

 Flammability Diagrams
 How To Read The Flammability Diagram?
 What Actually The Lines In The Diagram Represent?
 Flammability Diagram For Methane
 Drawing The Air Line
 Locating The LFL And UFL
 The Stoichiometric Line
 Flammability Limits In Pure Oxygen
 Minimum Oxygen Concentration (MOC)
 The General Shape Of The Flammability Boundary
 Exercise
FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAMS

 Ternary diagrams also known as Ternary plots.

 Shows the regimes of flammability in mixtures of fuel, oxygen and an inert

gas.

 They are mainly used for the hydrocarbon mixture

 It is the key element for planning safe cargo operation onboard ship.

 Concentrations of fuel, oxygen and inert material are plotted on the three
axes.

 Each apex of the triangle represents either 100% fuel, oxygen or nitrogen.
HOW TO READ THE FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM?
WHAT ACTUALLY THE LINES IN THE DIAGRAM REPRESENT?
FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM FOR METHANE

Flammability diagram for methane at an initial temperature and

pressure of 25°C and 1 atm.
DRAWING THE AIR LINE

When oxygen is 21%, and

nitrogen is 79%, then fuel is 0%.
When oxygen is 0%, and
nitrogen is 0%, then fuel is
100%.

100
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 % = − × 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛% + 100
79
LOCATING THE LFL AND UFL

Locate the LFL and the UFL

points on the Air Line.
You have to obtain the points
from the appendix.
For ethylene:
LFL = 2.7 %
UFL = 36 %
FLAMMABILITY DATA
The Stoichiometric Line

 The stoichiometric line represents all stoichiometric combinations of fuel plus

oxygen.
 The combustion reaction can be written in the form

where z is the stoichiometric coefficient for oxygen.

 The intersection of the stoichiometric line with the oxygen axis (in volume %
oxygen) is given by

 The general combustion reaction is used to determine the coefficient z,

corresponding to the moles of oxygen required for complete combustion of one
mole of ethylene C2H4.
𝑚 𝑥 𝑦
The Stoichiometric Line

 If 3 moles O2 is required to burn 1 mole C2H4, the stoichiometric concentration

Cst in pure oxygen is 75% O2, 25% C2H4.

 The stoichiometric line extends from a point where the fuel is 100/(1 + z), oxygen
is 100z/(1 + z), and nitrogen is 0% to a point where fuel is 0%, oxygen is 0%, and
nitrogen is 100%.
 The equation for the stoichiometric line is:
THE STOICHIOMETRIC LINE
FLAMMABILITY LIMITS IN PURE OXYGEN

 For Ethylene:
LFLO2 = 3.0
UFLO2 = 80
 These limits will be used
now to draw lines from the
Oxygen axis passing
through the LFL and the
UPL located on the Air line
FLAMMABILITY AREA

 The point where these to lines

intersect is the limiting oxygen
concentration or the minimum
oxygen concentration.
 The area bounded between these
two lines is the flammability area.
 Any mixture concentration located
outside this are is non-flammable
MINIMUM OXYGEN CONCENTRATION (MOC)

Minimum Oxygen Concentration or

Limiting Oxygen Concentration
 The LOC or MOC can be estimated
by reading the oxygen concentration
at the intersection of the
stoichiometric line and a horizontal
line drawn through the LFL.
 This is equivalent to the equation:
THE GENERAL SHAPE OF THE FLAMMABILITY BOUNDARY

The General Shape Of The Flammability Boundary

 The shape and size of the flammability zone depends on number of parameters
including:
Fuel type,
Temperature,
Pressure and
Inert species.
 Thus, the flammability limits and the LOC also changes with these parameters.

 This diagram reflects the fact that ethylene has relatively broad flammability
limits; broader than typical alkane hydrocarbons.