SOCIOLOGY IN TURKEY

NIYAZI BERKES

The social scienceshave developedin Turkeylargelyin responseto

questionsarisingin connection withthecrisesin thesociallifeofthena-
tion. To understandand to evaluate the peculiarities of Turkishsocial
thoughtthegenesisofthesequestionsand thecoursetheyfollowed should
be noted.
At the timeof the riseof the industrialdemocraticera in European
historythevastOttomanEmpire,consisting ofa largenumberofreligious
and linguisticgroups,was stilla theocraticmonarchy, dominatedby the
Ottomandynastyand thereligionof Islam.
The dominantphilosophyamongtheTurkishthinkers of the Empire
was a system,originally derivedfromtheworksofAristotle through their
Arabic translations, but considerablymodifiedunder the influenceof
Moslem theology,Hellenisticand Arabic science,the neo-Platonism.
The outstanding exponentof theAristotelian philosophy in theMoslem
countrieswas Farabi (ca. 870-950),a Turkishphilosopher bornat Farab,
Turkestan.He triedto reconcilethephilosophies ofPlato and Aristotle.
In hiswork,The Virtuous City,'he statesthatman is necessarily a politi-
cal creature.He foundthebasis of thissociabilityin theinstinctofgre-
gariousness.He classifiesthechiefformsofhumanassociation,in spatial
terms,as thegroupsinhabiting a house,a stopping-place,a neighborhood,
and a village,whichrepresentthe simplerand imperfect formsof asso-
ciations;the city,the commonwealth occupyinga certainpart of the
habitableearth;and humanity,composedof all communities on earth,
whichare morecomplexand perfect forms ofassociation.Then he philos-
ophizesupontheidealormodelcity,whichhe regardsas an organism or a
hierarchy like thehumanbody. The sovereignof theideal citywouldbe
a perfectand wise ruler.He regardsjusticeas the foundationof social
order,and virtueand perfecthappinessas the goal of a wise civiclife.
All the thinkersof the Ottomanperiodfollowedthe same traditionof
endlessreinterpretations of the Aristotelianphilosophy.One of the fa-
mouswriters wasAliB. EmrullahKinalizade(I500-I563)
in thistradition
whoseEthicsis a reproduction of theAristotelian ethics.
IRisala fi ard'ahl madina al-f dila, editedby FriedrichDieterici(Leiden, I895) and
translatedinto Germanby himas Der Mustesrstaat (Leiden, I900).
238

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 SOCIOLOGY IN TURKEY 239

Anothertraditionexertinga directinfluenceupon modernsociology

had beenfollowedby Turkishhistorians.One schoolaccepteda theologi-
cal interpretationofhistory, regardinghistoricalcausationmainlyprovi-
dentialbecauseofthecontinuousinterference ofGod. The secondschool
ofhistorians,whicharoseafterthesixteenth century,had beeninfluenced
by Ibn Khaldun'sphilosophyof history.Particularly influencedby the
latter'sProlegomena to his history,
theseTurkishhistoriansrecognized a
new notionof historicalcausality.MustafaB. AbdullahKatib Chelebi,
better knownas Haji Khalifah(I609-57), in hisChronology ofHistory,2
givesan organismicinterpretation of history.Each state,accordingto
him,passesthrough theperiodsofgrowth, maturity, and decayand gives
way to newforms.
These traditionsofAristotelian philosophy and of thetheological and
geographical-organismic interpretations of historyweredominantuntil
thecloseof theeighteenth century,whentheTurksgraduallyturnedto
Westernthought.The firstcontactswhichthe Turkshad withmodern
Europewerein thediplomatic, military,and commercial fields.The prob-
lemsconfronting themen of the eighteenth centurymay be reducedto
two questionswhich,in reality,constitutethe chiefmotiveof all move-
mentsin socialthoughtofsubsequentgenerations:(i) Whatis thechief
cause of the declineof the Empire?and (2) What is the remedyforit?
They foundthe cause lyingin the disorganization of thearmy,and the
remedyin thereform ofthearmyand theintroduction ofmodernmilitary
technique.Thus, the scienceand the techniqueupon whicha modern
armyis foundedwereintroduced intothenewmilitary schools,whichbe-
came the firstchannelsforthe dissemination to thenew generations of
themodernmathematical and physicalsciences.
The avenue of influencethusopenedto Europe was widenedby the
proclamationof the I856 liberalreformchartercalled the Tacnzimat.
Europeanthoughtwas now moreaccessibleto theTurkishintellectuals.
Theyhad been,however,alreadyacquaintedwithWesternthought.Be-
foretheproclamation of the Tanzimat,Raif MahmudEfendi,who had
livedforseveralyearsin Englandand whowas one ofthefirsttranslators
of scientific
booksfromEnglish,had repeatedlyurgedtheadaptationof
the Englishpoliticalsystemto Turkey.ReshidPasha, who was chiefly
responsible forthereform charter,and actuallythewriterofit,had lived
in London and Paris as a diplomat.The influenceof Europeansocial
thoughtappeared,however,in a more systematicway only afterthe
2 Takvimill-tevarik
(Istanbul, i648); translatedinto Italian by Giovanni Rinaldo
Conte Carli as Chronologiahistorica(Venice, I697).

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 240 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

Tanzimat.The worksofBacon,Locke,Rousseau,Montesquieu,and Vol-

tairebecameknownto theintellectuals of thisperiod.
The influenceof thesephilosophers, however,led themto formulate
and publishtheirown conclusionson the necessityof a constitutional
government, whichsoon becamea menace to the autocraticand theo-
of
craticrulers theEmpire.The outstanding figuresof thistime,suchas
IbrahimShinasi,Ziya Pasha, and NamukKemal,developedtheirpoliti-
cal doctrinesduringtheirstudiesin Londonand Paris eitheras govern-
mentstudentsor politicalexiles.They wereinterested in manyfields-
philosophy,
in literature, politicalscience,history, and economics. Ibra-
him Shinasi (I826-7I), as a journalist,exerted greatinfluence with his
writingsonpolitics,economics, and literature.Ziya Pasha (I828-8I), who
had participated in therevolutionary organizationofYoungTurks,lived
in Londonas a politicalexile. He translatedRousseau'sEmileintoTurk-
ishand wrotebooksand articleson thedefenseoftheconstitutional gov-
ernment.His bookentitledTheDream,whichwas written in Londonand
was coloredby the traditionof the Westernutopianwriters,gives an
idealizedpictureofa modernstateforTurkey.The mostinfluential man,
however,was NamukKemal (I840-88), who,withhis dramaticpolitical
career,was regardedby Turkishintellectuals as theoutstanding embodi-
mentofpatriotism and theheroof liberty.3Otherwritersof thisperiod
are AhmedCevdet Pasha, historianand jurist;AhmedVefikPasha, a
professorof thephilosophyofhistoryin theUniversity of Istanbul;and
Murad Bey, professorof historyand an ardentstudentof the French
Revolution.
The activitiesof thesescholars,however,werehamperedby thereac-
tionarymovementof theOttomanhouse,whichhad not anticipatedthe
consequencesof the Tanzimnat reform.The persecutionof the liberals
reachedits higheststage duringthe reignof Abdul-HamidII, who sus-
pendedtheconstitution and forcedtheliberalthinkers intovoluntaryor
involuntary exile. During thesedays of conflictbetweenthe autocracy
and theprogressive liberalstwo different movementsof thought,whose
problemsand viewsinfluenced thesocialwritersof thefollowing genera-
tions,crystallized.One we mightcall "Pan-Islamism";and the other,
"Westernism."Althoughtheadvocatesofbothmovements agreedon the
firstquestionof the Turkishintellectuals, namely,the diagnosisof the
causeofthedeclineoftheEast as theresultofthesupremacy oftheWest,
theydiametrically opposed each otheron the questionof the remedy.
The historiansand thetheologians ofPan-Islamismbelievedthatthere-
3 For thelifeand worksofShinasi,Ziya Pasha, and Kemal see AhmetEmin's articles
in the EntcyclopediaoftheSocial Sciences,XIV, 23-24; XV, 526; and VIII, 535-36

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 SOCIOLOGY IN TURKEY 24I

ligionofIslamwas notoriginally a rigidsystembutcapableofadaptation

to modernneeds,and thattherealizationofa politicalunityofMoslems
undertheoriginaland pureformofIslam wouldput an end to exploita-
tionby Europeanimperialism and wouldbringthedesiredprogress.The
Westernists, on the otherhand,wereardentbelieversin the supremacy
and theinfallibility ofWesterninstitutions. The East, accordingto them,
had nothingto contribute to the solutionof the existingproblems.The
main objectivewas to followWesterncivilizationto its logical conse-
quences. The conflict betweenthesetwomovements cameto an endwith
the defeatof the first.The revolutionof I908 preparedthe way forthe
realizationsof the aspirationsof theWesternists, butit markedalso the
beginning ofa new crisisin thesocial thoughtof the country.
The Westernist thinkershad been confronted witha seriousproblem
in theapplicationof theirconceptionof the "Europeanization"process,
sincetheysoon discoveredthattherewereincompatible elementsin Eu-
ropeanand Ottomaninstitutions. This difficultyarouseda newinterest
(i) in socialstudiesofthefoundations ofWesterncivilization, and (2) in
thehistoricalstudyof Turkishculture.
All subsequentdevelopments in sociologicalthinkinghave beenshaped
by thesetwolinesofinterest.Almostall of theTurkishsociologists fol-
lowedEuropean,chiefly French,sociologists in formulating a conceptual
framework fortheirviews.
The firstinfluence ofEuropeanschoolsofsociologyon Turkishsociolo-
gistsis seen in the case of AhmedRiza. He had gone to Paris in I883,
twenty-six yearsafterthedeathofComte,to fightagainsttheautocratic
regime.AhmedRiza adoptedtherethepositivephilosophy ofComte,tak-
ingthenotionsof"order"and "progress"as thekeystonesofhispolitical
writings.Althoughhe was primarily a politicalfighter
and did not pro-
duce any systematicsociologicaltreatises,he was chieflyresponsible for
bringingComte'sphilosophyto Turkey.It was carriedtherelater,par-
ticularlyin the philosophicalfield,by the mathematician, Salih Zeki.
Comte'swork,althoughno translation ofitwas everpublishedin Turkish,
deeplyinfluenced thethinking ofmodernTurkishsociologists and became
a seriousrivalto theidealisticinfluences ofGermansocialthought.
PrinceSabahaddin,however,was thefirstsociologist oftheWesternist
Turkishthinkers.He studiedin ParisfromI904 to I906 withthefollowers
oftheLe Play schoolunderHenride Tourville.Sabahaddinhimself was
a physicalscientistlike his master,Le Play. He was impressedby the
latter'sLes ouvrierseuropeens,andinhisSocialSciencecand ItsProgram4con-
tendedthatprivateownership is thefoundation ofthemodernstateand
4 MeslekiItimai veProgrami(Istanbul, I9I8).

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 242 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

that themethodof commonownership in Turkey,whichwas a product

of a stepp environment, must be abandoned,in order to adopt the
systemofWesternsociety.The attentionofhisschoolwas
individualistic
fixeduponEnglandwiththechiefpurposeofdiscovering thecaSuseofthe
"superiorityof Anglo-Saxons,"whichtheyconcludedrestedon English
self-government. Sabahaddinproposeda politicalprogramfortheOtto-
manEmpireand,witha viewto emulatingtheBritishEmpire,advocated
local and provincialindependence in Turkeyas againstthe existingbu-
reaucraticcentralizedgovernment. Later it became fashionableamong
Westernist thinkersto pay attentionto Spencer.The philosopher Riza
Tevfikwas an exponentofSpencerian philosophy and popularizedit wide-
ly. The liberalismand theindividualism of thisphilosophywas particu-
larlyinfluential amongpoliticaland educationalwriters.Dr. Abdullah
Djevdet, who provokedmanycontroversies withhis ideas on theprob-
lemsofreligion, race,and politics,was a translator and a follower ofGus-
tave Le Bon's works.All ofthesewriters wereinterested in studyingthe
characteristicsofWesterninstitutions, whoseadoptionor imitationthey
advocated.
The secondlineofinterestin thestudyofTurkishcultureled another
schoolof sociologists to quite different conclusions.This schoolgave an
impetusto studiesin folklore,in history, in linguistics,
and in ethnology.
All thefindings ofresearches in thesefieldsweresynthesized in a system
of sociology.This schoolexerteda strongreactionagainstbothPan-Is-
lamismand ruggedWesternism, and formulated a newpolicywhichwas
associatedin politicswitha movementknownas "Pan-Turanism."The
leader and the most influentialexponentof this school was Ziya
Gokalp.
Ziya Gokalp (I875-I924)5 was the real founderof Turkishsociology,
since he was not a meretranslatoror interpreter of foreignsociology,
thoughhis sociologicalsystemwas foundedon Durkheim'sworks.He
acceptedDurkheim'smethodological views as theywereexpoundedin
Les reglesde la methode sociologique,and used all his terminology. By
adaptationand additionsto certainpointshe made his systemalmosta
nativeproduct.He was so influential thatthefirstchairofsociologywas
establishedin theUniversity ofIstanbulforhim,and he taughtsociology
thereforthefirsttime,in I9I2. The subsequentdevelopment ofsociology
5 For G6kalp's life and workssee AhmetEmin's articlein the Encyclopediaof the
dii mondemusuilman
Social Sciences,VI, 687-88; and J. Deny, "Zia Goek Alp," in Reviue
(Paris), LXI (I925), I-4I. For his sociologicaltheoriessee Ziya Gokalp,sa vie et sa
sociologie,by ZiyaeddinFahri (Paris, I936).

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 SOCIOLOGY IN TURKEY 243

as an academicdisciplineowesmuchto his personaland professional in-

fluence.In reality,all Turkishsociologists of recenttimesare director
indirectdisciplesof Gokalp. Chieflythroughhis influence, sociologywas
also introduced intothecurriculum ofthesecondaryschools.The trans-
lationsofthe-important worksofDurkheim, Levy-Bruhl, Fauconnet,and
Mauss wereproducedunderhisinfluence.He foundeda researchinstitute
of sociology,and starteda Journalof Sociology6in I9I7. This journal,
however,was short-lived, since Gbkalpwas arrestedby the Alliesafter
theiroccupationofIstanbuland was sentto Malta as a politicalprisoner.
It is unnecessary to describeherehis ideas on sociologyas a science,
whichwouldlargelybe a repetition of Durkheim'sviews. It maybe ar-
guedthathe changedthegeneralcharacterofthescientific outlookofthis
Frenchsociologist,or at least that he gave a nationalisticcolorto it.
Gokalpbelievedin thedualismofcivilization and culture."Civilization,"
accordingto him,is a productcomposedofall the"traditions"whichare
createdby different ethnicgroupsand transmitted fromone to another.
Hence it is not a groupproductbut an intergroup achievement."Cul-
ture,"on theotherhand,is composedof the "mores"ofa particularna-
tionalgroup,and consequently it is uniqueand sui generis.The "tradi-
tions"are waysofbehaviorimposedon individualsby thecommonele-
mentsof theircivilization;theyare the "rational"elementsof society,
while"mores"constitute theverycontentof the "collectiveconscience"
of a particularnationand determinethe specificvalue-judgments, or
ethos,ofthatnationalgroup.In otherwords,theyarelargely"irrational"
or "sentimental" judgments.Whenthe"traditions"ofa particularcivili-
zationare in accordwiththe"mores"ofa particularnation,theybecome
incorporatedin "institutions";otherwisethey remainmere "fossils."
Thus, everynationassimilatesinternational traditionsonlyby incorpo-
ratingthemintonationalinstitutions and by changingtheiroriginalchar-
acteristics.The conflictof the "traditions"withindividualexperiences
resultsin the riseof scientific criticismand rationality, while"cultural
criticism" or "commonsense"resultsfromtheconflict betweenthe"tra-
ditions"and the"mores." The collectiveconscienceis represented bestin
the "genius," who does not create new values,since he is the productof
society,but brings into consciousness the unconscious elements ofthena-
tionalspirit.Thus, no one can remodelsocietyaccording to his arbitrary
desiresbut has to learnand obeythesociallydetermined laws of society
in orderto lead it. A "nation"is originally an "ethnicgroup"based on
of
the unity language and custom. Each of the ethnicgroupsbeginsto
6 Iimaiyat Mecmuasi.

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 244 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

feelits uniquenesswhenthe imperialstate,by whichit was dominated,

disintegrates and at thattimetriesto achieveits historically determined
unity.This is thereasonwhythemodernnationalistic movements coin-
cidewiththeinterestin,and revivalof,nationallanguage,literature, and
folklore. But,sinceeveryethnicgrouplosesmuchofitsoriginality during
itslifeunderan empire-civilization,it cannotturnback to itspureethnic
lifebut has to adapt itselfto new situations,utilizingthe nationalcon-
sciousnessas a basis forthisprocessofadaptation.
This philosophyofhistoryformulated by G6kalpoffered a solutionto
thecontroversy betweenthePan-Islamistsand theWesternists. He gave
the resultsofhis sociologicalapproachto the socialproblemsof Turkey
to thepoliticalleadersof thenationin threewords: "Turkify,Islamize,
and Modernize,"whichbecamea sloganin furthering the reformations
of the country.He showedthemwhichelementsshouldconstitutethe
nationalculture,and, on thebasis ofthisculture,to whatextenttheele-
mentsoftheIslamicand theEuropeancivilizations shouldbe adoptedor
rejected,so as nottopermitconflicts amongthesethreeforceswhichwere
reflectedin thelifeofthepeopleofhistime.He elaboratedtheseideas in
journals,and especiallyin his Social Organization
his articlesin different
oftheAncientTurks7and in The Historyof TurkishCivilization,8wherehe
attemptedto distinguish characteristicinstitutionsof Turkishculture,
and in his volume on The Principles of Turkish Nationalism,9where he
applied his findingsto the actual problemsof Turkeyin the fieldsof
politics,economics, and literature.Ziya Gokalpused
education,religion,
a richbodyofmaterialsin his writings whichhad been collectedby him-
selfand his assistantsfromtheethnology of theancientTurksand from
the historiesof the Easternand the Westernnations.He was well ac-
quainted with the worksof Ibn Khaldun, Darwin, Comte, Spencer,
Fouille,Worms,Le Bon,and Tarde. All theactivitiesofhis school,how-
ever,wereinterrupted by theconsequencesof theWorldWar.
Afterthe establishment of the republicanregimein I923 sociology
gained widerattentionas an academicdiscipline.It was introducedin
I924 into all collegeand normal-school programs.These programshad
been formulated on the basis of thosepreparedin I920 by the French
ministry of educationforthe Frenchnormalschools.The firsttextbook
on sociologywas translatedalso froma Frenchtextbookwrittenby Hess
and Gleyzeforthe Frenchnormalschools.In 1927 appearedtwo other
7 Iqtimai Teskilat(Istanbul: Milli Tetebbular Mecmuasi, I912).
Eski Tuirklerde
8 Tariki(Istanbul,I926).
TurkMedeniyeti
Esaslari (Ankara, I924).
9 T4rkqiiluigun

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 SOCIOLOGY IN TURKEY 245

textbooks,one by MehmedIzzet,Ioa professor ofsociologyin theUniver-

sityofIstanbul,theotherby Ali Kami,"'a secondary-school professor of
sociology.The generaloutlineof these textbookswas inspiredby the
conceptualframework ofDurkheim'sschoolgivenin L'annee sociologique
withsomemodifications foreducationalpurposes.The sociologicalteach-
ingsin the University of Istanbulfollowedthe traditionof the French
schoolof sociologyuntilrecenttimes.Gokalp'sdisciple,NecmeddinSa-
dik,continuedto teachfora fewyearsfollowing thedeathoftheformer.
Otherprofessors ofsociologyteachingat thesametimeand continuing to
workaftertheresignation ofNecmeddinSadikwereMehmedIzzet and a
Frenchsociologist,Max Bonnafous.In I927 Professors NecmeddinSadik
and Max Bonnafouspublishedthefirstvolumeofa textbookon General
Sociologyl2 foruniversity whichmaybe regarded
teaching, as thebest
systematic of whatmostsociologists
presentation in Turkeyunderstand
as sociology.This volumeincludeschapterson the originsof sociology,
thesubjectmatterof sociology,sociologyand psychology, sociologyand
theothersocialsciences,sociologicaltheoryofknowledge, primitive men-
tality,themethodsofsociology,theclassification ofsocieties,socialmor-
phology,theinfluenceof themorphological changeson theinstitutions,
sociologyand ethics,and studieson suicide.The othertwo volumesof
thiswork,whichwereto deal withthesociologyofreligion, thesociology
ofthefamily, and thepoliticalsociology,have neverappeared. Professor
MehmedIzzet, a learnedand giftedsociologistwhoseuntimelydeathin
1930 was a lossto Turkishsociology, had studiedextensivelyFrench,Ger-
man, English,and Americansociologicaltheoriesand had widenedthe
scope of sociologicalinterest.The influenceof GeorgSimmeland Max
Webermay be seen in his teachingsand writings.He represented the
shifting ofinterestfromtheFrenchto theGermansociologists.His most
notablework,besideshis textbookon sociology,is Theoriesof National-
ity.13 In I927 the publicationof a new monthlyJournal of Sociology'4
started,but continuedonlythreeyears. This journal,whichwas edited
byMehmedServet,a former professorofsociology,includedlargelymeth-
odologicaldiscussionsand translationsof foreignsociologistssuch as
Ward,Durkheim,Sombart,and Bougle. Anotherprofessor of sociology
is IsmailHakki,an orthodoxDurkheimist, whotaughtin theUniversity
Io timaiyatDersleri (Istanbul, I927).
-I timaiyat (Istanbul, I927). 12 Umutmi
1timaiyat (Istanbul, I927).
I3AMilliyetNazariyeleri(Istanbul, I923).
I4 Felsefe
veItimaiyatMecmuasi(Istanbul,1927-30).

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 246 THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY

ofIstanbuluntilI 933. Sincethereorganization ofthesameuniversity in

I933 thechairofsociologyhas beenheldby a Germanprofessor, Gerhard
Kessler,whois interestedin socialamelioration.Two otheryoungsociolo-
gists,HilmiZiya Ulken and ZiyaeddinFahri,are teachingin the same
Thefirst
university. is thewriter
ofa treatise Sociology,'S the
on General
firstvolumeofwhichappearedin I932. He is theauthorofmanyother
philosophicaland sociologicalarticlesand books, the most notable of
whichis a Historyof TurkishThought.'6 The secondhas been editinga
quarterlyjournalofsociologysinceI934 underthetitleAction.Another
writerofa book on thePrinciplesofSociology'7is MebmedSaffet,a Co-
lumbiagraduate,whois teachingin theTeachersCollegeofAnkaraand
showsthe influenceof Giddings.An Instituteof Sociologyand Social
Scienceswas foundedin i934 in theUniversity ofIstanbulat theinitia-
tionof Professor Kessler is
and concernedchieflywiththe problemsof
citylife.
To summarize thecharacteristicsofTurkishsociology:(i) It has been
the of
under influence political movements fora longtime.This situation
resultedin a veryshortlifeforeach school,caused themto changevery
rapidlywiththechangesofpolitics,and did notpermitthemto produce
fruitfulresearches.(2) The Frenchschoolof sociologybecamemorein-
fluentialin shapingthescientificoutlookof Turkishsociologists.(3) Its
chiefconcernafterthe WorldWar became endlessmethodological dis-
cussions;and forthatreasonit did not contribute anythingto scientific
researchworthyofmention,whilemoreinteresting researchstudieshave
beenmade ratherin othersocialsciences,suchas anthropology, history,
economics, and folklore,withwhichwe are nothereconcerned.(4) The
lack offinancialsupportis one of thefactorswhichpreventthedevelop-
mentofa researchprogram,thecarrying-out ofa plan of translationsof
foreignliterature,the publicationof journals,and the continuationof
sociologicalassociations.
UNIVERSITY OF ISTANBUL

I5 UnumniItimaiyat (Istanbul, I932).

i6 Turk Tefekkiir
Tariki (Istanbul, I933).
'7 Itimaiyat Prensipleri(Istanbul,I933).

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