4.

FIRE SAFETY
PRINCIPLES

Intro

Definition and Causes of Fire

Fire is a rapid oxidation

process accompanied by
the evolution of heat, light,
flame and the emission of
sound.
The Fire Triangle:

Fuel (Fire Load)

Three elements - fuel,

oxygen and heat - are
required to start a fire.
The oxidation process
will not be possible
without any one of
these elements.

Oxygen (Ventilation)

Heat (Ignition)

Intro
Class A:

Class B:
Class C:
Class D:

Classes of Fire

Fire
involving:

Ordinary combustible
materials such as
wood, cloth, paper,
rubber and plastics,
etc.
Flammable or
combustible liquids,
flammable gases.
Energized electrical
equipment
Combustible metals
such as potassium,
sodium, magnesium
and other reactive
metals

How to
Suppress:
Use Water

Exclude air from

burning materials
No Water; Use
electrically nonconductive
extinguishing agents
such as gaseous
systems
Heat-absorbing
medium which is
not reactive with
burning metals

Intro

Fire Growth

Stages
Stage 1:

Pre-flashover or
growth phase

Involves flaming combustion of

an item and may lead to a
spread of fire; or a smoldering,
poorly-ventilated fire with
substantial smoke.

Stage 2:

Flashover

Rapid change from a local fire

to one involving all combustible
materials in a room.

Stage 3:

Fully developed
fire (Stable
phase)

All materials in compartment

are alight; maximum rate of
heat release is dependent on
either available ventilation or
quantity of fuel.

Stage 4:

Decay (Cooling
Period)

Gradual consumption of fuel in

the compartment.

Intro

Fire Growth
Architectural Intervention This graph shows where active and
passive fire protection will play an
during Fire Growth
important part during the
development of fire.

Active Fire Protection

Passive Fire Protection

Detection, activation and suppression

Resistance to heat and flames of fire rated constructions

Temperature

Stage 1
Slow rate of
burning

Time

Stage 2
Development of heat
and flames

Stage 3

Stage 4

Load bearing capacity of materials is

maintained. Prevention of fire spread to other
compartments.

Intro

Behavior of Fire and Smoke

Vertical Shaft or Duct
(Stack Effect)

Suspended Ceiling

Ceiling Void

Smoke and Flame

likely to re-enter

Enclosed Area

Vertical Shaft or Duct

1.00 m

Outlet to
open air

Outlet to
adjoining space

Enclosed
Area

Intro

Fire Spread

Internal Fire Spread due to:

Through Air Ducts
Through Ceiling and
Collapsed Partitions

Through
Vertical
Shafts

Origin of Fire
Through Non-Fire
Rated Doors

Internal Fire Spread

between Rooms and Floors

Intro

Fire Spread

External Fire Spread due to:

Congested High Fire Load Areas

Intro

Fire Spread

External Fire Spread due to:

Loss of Integrity of Fire Wall

Intro

Fire Spread

External Fire Spread due to:

Convection
Currents

Ignition of Materials

Ignition of Materials

Ignition of Materials

Ignition of Materials

Origin of Fire

Proximity of Buildings

Aims in
Fire Safety Design
A

To prevent fire

To safeguard the lives of

occupants and
firefighters

To reduce damage on the

building, its contents,
and on surrounding
buildings

Basic
Principles
1 Fire Avoidance
2 Fire Detection
3 Fire Growth Restriction
4 Fire Containment
5 Fire Control
6 Smoke Control
7 Escape Provisions

Basic
Principles
Fire Avoidance 1
1

Definition & Implication

Reducing the possibility of accidental ignition of
construction materials, as well as fittings and
fixtures.
This implies:
a. keeping separate heat
sources and materials which
might ignite readily through
proper planning and zoning
b. need to specify materials to
reduce the risk of fire starting
c. reducing fire load

Basic
Principles
Fire Avoidance 1
1

Fire Zoning

(eg. Hospitals)

For Most Buildings

For Hospitals

1. Life Risk Areas areas in which all occupants are ambulant and
able to move unaided away from a fire
- eg. Outpatient department; Service Zone

2. High Fire Risk Areas areas which, due to their function, are
more usually susceptible to an outbreak of fire, or to a rapid spread of
fire or smoke.
- eg. Kitchen or Boiler Room

3. High Fire Load Areas areas which, because of their

construction or contents, contain large amounts of combustible
materials, thereby constituting a fire load in excess of that normally
found
- eg. Gas Storage, Linen Closets

4. High Life Risk Areas areas in which persons may reside and
are not able to move unaided away from a fire.
- eg. Intensive Care Unit, Operating Department

Basic
PrinciplesFire Avoidance1
Fire Zoning

(eg. Hospitals)

LEGEND:
LIFE RISK
HIGH LIFE RISK
HIGH FIRE RISK
HIGH FIRE LOAD

Basic
Principles
Fire Avoidance 1
2

Choice of Materials and Knowledge

1
on Material Performance
Concrete Masonry
-high fire resistance
- disintegrates at 400500C
- holes in concrete will
expose steel structural
members

- high fire resistance

- cracks at 575C
- are subject to high
temperatures during
manufacture

- does not burn

- may buckle in fire
- high conductivity
spreads heat
- loses half its strength
in 550C

- excellent thermal shock

resistance
- up to 1000C
- suitable for cladding
structural members

Steel Calcium Silicate

Timber Glass
- combustible
- little loss of
strength as charcoal
formed insulates
wood core
- spreads flames

- standard float,
toughened and laminated
glass panes do not provide
any fire resistance
- monolithic fire-rated
glass is available

Basic
Principles
Fire Avoidance 1
2

Knowledge on Fire Load

the amount of material which is able

to burn and release heat and smoke

In a compartment, limiting fuel

will help reduce the dangers of
heat and smoke.
Building contents make up the
majority of the fire load, since
most fires start from the
ignition of these contents.
The total amount of fuel in a building, its accessibility
to fire engines, the availability of water, etc. will
determine the level of fire resistance and the
maximum size of a building compartment.

Basic
PrinciplesFire Detection2
Visual Fire Detection
To visually expose FIRE RISK and FIRE LOAD
areas to building occupants.

Lounge
Patient Room
Sto

Patient Room

Nurse Station

Basic
PrinciplesFire Detection2
Visual Fire Detection

fire-prone areas provide peepholes

should be visually on doors
accessible

Basic
PrinciplesFire Detection2
Mechanical Fire Detection
Makes use of manual and automatic (electric/
electronic) methods of informing the occupants in
charge that a fire has occurred in a given location.

Heat and smoke alarm systems

inside Fire Risk and Fire Load
areas.

Fire alarm systems must be

accessible in all zones especially in
fire-prone areas.

Basic
Principles
Fire Growth Restriction3
Aimed at ensuring that the growing fire is extinguished
immediately and at providing adequate time for firemen to
arrive, control the fire and evacuate the occupants.

Manual Means of Restricting

5
Fire Growth
Actively extinguishing or slowing down
the development of a fire before the full
involvement of the room. This is done
by the rooms local occupants.
Means:
1. Fire Extinguisher
2. Water Supply
3. Fire Blanket
4. Bucket of Sand

Basic
Principles
Fire Growth Restriction3
4

Rating of Fire Extinguishers :

Class A Extinguishers will put out fires in ordinary
combustibles, such as wood and paper. The numerical rating
for this class of fire extinguisher refers to the amount of water
the fire extinguisher holds and the amount of fire it will
extinguish
Class B Extinguishers should be used on fires involving
flammable liquids, such as grease, gasoline, oil, etc. The
numerical rating for this class of fire extinguisher states the
approximate number of square feet of a flammable liquid fire
that a non-expert person can expect to extinguish

Class C Extinguishers are suitable for use on electrically

energized fires. This class of fire extinguishers does not have
a numerical rating. The presence of the letter C indicates
that the extinguishing agent is non-conductive

Class D Extinguishers are designed for use on flammable

metals and are often specific for the type of metal in
question. There is no picture designator for Class D
extinguishers. These extinguishers generally have no rating
nor are they given a multi-purpose rating for use on other
types of fires

Basic
Principles
Fire Growth Restriction3
4

Types of Fire Extinguishers :

Dry Chemical extinguishers are usually rated for multiple purpose use. They
contain an extinguishing agent and use a compressed, non-flammable gas as a
propellant

Halon extinguishers contain a gas that interrupts the chemical reaction that takes
place when fuels burn. These types of extinguishers are often used to protect
valuable electrical equipment since them leave no residue to clean up. Halon
extinguishers have a limited range, usually 1.2 to 1.8 meters. The initial application
of Halon should be made at the base of the fire, even after the flames have been
extinguished

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extinguishers are most effective on Class B and C (liquids
and electrical) fires. Since the gas disperses quickly, these extinguishers are only
effective from 1.0 to 2.4 feet. The carbon dioxide is stored as a compressed liquid
in the extinguisher; as it expands, it cools the surrounding air. The cooling will often
cause ice to form around the horn where the gas is expelled from the
extinguisher. Since the fire could re-ignite, continue to apply the agent even after
the fire appears to be out

Basic
Principles
Fire Growth Restriction3
Mechanical Means of
6
Restricting Fire Growth
Sprinkler Specifications:

-Categories: General Use, Institutional,

Residential, Attics, Special Hazards,
Storage
-3 heads: upright, pendent and sidewall
-Rated to 175 psi

Sprinklers can be spaced

from 3.6 to 6.0 meters apart.

Basic
Principles
Fire Containment4
Definition and Implication

Extend CHB
walls up to
slab

Provide 1 m.
ledge to prevent
spread of fire

Assumes that measures to control a growing fire

may not be successful, hence its maximum size
needs to be restricted both to reduce the risk
and to allow effective firefighting.
This implies:
1.

Fire cladding of structural components to ensure stability

of structural frames.

2.

The use of fire-rated walls and slabs to contain fire in

rooms, sub-compartments and compartments so as to
segregate areas where fire may occur.

3.

Others:

plugging all holes; extending CHB walls up to the slab;

providing a 1-meter ledge to prevent fire from creeping up
exterior walls into the floor above through windows.

Basic
Principles
Fire Containment4
Concepts of Fire Compartmentation
Definition
Containing fireprone areas by
means of fireresistive
enclosures

Objectives
-To limit fire and smoke spread
-To allow longer escape time
-To reduce the maximum potential size of the fire

Room
Sub-Compartment
Compartment
Fire-Rated
Surface

Compartment
Sizes

The more combustible the contents of a

building, the smaller the compartment should
be.
Joints must be filled with non-combustible
materials to prevent the spread of smoke or

Basic
Principles
Fire Containment4
Concepts of Fire Compartmentation
LEGEND:
Department
Rooms

Basic
Principles
Fire Containment4
Fire Rating of Construction Systems

Concrete Masonry Wall Units

2 Hour

4 Hour

Gypsum Walls
1 Hour
Wood

-One layer 12mm type X

veneer base nailed to each
side of 50mmX100mm wood
studs 400mm O.C.

2 Hour
Steel

-One layer 16mm type X

gypsum wallboard or veneer
base applied to each side of
40mm metal studs 600mm
O.C.

Wood

Steel

-Two layers 16mm type X gypsum

wallboard or veneer base applied
to each side of 50mmx100mm
wood studs 600mm O.C.

-Two layers 16mm type X gypsum

wallboard or veneer base applied
to each side of 62mm metal studs
400mm O.C.

Basic
Principles
Fire Containment4
Fire Rating of Construction Systems

Ceiling Systems
1 Hour

2 Hour

12mm gypsum wallboard

applied to drywall resilient
furring channels 600mm O.C.
and nailed to wood joists
400mm O.C. Wood joists
supporting 25mm T&G finish
floor.

12mm gypsum wallboard

applied to drywall furring
channels. Furring channels
600mm O.C., attached with
18 gauge wire ties open web
steel joists 600mm O.C.
supporting rib metal lath on 28
gauge corrugated steel and
62mm concrete slab.

3 Hour

12mm
25mm

WIRE MESH
CORNER
REINFORCEMENT

STEEL
RUNNERS
3-16mm FIRE
RATED
PANELS
35mm x 22mm
ANGLE
RUNNER

Basic
Principles
Fire Containment4
Fire Rating of Construction Systems

Door Openings
1 Hour

For 1.2m X 3.0m single hollow metal doors (ga.20 steel face), with
labeled single-point or 3-point latching hardware, steel hinges or pivots
2 Hour

3 Hour
125mm
min

1.370m
max

-Maximum glass area: 0.83 sq.m

0.83m
max

125mmglass area 0.063 sq.m

-Maximum

-Flush Metal Door

-For openings in walls or partitions

min
-6mm
thk Wire glass in a steel frame

between rooms and corridors having a fire

resistance rating of 1 hour or less

-For openings in enclosures of vertical

-3mm clearance at jambs

communications through buildings and in

2-hour rated partitions providing horizontal
fire separations

-10mm clearance at non-combustinle floor

-No Glass Permitted

-For openings in fire walls or walls that

divide a single building into fire areas

Basic
Principles
Fire Containment4
Load Bearing Capacity, Integrity
2
and Insulation
Load Bearing
Capacity
Collapse or
excessive
deflection

Structural
Performance: Building
still stands during an
emergency
Ability to carry load
without collapsing

Integrit
y
Passage of
flame

Ability to resist the

development of
crack or perforations
so as not to allow
passage of smoke
and flame

Insulatio
n
Temperature
increase

*Insulated building elements

will not ignite in fire and will
ensure passage of human
beings without damage on the
other side of the separating
element.
Ability to prevent heat
transfer from one face to the
other face.

Basic
Principles

Fire Control

Definition and Implication

Covers those devices and systems which aid
firefighters in actively extinguishing the fire and
bringing it to an end earlier than a free-burning fire.

Access Road

access road for firetrucks

ensure that all areas inside

and outside the building
are covered by reach of the
firehose

Basic
Principles

Fire Control

Site Access for Fire Control8:

L

T-TURN

R
CUL-DE-SAC

Fire apparatus should have

unobstructed access to
buildings.

30m> DEAD END

Bollards and fences used for traffic

Prevent time-consuming, hazardous
control must allow for sufficient
back-ups at dead-ends by using Topen road width for fire truck
turns and cul-de-sacs

MAX. 90 METERS
FIRE HYDRANT
SIAMESE
CONNECTION

Place hydrants at max. 3 meters

from curb. Siamese connection
to standpipes must be visible
and within 60m from hydrant

0.3m

Hydrant must be
unobstructed; Fire hose
connection should be at
least 0.3m above grade

Utility poles, kiosks, sculpture,

fountains, plant boxes can impede
fire rescue operations

Basic
Principles

Fire Control

Firetrucks

6.7 m.
Approx. 8-9 storeys

20 m.

25 m.

8.5 m.
Approx. 10 storeys

75

22 m

.
75 (safe
angle)

26 m

33 m

30 m.

Aerial Apparatus
Specifications:

75

5.6 m.
Approx. 6-7 storeys

Basic
Principles

Fire Control

Concept of the Firefighting Shaft

Provides access to a building, especially in high
rise buildings, for fire brigades.
Is fully-equipped with firefighting equipment,
service elevator, stair and lobby.

Elevator
shaft

Wet and Dry

Risers

Provides a sufficiently secure operating base

and a rest area in between firefighting
operations.
Fire-rated
doors

Basic
PrinciplesSmoke Control6
Definition and Techniques

Measures which can assist to some extent

occupants in the fire zone but are particularly
needed for others in adjacent areas or
compartments.
Techniques of Smoke
Control

Venting

Extraction of Smoke
Ceiling Reservoir

a.

SMOKE CONTAINMENT/
BARRIER technique of
restricting the movement of
smoke by the provision of fire
resisting elements.

b.

SMOKE DISPERSAL
technique of clearing smoke
locally by provision of natural
cross-ventilation or mechanical
venting.

Smoke Plume
Shop
Mall
Make Up Air

Smoke Barrier

Basic
PrinciplesSmoke Control6
Definition and Techniques

c. PRESSURIZATION technique whereby air is blown into

spaces which are designed to be kept clear of smoke.

Uses barriers including

walls, floors and
doors, to contain
pressurized air
generated by
mechanical means to
keep smoke away
from protected areas
such as escape
staircases and
corridors.

High
Pressure
Low
Pressure

Basic
Principles
Escape Provisions7
Definition
Cover a range of passive or active systems which
permit the occupants to move or be moved to a
place of safety within or to the outside of a building.
CORRIDOR SYSTEM:
direct, not tortuous
simple lay-out
no barriers, cul-de-sacs, bottlenecks
doors open out, not in
easily detectible, not hidden from view

FIRE ESCAPE:
fire escape stairs designed to be used daily for familiarity
of escape route
well-maintained (not used as storage of junk)

Basic
Principles
Escape Provisions7
Protected Escape Routes
To provide safety,
the routes must
be properly
protected from
the effects of fire
and smoke for an
acceptable time
period, usually a
minimum of 60
minutes.

This can be
achieved by:
- Compartmentation
- Fire resistance of
escape route
structure
- Use of smoke
control systems to
keep smoke out of
escape routes

Protected escape routes are designed in such a

way that they lead to a place of safety, and once
inside the occupants are safe from the immediate
danger from fire and smoke.

Escape Route Leading to:

Protected Escape
Route
Place of Safety

Place of Safety

a. Protected Escape Route

Protected Lobby
Place of Safety
Place of Safety

b. Protected Lobby

Place of Safety

Stairway
Enclosure
Place of Safety

c. Protected Stairway Enclosure

Basic
Principles
Escape Provisions7
Alternative Means of Escape
Place of
Safety

Place of
Safety

exit

Alternative
Means of Escape
-Doors should be as far
as possible from each
other; preferably on
opposite walls
-Both doors should not
open into the same
compartment

compartment

subcompartment

subcompartment

courtyard

subcompartment

courtyard

subcompartment

Access through
Courtyards

Basic
Principles
Escape Provisions7
Design of Fire Resisting Doors

Additional width
to allow for door
swing

Reqd.
width
of
escape
route

Desig
n
width
90
min

Desig
n
width

90 min

Basic
Principles
Escape Provisions7
Primary Considerations in the

Design for FIRE Safety

1
of Hospitals

1. The presence of patients with various degrees

of dependency and immobility on one hand
and the constant presence of staff on the other.
2. It is assumed that there should be no reliance
on external; rescue or such manipulative types
of escape appliances as chutes or fire ladders.
3. The staff would be fully responsible in
assisting patients within their area of control
to a place of safety in an emergency.

Basic
Principles
Escape Provisions7
Progressive Horizontal Evacuation

FIRE SAFETY
PRINCIPLES

END