Name: Benard Mumba

Student Number: 202202235

Program: Civil Engineering

Course Code: EGM 241

Lecturer: Eng Goodson Masheka

Given Date: 16/09/23

Due Date: 02/10/23

Questions.

1. Explain in details on the following

properties of magnetism
a. Paramagnetism
b. Diamagnetism
MULUNGUSHI UNIVERSITY c. Antiferromagnetism
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY d. Ferrimagnetism
2. Discuss the phenomenon of
magnetic hysteresis and the
importance of this to engineering. Cite
an example.
Contents
MAGNETISM ....................................................................................................................... 2
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 2
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETISM .................................................................................................... 3
I. PARAMAGNETISM ........................................................................................................... 3
II. DIAMAGNETISM .............................................................................................................. 3
III. ANTIFEROMAGNETISM ............................................................................................... 3
IV. FERROMAGNETISM ..................................................................................................... 4
V. FERRIMAGNETISM .......................................................................................................... 4
MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS ...................................................................................................... 4
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................................. 5
REFERENCE ................................................................................................................................. 5
MAGNETISM

INTRODUCTION

What is magnetism?
Magnetism is simply a phenomenon by which materials exhibit attractive or repulsive forces
on other materials. Materials are materials that can either be attracted or repelled by a
magnet (ferromagnetic, diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials). The phenomenon
magnetism is association with magnetic fields arising from the movement of electrically
charged particles and their effects on matter. Magnetic fields are
represented by imaginary lines running from the North Pole to the South
Pole of the magnet. Creating a magnetic moment. Magnetic fields are
measured in units called tesla (T).
The North Pole and South Pole sides of a magnet are separated by a small
distance. With this fact a magnet exhibits dipoles (magnetic dipoles). Magnetic dipoles are
influenced by magnetic fields. Within the field the dipoles are oriented by the force exerted
by the magnetic field itself. This can be explained better by comparing it with the way in which
a magnetic compass needle lines up with the earth’s magnetic field.

Magnetic moments
Magnetic moments are a measure of the magnetic strength and orientation of an object or a
magnet that produce a magnetic field. These moments are vector quantities meaning they
have both magnitude and direction (from north to the south pole of the magnet). The
magnetic field created by a magnet is directly proportional to its magnetic moment. Magnetic
moments determine how a magnet interacts with the external magnetic field.
It originates from two sources. These sources including orbital motion and electron
spin.

The most fundamental magnetic moment is Bohr magneton.

Magnets are of three types including permanent magnets, temporary magnets, and
electromagnets. Depending on the type and their properties. Magnets have so many
applications in different fields such as science and technology, medicine, and industry.
Magnets are used in power generating plants, performing magnetic imaging, separating
metals from non-magnetic materials and transmission magnetic storage devices.
A magnetic field is responsible for the most notable properties of a magnet. The atoms of a
magnet have electrons that spin around the nucleus, creating tiny magnetic fields that give
magnet properties such as Para-magnetism, diamagnetism, antiferromagnetic,
ferromagnetism, and ferrimagnetism.

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETISM
I. PARAMAGNETISM
Para-magnetism is a property of in which they become weakly magnetic when
exposed to an external magnetic field. This occur because the magnetic moment fields
created by external fields align the individual atomic or molecular magnetic moments in the
material, causing it to develop a net magnetic moment. Para-magnetism is due to the
presence of unpaired electrons in the material, so most atoms with incompletely filled atomic
orbitals are paramagnetic, although exceptions such as copper exists. Due to their spin
unpaired electrons have a magnetic dipole moment and act like tiny magnets.
Paramagnetic materials include many transition metal (iron, cobalt, and nickel), lanthanides
(such as gadolinium and uranium), organic compounds, free radicals, oxygen, and
superparamagnetic materials.

 Characteristics of Paramagnetic
They are often used in electronic devices such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
machines and electromagnets. However, their weak magnetic effects also mean that
they have limited practical use in permanent magnetic storage media
II. DIAMAGNETISM
Diamagnetism is a phenomenon or property in which in which materials generate a weak
magnetic field in a direction opposite to an applied magnetic field. It is induced by a change
in the orbital motion of electrons due to an applied magnetic field Diamagnetic materials are
simply repelled by a magnetic field. Some examples of diamagnetic materials are wood,
water, gold, copper, etc.

 Characteristics of Diamagnetism
Diamagnetic properties are independent of temperature, they move from stronger
regions of magnetic field to weaker region, they are repelled by bar magnet, and when
suspended between two poles of a magnet, it aligns itself perpendicular to the
magnetic field of the magnet.
III. ANTIFEROMAGNETISM
Anti-ferromagnetism is one of the magnetic ordering phenomena observed in certain
materials. It’s characterized by the alignment adjacent atomic or molecular magnetic moment
in opposite directions, resulting in a net magnetization of zero. Anti-ferromagnetism is often
observed in materials containing transition metals with incomplete inner electrons shells. This
includes elements like manganese, chromium, and iron when they form certain compounds
or crystal structures
  Characteristics of Anti-ferromagnetism
Opposite Alignment in antiferromagnetic materials, neighboring magnetic moments
align antiparallel to each other, Cancellation of Magnetization the opposite alignment
of magnetic moments cancels out any net magnetic moment, making
antiferromagnetic material appear non-magnetic when viewed from a distance and
Neel Temperature this is the critical temperature above which anti-ferromagnetic
materials transition to a paramagnetic state losing their antiferromagnetic order
IV. FERROMAGNETISM
Ferromagnetism is a phenomenon that occurs in some materials such as iron, cobalt,
nickel, and some rare-earth metals, that makes them strongly attracted to form permanent
magnets. Ferromagnetic materials are easily magnetised by an external magnetic field.
Ferromagnetic materials have regions have regions called domains where the magnetic
moments are aligned in the same direction. Some examples of ferromagnetic materials are:
Iron (widely used for making magnets and magnetic devices), cobalt (used for making
permanent magnets), Nickel and Rare-earth metals

 Characteristics of Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetic materials made out of iron are easily magnetised and demagnetised
by changing the external magnetic field because iron has high permeability and low coercivity.
It is made of cobalt which has higher coercivity than iron making resistant to demagnetisation,
and Nickel it is usually used to make permanent magnets for application that require
corrosion resistance and aesthetic appeal.

V. FERRIMAGNETISM
Ferrimagnetism is a magnetic property exhibited by certain materials, similar to
ferromagnetism but with some key differences it’s characterized by the alignment of
magnetic moment within a material in a way that results in a net magnetic moment, but with
opposing spins. Common examples of ferromagnetic include magnetite (Fe3O4) consists of
both Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions, ferrites, some iron oxide nanoparticles and hexagonal ferrites. They
are usually metals, ceramics, specifically ceramics oxides.

 Characteristics of Ferrimagnetism
Ferrimagnetic materials are characterized their high resistivity and anisotropic
properties. Anisotropic this simply refers to the directional dependence of physical
properties. Ferrimagnetic materials have unequal magnetic moments. This leads to a
situation where there is a net magnetic moment which is weaker than that of ferromagnetic
materials due to some of the magnetic of the magnetic moments partially cancel each other
out.
MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
Magnetic hysteresis is a phenomenon commonly encountered in ferromagnetic in
ferromagnetic materials, and it describes the lag or delay in the magnetization of a magnetic
material when subjected to an alternating magnetic field. It is characterized by the fact that
the magnetic properties of the material depend on its previous magnetic history. In other
words a ferromagnetic material will not respond immediately to change in an applied
magnetic field rather it retains some memory of its previous magnetization state this is a
crucial phenomenon in the field of engineering cause it has various applications.
 Transformers: In electrical transformers the, the magnetic core material experiences
hysteresis as the alternating current reverses direction. Understanding the hysteresis loop
helps engineers design transformer with optimal core materials to minimize energy losses
and heat generation.
 Magnetic memory devices: magnet hysteresis is crucial in the operation of magnetic
memory devices like hard disk driver (HDDs) and magnetic tapes. The hysteresis loop
ensure that data stored in these devices remain stable even when the power is turned off.
 Energy losses: Hysteresis leads to energy losses in magnetic components, which is
particularly important in the efficient operation of electrical devices. The enclosed by the
hysteresis loop represents the energy dissipated as at each cycle of magnetization.
Engineers must minimize these losses to increase the efficiency of transformers and other
magnetic devices.
The best example to consider the importance of magnetic hysteresis is in a transformer.
Transformer are essentials in electrical power distribution. They consists of a primary coil and
a secondary coil and a secondary coil wound around a magnetic core, usually made of iron.
When alternating current (AC) flows through the primary coil, it generates an alternating
magnetic field. This field induces a voltage in the secondary coil, which is either step up or
down the voltage as needed.
Magnetic hysteresis in the iron core of the transformer introduces energy losses which
can reduce its overall efficiency .engineers carefully select the core material and design the
transformer to minimize hysteresis losses, ensuring that most of the electrical energy is
efficiently transferred from the primary coil. This optimization is crucial for reliable and
efficient distribution of electrical power in various engineering application.

SUMMARY
Magnetism is simply a phenomenon by which materials exhibit attractive or repulsive forces
on other materials. Materials are materials that can either be attracted or repelled by a
magnet (ferromagnetic, diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials) Magnetic fields are
measured in units called tesla (T). Magnetic moments are a measure of the magnetic strength
and orientation of an object or a magnet that produce a magnetic field. It originates from two
sources. These sources including orbital motion and electron spin. Magnet properties include
Para-magnetism, diamagnetism, antiferromagnetic, ferromagnetism, and ferrimagnetism

REFERENCE
1. William D. Callister, JR. David G. Rethwisch Material science and engineering page 76-94. 2
M.E. McHenry, Encyclopaedia of materials: science and technology, 2001.