Vectors

(6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude is

Introduction of Vector a unit vector. Unit vector for is (read as A cap or A

hat).
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction
and obeying laws of vector algebra are called vectors. Since, .
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration,
momentum, force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque, Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the

angular momentum, angular velocity etc. direction.

If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction (7) Orthogonal unit vectors
y
both, then it does not always imply that it is a vector. For and are called orthogonal
ˆj
it to be a vector the third condition of obeying laws of unit vectors. These vectors must
x
vector algebra has to be satisfied. form a Right Handed Triad (It is a k̂
î
Example : The physical quantity current has both coordinate system such that when z
Fig. 0.1
magnitude and direction but is still a scalar as it disobeys we Curl the fingers of right hand from x to y then we
the laws of vector algebra. must get the direction of z along thumb). The

Types of Vector
, ,
(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors and are said to be
 , ,
equal when they have equal magnitudes and same direction.
(8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors and are said
of application . Example displacement and force etc.
to be parallel when
(9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects
(i) Both have same direction.
and are always along the axis of rotation in accordance
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero multiple
with right hand screw rule. Angular velocity, torque and
of another vector.
angular momentum, etc., are example of physical
(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors and quantities of this type.
are said to be anti-parallel when Axial vector Axis of rotation

(i) Both have opposite direction.

(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple

Anticlock wise rotation Clock wise rotation
of another vector.
Axis of rotation Axial vector
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under
consideration can share the same support or have a
common support then the considered vectors are Fig. 0.2

collinear. (10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors are

(5) Zero vector : A vector having zero magnitude called coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane. Two
(free) vectors are always coplanar.
and arbitrary direction (not known to us) is a zero vector.
Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors
 Vectors

If two non zero vectors are represented by the two Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
sides of a triangle taken B
If two non zero vectors are represented by the two
in same order then the R  AB
adjacent sides of a parallelogram then the resultant is
resultant is given by the B
given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing
O A
closing side of triangle in A through the point of intersection of the two vectors.
Fig. 0.3
opposite order. i.e.
(1) Magnitude

Since,


(1) Magnitude of resultant vector

In
B C

R  AB
B B sin
B
 

In we have
B O A N
A B cos
R Fig. 0.5
B B sin
  Special cases : when  = 0o
O A A N
B cos when  = 180o
Fig. 0.4
when  = 90o

(2) Direction

Polygon Law of Vector Addition

If a number of non zero vectors are represented by

the (n – 1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the

(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If is angle resultant is given by the closing side or the nth side of the
polygon taken in opposite order. So,
between and then

If makes an angle  with then in

D D C

E C

E B

R B

O A
A
Fig. 0.6
 Vectors

Note :  Resultant of two unequal vectors can not Components

Y
be zero.
Consider a vector in X-Y
 Resultant of three co-planar vectors may plane as shown in fig. If we draw Ry R
or may not be zero
orthogonal vectors and 
X
Rx
 Resultant of three non co- planar vectors along x and axes respectively, by Fig. 0.8
can not be zero.
law of vector addition,
Subtraction of vectors
Now as for any vector so, and

Since, and
so …(i)

But from figure

…(ii)
Since,
and …(iii)

Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and

R sum  A  B (iii) give the magnitude of the components of along x
and y-axes respectively.
B

 1 Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved

2 A
180 – 
into its components, the components themselves can be
B
used to specify the vector as

(1) The magnitude of the vector is obtained by

R diff  A  ( B )
squaring and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.
Fig. 0.7

(2) The direction of the vector is obtained by

and dividing equation (iii) by (ii), i.e.

or
But and
Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector

or
Y

Resolution of Vector Into

Ry R
Rx

Rz
X

Z
Fig. 0.9
 Vectors

between the vectors is acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative if

angle between them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°).

(ii) It is commutative, i.e.

If makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and (iii) It is distributive, i.e.

with z axis, then

(iv) As by definition

The angle between the vectors

(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum

when i.e. i.e., vectors are
parallel

Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the vector

(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum
and
when i.e.

i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors

vanishes the vectors are orthogonal.
Note :  When a point P have coordinate (x, y, z)
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is
then its position vector
termed as self dot product and is given by
 When a particle moves from point (x1, y1,
z1) to (x2, y2, z2) then its displacement vector
i.e.

(viii) In case of unit vector

Scalar Product of Two Vectors so
(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot product)
of two vectors is defined as the product of the magnitude
(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors and
of two vectors with cosine of angle between them.

Thus if there are two vectors and having angle

(x) In terms of components
between them, then their scalar product written as

is defined as
B

(2) Properties : (i) It is always a 

scalar which is positive if angle

A
Fig. 0.10
 Vectors

(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant with the sine of angle between them, and direction
force work is defined as, perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors in
…(i) accordance with right hand screw rule.

But by definition of scalar product of two vectors,

Thus, if and are two vectors, then their vector

…(ii)
product written as is a vector defined by
So from eq (i) and (ii)
n
i.e. work is the
scalar product of force with displacement.

(ii) Power P :

As or [As is

constant]

or i.e., power is the scalar product of

force with velocity. Fig. 0.12

ds 
B The direction of i.e. is perpendicular to the

plane containing vectors and and in the sense of

(iii) Magnetic Flux : 
advance of a right handed screw rotated from (first
Magnetic flux through an O
vector) to (second vector) through the smaller angle
area is given by
Fig. 0.11 between them. Thus, if a right handed screw whose axis
…(i)
is perpendicular to the plane framed by and is
But by definition of scalar product
rotated from to through the smaller angle between
...(ii)
them, then the direction of advancement of the screw
So from eq (i) and (ii) we have
n
gives the direction of i.e.

or (2) Properties

(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric (i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a
vector perpendicular to the plane containing these two
dipole of moment is situated in an electric field or a
vectors, i.e., orthogonal to both the vectors and
magnetic dipole of moment in a field of induction
though the vectors and may or may not be
the potential energy of the dipole is given by :
orthogonal.
and
(ii) Vector product of two vectors is not
Vector Product of Two Vectors
commutative, i.e., [but
(1) Definition : The vector product or cross product
Here it is worthy to note that
of two vectors is defined as a vector having a magnitude
equal to the product of the magnitudes of two vectors
 Vectors

i.e. in case of vector and magnitudes , and

are equal but directions are opposite.
(x) In terms of components
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the
order of the vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.

(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be

maximum when i.e.,

(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is

i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are a vector, vector physical quantities (particularly

orthogonal. representing rotational effects) like torque, angular

momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge in a
(v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be
magnetic field and can be expressed as the vector product
minimum when minimum = 0, i.e.,
of two vectors. It is well – established in physics that :
or
(i) Torque

(ii) Angular momentum

i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors
(iii) Velocity
vanishes, the vectors are collinear.
(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with
(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector
velocity in a magnetic field is given by
by itself vanishes, i.e., is null vector

(v) Torque on a dipole in a field and

(vii) In case of unit vector so that

(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, in Lami's Theorem

accordance with right hand screw rule : In any with sides

ˆj ˆj

180 – 
k̂

î î
c b
k̂ Fig. 0.13   180 – 

180 –  a

Fig. 0.14
and

And as cross product is not commutative,

 Vectors

i.e. for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the angle
containing the side to the length of the side is a constant.

For a triangle whose three sides are in the same

order we establish the Lami's theorem in the following
manner. For the triangle shown

[All three sides are taken in order]

…(i)
Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative
…(ii) to another moving object, consider a particle P whose

Pre-multiplying both sides by position relative to frame S is while relative to is

…(iii) If the position of frames relative to S at any time

Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by is then from figure,

Differentiating this equation with respect to time

…(iv)

From (iii) and (iv), we get or [as

Taking magnitude, we get

]

or

(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a

Dividing through out by abc, we have particle P1 moving with velocity with respect to

another particle P2 moving with velocity is given by,

= –
Relative Velocity

(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion of v1

a particle, we assume a fixed point relative to which the v2

P2
given particle is in motion. For example, if we say that
water is flowing or wind is blowing or a person is Fig. 0.16 P1

running with a speed v, we mean that these all are

Y
relative to the earth (which
Y we have
P assumed to be fixed).
(i) If both the particles are moving in the same
r
PS ' direction then :
r
PS
X
S
rS ' S
S X
Fig. 0.15
 Vectors

(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite

direction, then :

(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually

perpendicular directions, then: (5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can

swim relative to water with velocity and water is

flowing relative to ground with velocity velocity of

(iv) If the angle between and be , then
man relative to ground will be given by:
.

i.e.,
(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is

moving in equatorial plane with velocity and a point So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of

water,
on the surface of earth with relative to the centre of
And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of
earth, the velocity of satellite relative to the surface of
earth water,

(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is flowing

with velocity . A man can swim in still water with

So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the
velocity . He is standing on one bank of the river and
direction of rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity
wants to cross the river, two cases arise.
relative to earth's surface will be
(i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That is
And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e., to cross the river straight, the man should swim making
opposite to the motion of earth, angle  with theAupstream
vr as shown.

B

(4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling
 
vr
vertically with a velocity and an observer is moving w  v
vm

horizontally with speed the velocity of rain relative to 
Upstream O Downstream
Fig. 0.18
observer will be

which by law of vector addition has magnitude

Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which

direction with the vertical as
Their resultant is given by .
shown in fig.  – vM 
vR vR
 
vR 
vM vM

Fig. 0.17
 Vectors

The direction of swimming makes angle  with upstream.
From the triangle OBA, we find,
Also
Where  is the angle made by the direction of
swimming with the shortest distance (OB) across the
river.
 All physical quantities having direction are not
vectors. For example, the electric current possesses
direction but it is a scalar quantity because it can not be
added or multiplied according to the rules of vector
algebra.

Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of

the river, then time taken to cross the river will be given
by

(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The

man should swim perpendicular to the bank.

The time taken to cross the river will be:


A vr B


w vr

Upstream O Downstream
Fig. 0.19

In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank at

a distance AB down stream. This distance will be given
by:

or
 Vectors

 A vector can have only two rectangular

components in plane and only three rectangular

components in space.

 A vector can have any number, even infinite
components. (minimum 2 components)  . Also But

 Following quantities are neither vectors nor scalars Because and is collinear with
: Relative density, density, viscosity, frequency,
 Multiplication of a vector with –1 reverses its
pressure, stress, strain, modulus of elasticity, poisson’s
direction.
ratio, moment of inertia, specific heat, latent heat,
If , then A = B and .
spring constant loudness, resistance, conductance,
reactance, impedance, permittivity, dielectric constant, If , then A = B but .
permeability, susceptibility, refractive index, focal
 Minimum number of collinear vectors whose
length, power of lens, Boltzman constant, Stefan’s
resultant can be zero is two.
constant, Gas constant, Gravitational constant, Rydberg
 Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose
constant, Planck’s constant etc.
resultant is zero is three.
 Distance covered is a scalar quantity.
 Minimum number of non coplaner vectors whose
 The displacement is a vector quantity.
resultant is zero is four.
 Scalars are added, subtracted or divided
 Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if
algebraically.
.
 Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically.
 Two vectors are parallel to each other if
 Division of vectors is not allowed as directions
cannot be divided.  Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and
force are polar vectors.
 Unit vector gives the direction of vector.
 Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and
 Magnitude of unit vector is 1.
angular momentum are axial vectors.
 Unit vector has no unit. For example, velocity of an
 Division with a vector is not defined because it is
object is 5 ms–1 due East.
not possible to divide with a direction.
i.e. due east.
 Distance covered is always positive quantity.

 The components of a vectors can have magnitude

than that of the vector itself.
So unit vector has no unit as East is not a physical
 The rectangular components cannot have
quantity.
magnitude greater than that of the vector itself.
 Unit vector has no dimensions.
 When we multiply a vector with 0 the product
 becomes a null vector.

  The resultant of two vectors of unequal magnitude

 Vectors

can never be a null vector.

 Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up

to give a null vector. Thus, two vectors and having different

 A quantity having magnitude and direction is not
necessarily a vector. For example, time and electric
current. These quantities have magnitude and direction
but they are scalar. This is because they do not obey the
laws of vector addition.
 A physical quantity which has different values in
different directions is called a tensor. For example :
magnitudes can never be combined to give zero
resultant. From here, we conclude that the minimum
number of vectors of unequal magnitude whose
resultant can be zero is three. On the other hand, the
minimum number of vectors of equal magnitude
whose resultant can be zero is two.
 Angle between two vectors and is given by

Moment of inertia has different values in different

directions. Hence moment of inertia is a tensor. Other
examples of tensor are refractive index, stress, strain,  Projection of a vector in the direction of vector
density etc.

 The magnitude of rectangular components of a

vector is always less than the magnitude of the vector

 If , then and .  Projection of a vector in the direction of vector

 If . Or if , then and

lie in one plane.

 If , then is perpendicular to as well

 If vectors are represented by three
as . sides ab, bc and ca respectively taken in a order, then
 If , then angle between and

is 90°.

 Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when   The vectors is equally inclined to the

= 0° i.e. vectors are parallel. coordinate axes at an angle of 54.74 degrees.

 If , then .

 Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when   If , then and are coplanar.

= 180° i.e. vectors are anti-parallel.  If angle between and is 45°,

then

Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors is  If and

equal to the difference of their magnitude. then the adjacent vector are
 Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two
inclined to each other at angle .
vectors is equal to the sum of their magnitude.
 If and , then the angle
When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal, then
between and is 90°. Also A, B and C can have the
 Vectors

following values.
(i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
(ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13
(iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.