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Quantification and design of jumping-ski characteristics

Article in Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part P Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology · August 2017
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Original Article

Proc IMechE Part P:

J Sports Engineering and Technology
1–10
Quantification and design of Ó IMechE 2017
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DOI: 10.1177/1754337117721831
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Jinsu Gim, Joohyeong Jeon, Bongju Kim, Taejoon Jeong,

Kyeonghyeon Jeon and Byungohk Rhee

Abstract
Elastic and dynamic characteristics of jumping-skis affect ski performance at all four ski jumping phases. Compared with
the number of studies on alpine-skis, there have been few studies on the characteristics of jumping-skis. This article iden-
tifies design parameters that have the most influence on jumping-ski characteristics. To identify the elastic and dynamic
characteristics of jumping-skis, previous research and testing methods for alpine-skis were modified. Spring constants
and bending stiffness distributions for three jumping-skis were measured. Natural frequencies, modal shapes, and damp-
ing ratios were also measured. From these results, the bending stiffness distribution was identified as a more elastic char-
acteristic of jumping-skis than the spring constant. The natural frequency and damping ratio were selected as the
relevant dynamic characteristics. To determine the effective design parameter for elastic and dynamic characteristics of
jumping-skis, a jumping-ski was modeled by finite element method, and the inner structures and material properties of
components of a jumping-ski were measured and analyzed. By comparing the simulation with actual test results, the
reliability of the finite element method simulation was verified. The geometrical feature of the ski thickness profile is the
most significant design parameter for elastic characteristics of jumping-skis. A mechanical property of the face material
and wood at the sidewall is a highly influencing design parameter for dynamic characteristics of jumping-skis.

Keywords
Jumping-ski, ski characteristics, ski design, bending stiffness distribution, natural frequency, damping ratio, spring constant

Date received: 28 November 2016; accepted: 25 June 2017

Introduction studies have focused on alpine-skis. For alpine-skis,

In winter sports, ski jumping, which is called ‘‘the
flower of skiing,’’ features various postures, fast glide,
and flight consisting of four phases: in-run, take-off,
flight, and landing.1–3 Jumping-skis interact with diverse
physical conditions during the event. Specifically,
jumping-skis are affected by a frictional force with the
track during the in-run phase,4 a jumping force of the
skier during the take-off phase,5 lift and drag forces
during take-off and flight phases,6–8 and shock during
the landing phase.1–3 In each phase, ski characteristics
act differently on the ski. As Lind and Sanders noted,
ski performance varies with the ski characteristics.9
Pressure distribution and vibration of the jumping-ski
affect the frictional force between the ski and track, and
this friction influences take-off speed.10,11 During the
early flight phase, jumping-skis, excited by the take-off
force, vibrate according to the dynamic characteristics
of the jumping-skis. This vibration influences flight sta-
bility and control.12,13
Studies on characteristics and design of skis have
been performed for several decades. However, most
attempts to systematically quantify the characteristics
of skis began by Piziali and Mote.14 They presented the
elastic, geometrical, and dynamic properties of alpine-
skis. Deak et al.15 proposed experimental and analytical
techniques to determine bending and torsional charac-
teristics of alpine-skis. Boehm16 analyzed ski character-
istics due to material properties of composite materials.
Clerc et al.17 developed a pressure distribution predic-
tion program that considered physical properties and
internal structures of skis. Based on several previous
studies, the mechanical characteristics of alpine-skis
were systematically organized by Nordt,18 and a mathe-
matical model was proposed. Lind and Sanders9 ana-
lyzed ski characteristics and their effects. Fischer et al.19
analyzed the correlation of ski characteristics with a
Ajou University, Suwon, South Korea
Corresponding author:
Byungohk Rhee, Ajou University, 206 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon
16499, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea.
Email: rhex@ajou.ac.kr
2 Proc IMechE Part P: J Sports Engineering and Technology 00(0)
skier’s comfort. Based on the study of ski characteris-
tics, techniques that can adjust the dynamic properties
of skis were proposed by Sosnicki et al.20 In contrast to
the number of studies on alpine-skis, there have been
few studies performed on the characteristics of jump-
ing-skis. Shionoya et al.21 analyzed bending vibration
during the flight phase by analyzing dynamic character-
istics of jumping-skis. While design and optimization of
jumping-skis involve an expensive and time-consuming
process because there are many ski characteristics and
conditions, few analyses and design methods for elastic
and dynamic characteristics of jumping-skis have been
reported.
The primary objective of this study was to determine
design parameters for elastic and dynamic characteris-
tics of jumping-skis. Spring constants, bending stiffness
distributions, natural frequencies, modal shapes, and
damping ratios were measured and analyzed to identify
jumping-ski characteristics. To find effective design
parameters for elastic and dynamic characteristics of
jumping-skis, a jumping-ski was modeled using the
finite element method (FEM). The FEM model was
then verified by comparing simulation results with the
measured characteristics of jumping-skis. Through
structural analysis and design of experiment (DOE)
with the FEM model, design parameters for the charac-
teristics of jumping-skis were derived. These design
parameters can be utilized for optimization and custo-
mization of jumping-skis. Moreover, the results can
contribute to the design of other winter sports equip-
ment similar to jumping-skis.
Ski characteristics
Elastic characteristics
The characteristics that affect ski performance the most
are the bending and torsional stiffness distributions
over the length of a ski.9 Torsional stiffness affects a
carved turn in alpine skiing. To make a wide contact
area with the snow surface, the torsional moment from
the skier should be uniformly transmitted to the entire
ski. However, turns like those in alpine skiing are not
performed in ski jumping. The edges of jumping-skis
are used for deceleration after landing. Thus, the tor-
sional stiffness is less important for jumping-skis. Both
alpine-skis and jumping-skis have a camber shape. To
distribute the load of a skier to the ice or snow surface
evenly by deformation, both skis should have appropri-
ate bending stiffness. The overall bending stiffness of a
ski is a spring constant that is often called flex. The
ISO standard defines that the spring constant is an elas-
tic characteristic of alpine-skis. Therefore, the spring
constant is generally accepted as a ski property.
The bending stiffness distribution is an important
characteristic to the pressure distribution on the bot-
tom of the ski because friction is influenced by the con-
tacting force between the ice and the running surface.22
The pressure distribution on the running surface is
affected by the applied load of the skier, the shape of
the ski, and the bending stiffness distribution. Unlike
cross-country skiing, which has large variations in load,
jumping-skis have a smaller variation in the glide.
Thus, for jumping-skis, the bending stiffness distribu-
tion is more important than with any other kinds of
skis. While measurement methods for determining the
bending stiffness distribution of alpine-skis have been
well developed and analyzed by many researchers,14,23
bending stiffness measurement methods for jumping-
skis have not been studied sufficiently.
Dynamic characteristics
Jumping-skis vibrate due to unevenness of the gliding
surface. The vibrations do not always have good or bad
effects on competition. For example, excessive vibration
of the ski could disturb a skier’s control. However, a
study was performed that showed that the vibration
could reduce friction.9,10 In addition to vibrating during
the in-run, jumping-skis vibrate during early flight due
to the excitation by the take-off force applied by a skier.
In order to achieve stable flight conditions, the vibra-
tions should be quickly suppressed. Therefore, dynamic
characteristics of jumping-skis are important for ski
performance. The dynamic response of a system can be
expressed as a linear combination of each vibration
mode, and each mode has its own frequency, damping
ratio, and deformation shape. Dynamic characteristics
of jumping-skis can be represented by natural fre-
quency, mode shape, and the damping ratio of each
mode.
Experiments
Testing equipment and procedure
To measure elastic properties of jumping-skis, the test-
ing method for alpine-skis, which has been well docu-
mented, was modified. Testing methods for the spring
constants of alpine-skis are given by ISO 5902 and
ASTM F498-77. These methods define the spring con-
stants by measuring deflection of a corresponding load.
The specific definition is shown in equation (1) as
follows
P
k= ð1Þ
d
k is the spring constant, P is the applied load, and d is
the deflection. The ski to be tested was fixed at the end
of the binding and loaded at a position of interest, such
as a contact point or the shovel. The shovel, rear, fore-
body, and afterbody spring constants are defined in
accordance with a loading position. Standard testing
methods for jumping-skis are not fixed; however,
spring constants of jumping-skis can be measured by
referring to the fixing and loading positions of the test
for alpine-skis. The spring constants from the balance
Gim et al.
Figure 1. (a) Elastic characteristics test (b) dynamic characteristics test.
point (BP), afterbody contact point (ACP), forebody
contact point (FCP), and shovel were measured.
Additionally, the spring constant of a section from the
FCP to the shovel was measured because this section has
an aerodynamic function. When loads prescribed by the
test methods for alpine-skis were applied to jumping-
skis, excessive deflections were observed. The length of
the tested section in jumping-skis is much longer than in
alpine-skis. When there is excessive deformation, a high
reaction force in the horizontal direction is exerted on
the plate due to an acute angle at the loading position.
In this case, the load is not a vertical load. To solve this
problem, a reduced load of 50 N was applied.
To measure bending stiffness distribution, tested skis
were longitudinally divided into 12 sections. Each sec-
tion was a quarter of the range between the three char-
acteristic points: shovel, FCP, and ACP. Each section
was approximated to be a simple cantilever beam. The
bending stiffness was calculated by the load, deflection,
and length of each section. The relationship of bending
stiffness, load, deflection, and length is shown below.
The bending stiffness in equation (2) is distinguished as
an apparent bending stiffness because it includes defor-
mations caused by bending and shear
PL3
ðEIÞapp =
3d
In equation (2), L, P, d, and (EI)app are the length of the
tested section, applied load, deflection, and the bending
stiffness of the tested section, respectively.
In the tests of spring constant and bending stiffness,
deflections were measured by the same methods. When
the load was applied at the end of a tested section, the
deflection at the loading position was measured. A test
bench was fabricated for spring constant and bending
stiffness tests. The basic structure of the test bench con-
formed to ISO 5902. In order to minimize the effect of
the transversal force by friction, linear bearings sup-
ported vertical loading bars. Tested skis were fixed by
three bars of 30 mm width. To measure deflection accu-
rately, a laser displacement sensor (KAIS KL4-250NV)
with 0.1-mm resolution was used. The test bench is
shown in Figure 1(a).
3
The method for measuring dynamic characteristics of
alpine-skis is prescribed by ISO 6267. However, the
method has a limitation in that it measures only the first
mode of vibration.24 This is because the pull-and-release
excitation makes a ski vibrate primarily in the first mode,
and the analysis method processes measured data in the
first mode of vibration. To overcome this limitation, an
impact hammer method was used, which excites a broad
range of frequencies. Therefore, the dynamic characteris-
tics of jumping-skis were measured by the impact test
and modal analysis. Because dynamic characteristics of a
system depend on boundary conditions, proper fixing
conditions were made, similar to an actual skiing situa-
tion. During the glide phase, the forebody from the sho-
vel to the front end of the binding and the afterbody
from the rear binding to the tail are vibrating as a canti-
lever beam fixed at the end of the binding. During the
flight phase, only the pivot of the binding is fixed to the
boot. Therefore, the front and rear of the ski are oscillat-
ing as a cantilever beam fixed at the pivot, near the BP.
To implement this condition in the experiment, a ski was
fixed at the rear end of the binding to simulate glide con-
ditions, and the pivot was fixed at the front end of the
binding to simulate flight situations. Measurement of
dynamic characteristics was performed as shown in
Figure 1(b). Impulse applied to the ski was measured,
ð2Þ and input through the impact hammer (PCB 086C03)
and the response acceleration signal were measured by
accelerometers (PCB 352C03). The signals of the impact
hammer and accelerometers were collected by a data
acquisition (DAQ) system (National Instruments (NI)
cDAQ-9174 and NI9234) and analyzed by a modal anal-
ysis program (NI sound and vibration toolkit).
Tested skis
Three jumping-skis were tested in the experiment. The
geometry of jumping-skis is strictly regulated by the
International Ski Federation (FIS) rule. The geometries
of the tested jumping-skis, which adhere to the FIS rule,
are shown in Table 1.
Test results and discussion
Results of spring constant measurements are shown in
Figure 2. The spring constant of the BP-FCP section
4 Proc IMechE Part P: J Sports Engineering and Technology 00(0)
Table 1. Geometries of tested jumping-skis.
Ski geometries
Ski length (mm)
Maximum width at front portion (mm)
Maximum width at 57% of front portion (mm)
Maximum width at tail portion (mm)
Maximum length between the tip and beginning of side-cut (mm)
Maximum length between the tail and beginning of side-cut (mm)
Figure 2. Spring constant of tested jumping-skis.
Figure 3. Bending stiffness distribution of tested jumping-skis.
was two times more than that of the BP-ACP section.
According to the results, the jumping-skis have asym-
metrical elastic characteristics around the BP. In partic-
ular, the BP-FCP section of jumping-ski C has a spring
constant that is 10 times larger than the other test sec-
tion because the spring constant is overestimated by
the shorter length of the test section. Even though the
BP-FCP section of jumping-ski C has similar geometry
and thickness compared to other sections, the length of
the BP-FCP section was about 50% of the BP-ACP
section. However, the BP-FCP and the BP-ACP sec-
tions of jumping-skis A and B have a relatively similar
length. Spring constants may not be an appropriate
way to represent elastic characteristics of jumping-skis
because they are too sensitive to the length of the test
section.
The bending stiffness distributions, shown in Figure
3, feature asymmetrical elastic characteristics of jump-
ing-skis. The difference between the maximum and
Jumping-skis
A B C
2600 2370 2430
115 115 115
105 105 105
115 112 112
270 240 270
210 170 330
minimum bending stiffness is as large as a factor of 20–
30. The maximum bending stiffness is about 500 N m2
around the BP where the binding is located. Compared
with jumping-skis A and B, jumping-ski C has a smaller
bending stiffness in the section from the BP to the FCP.
This result is contrary to the large spring constant of
the BP-FCP section in the jumping-ski C. The differ-
ence exists because the bending stiffness is not affected
by the length of the test section. Therefore, elastic char-
acteristics of jumping-skis can be better represented by
the bending stiffness distribution.
Natural frequencies of jumping-skis are shown in
Figure 4. These modes corresponding to the natural
frequencies are bending mode. The first natural fre-
quencies of the forebody and afterbody of jumping-skis
are lower than 10 Hz. The second and third natural fre-
quencies are about 25–35 and 70–90 Hz, respectively.
Natural frequencies of afterbody in the in-run condi-
tion are about 1.3–2 times higher than that in the flight
condition. This is due to the length of the afterbody in
the in-run condition becoming shorter because of the
length of the binding.
Damping ratios of jumping-skis are shown in Figure
5. Damping ratio of the first mode is much larger than
those of other modes. The first mode of vibration is
supposed to appear mainly during take-off. The shovel
has the largest amplitude in flight condition.
Aerodynamically, the first mode of vibration should be
suppressed as quickly as possible to enter a stable flight
condition. Therefore, the largest damping ratio of the
first mode is reasonable. However, the afterbody has a
large damping ratio of the third mode. However, the
effect of damping ratio on the performance of jumping-
skis and a skier’s feeling should be studied further.
Simulation and design of jumping-ski
characteristics
To reduce trial-and-error in ski design, predicting ski
characteristics in the design process is desirable. To
build a prediction model of ski characteristics, jumping-
ski A was chosen for reverse engineering, and the inner
structure and material properties were analyzed. Design
parameters of jumping-ski characteristics were deter-
mined by an FEM model.
Gim et al.
Figure 4. Natural frequencies of tested jumping-skis.
Figure 5. Damping ratio of test jumping-skis.
Figure 6. Illustration of a basic inner structure of jumping-skis.
Inner structure of jumping-ski
The chosen jumping-ski was cut to analyze its inner
structure with the basic inner structure shown in Figure
6. Inner structures along the ski length direction are
similar or identical to the structure shown in Figure 6.
The core has a honeycomb structure, surrounded by a
wood core. The outer side of the jumping-ski is a plastic
material. Acting as a structural material at the face,
glass or carbon fiber composites are glued to the core
structure. Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene
(UHMWPE) is used for the base (running surface).
Special sections having putty or lead in the core struc-
ture are used to fix bolts for the binding or to adjust
the BP. However, in this study, these materials were
not taken into consideration because they are not major
components of the basic inner structure.
5
As mentioned above, jumping-skis have a honey-
comb core structure, which is a major difference com-
pared with alpine-skis. Lighter weights, attributable to
the skier and equipment, are favorable for a longer
flight. The length of a jumping-ski determined by the
weight of the skier is strictly regulated by the FIS rule.
Therefore, a honeycomb structured core is the most
suitable way to build a lighter jumping-ski. In addition
to the core structure, a unidirectional composite mate-
rial is used for the face material. Jumping-skis do not
require a high torsional stiffness, unlike alpine-skis that
utilize bidirectional or tri-directional composite
materials.
Material properties
Material properties for the jumping-ski FEM model are
presented in Table 2. Usually, material properties of the
composites of the upper and lower faces are not the
same in all directions and thus are called anisotropic.
The upper and the lower faces of jumping-skis play a
major role in resisting tensional or compressional stress
developed largely in the ski length direction. Therefore,
the material properties of the upper and lower faces are
regarded as isotropic as an approximation for the FEM
6 Proc IMechE Part P: J Sports Engineering and Technology 00(0)

Table 2. Material properties for the jumping-ski FEM simulation.

Ski material Young’s modulusa Shear modulusa Poisson’s ratioa Density

EL (GPa) EW (GPa) ET (GPa) GLW (GPa) GWT (GPa) GLT (GPa) VLW VWT VLT r (g/cc)

Honeycomb 0.103 7.79e23 0.282 6.8e23 4.36e22 3.01e22 0.898 0.147 6.45e23 0.125
Glass composite 23 23 23 8.65 8.65 8.65 0.33 0.33 0.33 1.658
Glass and 43.4 43.4 43.4 16.3 16.3 16.3 0.33 0.33 0.33 1.658
carbon composite
Wood 10.8 0.562 0.833 0.802 0.802 7.70e22 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.465
Plastic at sidewall 0.259 0.259 0.259 9.74e22 9.74e22 9.74e22 0.33 0.33 0.33 1.035
UHMWPE at base 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.256 0.256 0.256 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.942

UHMWPE: ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene.

aL-ski length direction, W-ski width direction, T-ski thickness direction.

analysis. Only the mechanical property in the ski length
direction was measured for the upper and lower faces.
However, the core is under shear stress largely in the ski
length direction. Therefore, the shear modulus of the
honeycomb structure and the wood material in the core
is necessary to consider for proper simulations.
The mechanical properties of the materials were
measured with small specimens cut from the jumping-
skis. Each layer of the jumping-skis had a small thick-
ness and a maximum width of 115 mm. Thus, the speci-
men size for material tests was limited. In Figure 6, the
glass composite is a unidirectional glass fiber sheet, and
the glass and carbon composite is a 1:1 combination of
unidirectional glass and carbon fibers going in ski
length direction. Mechanical properties of the compo-
site material were tested in accordance with ASTM D
3039. The plastic material for the sidewall was tested in
accordance with ASTM D 638. UHMWPE of base
could not be tested because it was very thin and had
grooves and grind patterns. Therefore, the mechanical
properties of UHMWPE declared in the material prop-
erty datasheet from the manufacturer were used.
Densities of composite and plastic materials were tested
in accordance with KS M ISO 1183-1. Density of wood
was tested in accordance with KS F 2198. Mechanical
properties of the wood core were calculated by an
approximated relationship for wood properties in terms
of density, presented by Gibson and Ashby.25 The cor-
rugated honeycomb structure has an anisotropic prop-
erty in the direction of the liner and the flute. The
liners are flat sheets, and the flutes are corrugated
sheets. The wavelength and amplitude of the flute in
the corrugated honeycomb core were 8.5 and 2 mm,
respectively. The difference in the scale of deformation
between the honeycomb part and the entire ski is large.
If the honeycomb structure were to be modeled as a
structure with the liner and the flute, the modeling
effort and computational power would be significant.
Therefore, in this work, the corrugated honeycomb
structure was approximated as a continuum with a
macroscopic homogenized property.26 To homogenize,
repeating unit cells of the honeycomb structure were
modeled by an ABAQUS S4 shell element. Tie
constraints were applied to the glued points of the liner
and the flute. A boundary condition of the unit cell
model by Qiao’s research was applied.27 Calculated
homogenized macroscopic material properties of the
honeycomb structure were used in the FEM modeling.
Modeling of jumping-ski
The FEM model of the jumping-ski was composed of
basic structural and material properties. A C3D8I solid
element capable of preventing shear locking was used.
Mesh size was 1.5 mm, and four significant digits of
deflection results were not changed with this size.
Because jumping-skis have a symmetric geometry about
the center of width, symmetric boundary conditions were
applied to the center of the model. At the fixed positions
of jumping-skis, each displacement on the fixed surface
was set to zero. In the bending test, the load was applied
by horizontal cylinders. In order to implement the load-
ing condition, rotation along the ski length direction at
the loading position was restrained. In the FEM simula-
tion for dynamic characteristics, the end of the jumping-
skis was set to a free-end boundary condition.
Simulation results and discussion
Deflections were calculated by the simulation for the
12 tested sections. The deflection of the end of each sec-
tion was converted to the bending stiffness using equa-
tion (2). The tested bending stiffness and simulation
results are compared, as shown in Figure 7. The pre-
dicted bending stiffnesses of sections near the binding
and tail were significantly lower than the ones acquired
experimentally, likely the result of the putty and lead
not being considered in the FEM model. The putty has
a higher stiffness than the honeycomb structure and a
high area moment of inertia because it is located below
the face material. Thus, the putty increases bending
stiffness near the binding. In addition to the putty, the
lead also has a higher stiffness than the honeycomb
structure and increases bending stiffness near the tail.
Except for the sections near the binding and the tail,
the error of predicted bending stiffness was \ 10%.
Gim et al. 7

deflection and pure shear deflection as shown in equa-

tion (3)
PL3 PL
d = db + ds = + ð3Þ
3ðEIÞeq ðAGÞeq

Here, db and ds are the bending deflection and the shear

Figure 7. Comparison of tested and predicted bending
stiffness distribution.
Table 3. Comparison of tested and predicted natural
frequency.
Frequency mode Test result (Hz) Simulation result (Hz)
First mode 7.6 6.35
Second mode 30.6 25.7
Third mode 67.9 61.2
Thus, the bending stiffness distribution was well pre-
dicted by the FEM simulation and can be utilized in a
ski design.
Dynamic characteristics of the forebody were simu-
lated because the bending stiffness of the forebody
without putty or lead was predicted well. Results of the
natural frequency simulation are listed in Table 3. The
error in the first mode natural frequency is approxi-
mately 16%. The cause of the error is due to an addi-
tional mass of materials that were not considered, such
as the rubber sheet, glue, and the acceleration sensor.
From the first mode to the third mode, the maximum
error of the predicted natural frequency was \ 20% as
shown in Table 3. Thus, dynamic characteristics of
jumping-skis could be roughly predicted by the FEM
simulation. The damping ratio of each mode could not
be predicted because it was difficult to consider the vis-
coelastic material properties in broad frequency range
to FEM simulation.
Design parameter of bending stiffness distribution
and natural frequency
To find proper parameters that can provide changes in
elastic and dynamic characteristics of jumping-skis, the
FEM simulation was used. Geometric parameters, such
as width and length, are fairly consistent in ski design
because they are strictly limited by FIS rules. However,
internal structure, such as thickness and material, is eas-
ily changeable. Bending stiffness could be adjusted by
redesigning the internal structure. Among many para-
meters, ski thickness was the most influential parameter
to change the bending stiffness of jumping-skis.
The deflection of a sandwich structure under bend-
ing deformation is given by the sum of the pure bending
deflection, respectively; P is the applied load; L is the
length of tested section; and (EI)eq and (AG)eq are the
equivalent bending stiffness and equivalent shear stiff-
ness of the sandwich structure, respectively. If the length
of the structure is long enough, such as the entire length
of a jumping-ski, the shear deflection is neglected, com-
pared to the bending deflection, and the whole deflec-
tion is dominantly affected by bending stiffness.
However, the shear deflection in the FEM simulation
and the bending stiffness test cannot be negligible
because the length of the model was relatively short.
The equivalent bending stiffness was calculated
from the apparent bending stiffness of two models
that have the same cross section and different lengths.
The apparent bending stiffness can be expressed with
the sum of bending and shear deflections as follows in
equation (4)
PL3
ðEIÞapp = ð4Þ
3ð db + ds Þ
Bending compliance and shear compliance are the
inverses of bending stiffness and shear stiffness, respec-
tively. The apparent bending compliance can be pre-
sented by the equivalent bending compliance and the
equivalent shear compliance as shown in equation (5)
3
Cb, app = Cb, eq + Cs, eq ð5Þ
L2
Here, Cb, app is the apparent bending compliance, Cb, eq
is the equivalent bending compliance, and Cs, eq is the
equivalent shear compliance. The equivalent com-
pliances are not functions of the length. The equivalent
compliances can be calculated from the difference
between apparent bending compliances of different
lengths. Then, the equivalent stiffness can be obtained
from the inverse of compliance.
To figure out the effect of ski thickness on the equiva-
lent bending stiffness, simple jumping-ski FEM models
having a constant width and core thickness of 10–24 mm,
but two different lengths were analyzed. The equivalent
bending stiffness and the equivalent shear stiffness were
calculated using equations (6) and (7), respectively
  !1
1 1 1 1
ðEIÞeq =   ð6Þ
L21 L22 ðEIÞapp, 1 L22 ðEIÞapp, 2 L21
  !1
1 1 1 1
ðAGÞeq = 3 2  2  ð7Þ
L1 L2 ðEIÞapp, 2 ðEIÞapp, 1
8 Proc IMechE Part P: J Sports Engineering and Technology 00(0)

width cannot be adjusted due to the limitations of the

FIS rule. Elastic property and thickness of face mate-
rial are constant in the ski length direction. Therefore,
the bending stiffness distribution of jumping-skis can
be efficiently adjusted by adjusting the core thickness
distribution.
The natural frequency of jumping-skis is influenced
by the overall ski stiffness and mass. The inner struc-
ture of jumping-skis and density of the materials can
hardly be changed because jumping-skis are lightweight
due to a sandwich structure with a honeycomb core.
Figure 8. Equivalent bending stiffness and equivalent shear
The bottom running surface material is also designated
stiffness of jumping-ski model.
by the FIS rule. Therefore, it is feasible to adjust the
natural frequency of jumping-skis by modifying the
Table 4. Material properties for the screening DOE. elastic properties of the materials. To figure out the
impact of Young’s modulus of each material, the
Ski material Young’s modulus (GPa) screening DOE was performed. Two levels of Young’s
Level 1 Level 2 modulus were selected for each material. The level of
mechanical properties for DOE was referred to similar
Composite sheet 20 30 materials in a Young’s modulus–density chart by
Honeycomb 0.05 0.2 Ashby,27 and specific mechanical properties used in the
Wood core 6 20
Plastic at sidewall 1 5 DOE are presented in Table 4. The material property
of a honeycomb is not presented in the chart, so its
property range for DOE was assumed to be 50%–
200% of the original property. Each material for DOE
As shown in Figure 8, the linear correlation coefficient was considered isotropic despite being anisotropic. The
between the equivalent bending stiffness and the square error of natural frequency between the model with iso-
of the core thickness is 0.998. Therefore, the bending tropic material properties and the model with anisotro-
stiffness is proportional to the square of the core thick- pic material properties was \ 0.1%.
ness. This relation between bending stiffness and core The effect of mechanical properties of the ski materi-
thickness corresponds to the behavior of ideal sandwich als on the first natural frequency is shown in Figure 9.
structure as follows in equation (8)25 Young’s modulus of the composite material had the
greatest influence on the natural frequency, while the
Ef btc2 wood at the sidewall had the second largest influence.
ðEIÞeq ’ ð8Þ
2 These results are due to the composite material and
wood having higher stiffnesses than other component
Here, Ef is Young’s modulus of face material and b, t, materials. The composite material also affects the natu-
and c are width, thickness of face material, and core ral frequency because it is located at the face and has
thickness, respectively. In case of jumping-skis, the the highest area moment of inertia.

Figure 9. The effect of elastic property on the natural frequency of jumping-ski.

Gim et al.
For the second and third natural frequencies, the
order of influence of the mechanical properties was
identical. As a result, the natural frequency of jumping-
skis can be controlled effectively by adjusting the
mechanical properties of the composite material at the
face and the wood at the sidewall.
Conclusion
Experimental and numerical work were conducted to
determine the impact of available design parameters on
jumping-ski characteristics. The bending stiffness distri-
bution is appropriate to represent elastic characteristics
of jumping-skis instead of the spring constant, which is
generally used for elastic characteristics of alpine-skis.
Jumping-skis have asymmetrical bending stiffness dis-
tributions around the BP. Furthermore, the difference
between the maximum and minimum bending stiffness
is as large as a factor of 20–30. The maximum bending
stiffness appears near the binding position. Dynamic
characteristics of jumping-skis can be adequately mod-
eled using the natural frequency and damping ratio.
The natural frequency of the first bending mode is
\ 10 Hz. The natural frequencies of the second and
third bending modes are 25–35 and 70–90 Hz, respec-
tively. The first bending mode of the forebody during
flight has the largest damping ratio.
To find effective design parameters for elastic and
dynamic characteristics of jumping-skis, a jumping-ski
was modeled by an FEM model. To build the jumping-
ski FEM model, the inner structure and material prop-
erties of components of a jumping-ski were measured
and analyzed. The jumping-ski FEM model was veri-
fied by comparing the predicted bending stiffness distri-
bution and natural frequency with the measured values.
A geometrical feature, ski thickness profile, is the
most significant design parameter for elastic character-
istics of jumping-skis. By the structural analysis with
the jumping-ski FEM model, the bending stiffness was
determined to be sensitive to the core thickness, which
is a typical behavior of ideal sandwich structure.
Therefore, bending stiffness distribution can be
adjusted effectively by the ski thickness distribution.
Young’s modulus of the face material and wood at
the sidewall is an important design parameter for
dynamic characteristics of jumping-skis. By DOE with
the jumping-ski FEM model, the natural frequency of
jumping-ski is mainly affected by the stiffness of the
face material and wood at the sidewall. These materials
have a higher mechanical property than other compo-
nent materials.
The effects of geometrical feature and mechanical
property of component materials on bending stiffness
distribution and natural frequency can be utilized for
optimization and customization of elastic and dynamic
characteristics of jumping-skis. Furthermore, these
results can contribute to designing alpine and cross-
country skis similar to jumping-skis requiring stiffness
as well as lightweight.
9
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
Funding
This research was supported by the National Research
Foundation of Korea (NRF) Grant funded by the
Ministry of Science, ICT & Future Planning for con-
vergent research in sport scientification (NRF-
2014M3C1B1033983).
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