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1
We will continue to write the swing equation (and use it) like (4.79),
We selected
per-phase power because the network equations are typically given on a three-phase
and line-neutral base. In addition, this is the convention in the literature.
voltage bases
for the voltage
equations But because our voltage equations have been per-unitized on a per-
because it phase base, we need to divide the torque obtained from the voltage
enabled us
develop voltage equations by 3 before using it in the swing equation, i.e.,
equations in
Teu
Teu =
terms of per-
phase circuits.
. 3
2. Speed (time) Base (see Section 4.9.1)
2
3. The electromagnetic torque (see Section 4.10)
x 1 2 5 17
y = 3 4 6 = 39
T
x 1 3
y = x y = 5 6 = 17 39
2 4
3
So finally, we have that vabcT= v0dqTP. Therefore, we can substitute
into the instantaneous power expression to obtain:
−1
p out = v abc i abc = [v 0 dq P][ P i 0 dq ] = v 0 dq i 0 dq
T T T
4
we obtain:
d
q
p out = −id ( Ld id + kM F iF + kM D iD ) − iq ( Lq iq − kM Q iQ − kM G iG )
+ ( d i q − q i d )
− r (id + iq )
2 2
Note the expressions in parenthesis of the first line are flux linkage
derivatives according to the notes in “macheqts” (see eq. 4.20).
Making the substitution indicated by the brackets above the first line
of the expression,
p out = − [id d + iq q ] + (d iq − q id ) − r (id + iq )
2 2
5
From any text on mechanics or electromechanics (see, for example,
p. 104 of Fitzgerald, Kingsley, and Kusko), we know that a body
experiencing a force f over a distance ∂x undergoes a change in
energy according to
W = fx
Analogously, a body experiencing a torque T over an angle ∂θ
undergoes a change in energy according to
W = T
For magnetically coupled coils for which at least one of them may
experience rotation, the exerted electromagnetic torque is related to
the variation in field energy with angular motion according to
W fld
T fld =
m
But we may write this in terms of time derivatives according to:
W fld t W fld / t
T fld = =
t m m / t
Note that the numerator is the power and the denominator is the
speed, therefore:
W fld / t Pfld
T fld = =
m / t m
Pfld
T fld =
Note that m is expressed in MKS units. In per-unit, we
have:
Pfld / S B Pfldu Pfldu
T fldu = = =
m / mB e / B u
6
Pfldu ( d i q − q i d )
T fldu = = = d iq − q id
u
7
In the below equation, we
have used Teφ instead of
Teφu because, as said at the
bottom of p. 7, we have
So the swing equation becomes: “dropped the pu notation.”
dω Teφ
τj = Tm - - Td
dt 3
Here, the damping term is Td. Typically, it is written as a linear
function of speed with the constant of proportionality D; thus,
Td=D, and we have:
d Te
j = Tm − Te = Tm − − D
dt 3
We want a state-space equation so as to combine with our state-
space “current-form” of the voltage equations (given by eq. 4.75,
4.76), which are
v = −( R + N )i − Li (eq. 4.75)
8
Now let’s bring into the state vector….
id
i
F
iD
Tm −L −kM F −kM D Lq kM G kM Q −D
= + d iq iq
j
iq iq id id id
j 3 j 3 j 3 j 3 j 3 j 3 j
iG
iQ
Finally, we recall that there are two states for each machine: speed
and angle, yet in the above, we only have speed. But we must be
careful here, and use per-unit.
= − 1 (4.102)
9
θ
θref
Rotation
δm δm
ϕar
ϕ ϕr
f
a-phase
“Consider a machine having a constant terminal voltage V. For generator action the
phasor E should be leading the phasor V . The angle between E and V is the machine
torque angle δ if the phasor V is in the direction of the reference phase (phase a).”
COMMENT: I have redrawn below the above figure so that it is consistent with this
description. One observes that I have merely rotated all phasors an equal angle CCW.
δm
Rotation
θ
ϕr a-phase
ϕar
δm ϕf
10
“At t=0 the phasor V is located at the axis of phase a, i.e.,. at the reference axis in Figure
4.1. The q axis is located at an angle δ, and the d axis is located at θ=δ+π/2.
Comment: One observes that all of the above statements are accurate with respect to the
above figure:
• V is located at the axis of phase a
• The q axis is located at an angle δ
• the d axis is located at θ=δ+π/2
“At t>0, the reference axis is located at an angle ωRt with respect to the axis of phase a.
The d axis of the rotor is therefore located at
θ=ωRt+ δ+π/2 (4.6)”
Comment: As time increases, all phasors simply rotate CCW, adding ωRt to θ(t=0).
11
The above relation is called the “current state-space model.”
Observe that it is in the form of x = f (x,u, t ) , i.e., we have found f.
Some comments about f:
• The torque equation makes it a nonlinear function.
• The second term (the one with –L-1v, Tm/τj, and -1) contain the
system “inputs,” which are the voltages in v (this would be vd, vq,
and vF) and the mechanical torque Tm. Here, we write “inputs” in
quotations to account for the fact that the voltages vd and vq are
actually determined by the network and so are considered inputs
only in this model (which does not represent the network).
• The order of the model is 8.
• We develop a very crude network model next, by jumping to Sec.
4.13 (we have been in Sec. 4.10) called “Load equations.”
12
Appendix A: Alternative Derivation of Torque for
Synchronous Machine
Note: This appendix is an unfinished work. But I leave it to identify the source of another
way to derive the torque equation.
where Lpq is the winding’s self inductance when p=q and when p≠q,
it is the mutual inductance between the two windings1. Thus, the
stored energy is the sum of
• The self inductances (less leakage2) of each winding times
one-half the square of its current and
• All mutual inductances, each times the currents in the two
windings coupled by the mutual inductance
1
Derivation is given in pp 22-24 of Krause, Wasynchzuk, and Sudhoff, “Analysis of electric machinery,”
1995.
2
* See pg. 178 of Krause, 1995.
13
Observe that the energy stored in the leakage inductances is not a
part of the energy stored in the coupling field2.
Now let’s apply (A4) to the synchronous machine. We must account
for the stored energy associated with the stator windings alone, the
stator-rotor windings, and the rotor windings alone. To accomplish
this, let’s first describe the needed matrices.
abc i abc L aa L aR i abc
= L i = L
FDQG FDQG Ra L RR i FDQG
where
LS + Lm cos 2 −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 150)] MF cos MD cos MQ sin MG sin
a ia
−[M + L cos 2( + 30)] L + L cos 2( − 120) −[M + L cos 2( − 90)] M cos( − 120) M cos( − 120) M sin( − 120) M sin( − 120)
b S m S m S m F D Q G
ib
−[M + L cos 2( + 150) −[M + L cos 2( − 90)] L + L cos 2( − 240) M cos( − 240) M cos( − 240) M sin( − 240) M sin( − 240)
S m S m S m F D Q G
ic
c
= MF cos MF cos( − 120) MF cos( − 240) LF MR 0 0
i
F F
D MD cos MD cos( − 120) MD cos( − 240) MR LD 0 0 i D
i
Q MQ sin MQ sin( − 120) MQ sin( − 240) 0 0 LQ MY Q
iG
G MG sin MG sin( − 120) MG sin( − 240)
0 0 MY LG
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only mutual inductances and so have no leakage inductance in
them). And so the modified matrices are
LS + Lm cos 2 −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 150)] 1 0 0
Laa − Ls = −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] LS + Lm cos 2( − 120) −[MS + Lm cos 2( − 90)] − Ls 0 1 0
−[M + L cos 2( + 150) −[M + L cos 2( − 90)] L + L cos 2( − 240) 0 0 1
S m S m S m
This results in
1 J J 1 13 T
Wf =
2 p=1 q=1
Lpq i p iq = iTabc (Laa − Ls U3 ) iabc − iTabc LaR iFDQG +
2 22
iFDQG (A5)
iFDQGLRR
15
Accounting for the above comments, the torque is given by
W f p 1T 13 T
− iabc (Laa − Ls U3 ) iabc + iabc LaR iFDQG − iFDQG
T
Te = = iFDQGLRR (A-6)
2 2 22
And because the third term is independent of angle, we obtain:
p 1 T T
Te = − iabc (Laa − Ls U3 ) iabc + iabc LaR iFDQG (A-7)
2 2
Now we apply the transformations
( )
T
iabc = P−1i0dq iTabc = P−1i0dq = iT0dq P (A-8)
This results in
p 1 T T
Te = − i0dq P (Laa − Ls U3 ) P i0dq +
−1
i0dq PLaR iFDQG (A-8)
2 2
TERM 1 TERM 2
We will work on one term at a time.
TERM 1:
1 T
Te = − i0dq P (Laa − Ls U3 ) P−1i0dq
2
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2 cos sin i
1 2
1/ 2 cos ( − 2 / 3 ) sin ( − 2 / 3 ) i d
2
0
=− i0 id iq cos cos ( − 2 / 3 ) cos ( + 2 / 3 ) (Laa − Ls U3 )
2 3 3 i
sin sin ( − 2 / 3 ) sin ( + 2 / 3 ) 1/ 2 cos ( + 2 / 3 ) sin ( + 2 / 3 ) q
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
12
=− i 0 i d i q cos cos ( − 2 / 3 ) cos ( + 2 / 3 )
2 3
sin sin ( − 2 / 3 ) sin ( + 2 / 3 )
LS − Ls + Lm cos 2 −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 150)] 1/ 2 cos sin i
−[MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] LS − Ls + Lm cos 2( − 120) −[MS + Lm cos 2( − 90)] 1/ 2 cos ( − 2 / 3 ) sin ( − 2 / 3 ) i d
0
−[M + L cos 2( + 150) −[M + L cos 2( − 90)] L − L + L cos 2( − 240)
S m S m S s m 1/ 2 cos ( + 2 / 3 ) sin ( + 2 / 3 ) q
i
16
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
12
Te = − i 0 i d i q cos cos ( − 2 / 3 ) cos ( + 2 / 3 )
2 3
sin sin ( − 2 / 3 ) sin ( + 2 / 3 )
Lm (1 + cos 2 ) −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 150)] 1/ 2 cos sin i
−[MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] Lm (1 + cos 2( − 120)) −[MS + Lm cos 2( − 90)] 1/ 2 cos ( − 2 / 3 ) sin ( − 2 / 3 ) i d
0
−[M + L cos 2( + 150) −[M + L cos 2( − 90)] L (1 + cos 2( − 240))
S m S m m 1/ 2 cos ( + 2 / 3 ) sin ( + 2 / 3 ) q
i
1 1 1
Lm (1 + cos 2 ) −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 150)]
2 2 2
−[MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] +Lm (1 + cos 2( − 120)) −[MS + Lm cos 2( − 90)]
−[MS + Lm cos 2( + 150) −[MS + Lm cos 2( + 90) +Lm (1 + cos 2( − 240))
1 / 2 cos sin i0
Lm cos (1 + cos 2 ) −c os [MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] −c os [MS + Lm cos 2( − 150)]
12
Te = − i 0 i d i q − cos ( − 120 ) [MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] +Lmc os ( − 120 ) [(1 + cos 2( − 120))] −c os ( − 120 ) [MS + Lm cos 2( − 90)] 1 / 2 cos ( − 2 / 3 ) sin ( − 2 / 3 ) i d
2 3
− cos ( + 120 ) [MS + Lm cos 2( + 150)] − cos ( + 120 ) [MS + Lm cos 2( − 90)] +Lm (c os ( + 1 20 ) (1 + cos 2( − 240))
1 / 2 cos ( + 2 / 3 ) sin ( + 2 / 3 ) i q
Lm sin (1 + cos 2 ) −c os [MS + Lm cos 2( + 30)] − sin [MS + Lm cos 2( − 150)]
− sin ( − 120 ) [M + L cos 2( + 30)] +Lmc os ( − 120 ) [(1 + cos 2( − 120))] − sin ( − 120 ) [MS + Lm cos 2( − 90)]
S m
− sin ( + 120 ) [MS + Lm cos 2( + 150)] − cos ( + 120 ) [MS + Lm cos 2( − 90) + m sin ( + 120 ) (1 + cos 2( − 240))
TERM 2:
T
i0dq PLaR iFDQG …
17