The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-023-00751-z

REGULAR ARTICLE

A Longitudinal Analysis of Informal Digital Learning of English,

Willingness to Communicate and Foreign Language Boredom:
A Latent Change Score Mediation Model
Tahereh Taherian1 · Majid Elahi Shirvan2 ·
Elham Yazdanmehr3 · Mariusz Kruk4 ·
Mirosław Pawlak5,6

Accepted: 19 June 2023

© The Author(s) 2023

Abstract The present research used a longitudinal
framework to test a model of willingness to communicate
(L2WTC), informal digital learning of English (IDLE), and
foreign language boredom (FLB) in learning English as a
foreign language among 325 Iranian university students
attending a course in general English for 4 months via a
latent change score mediation (LCSM) model. Overall,
model indices showed an acceptable model fit for the LCSM
model. There was a significant and positive constant growth
in IDLE and L2WTC, a negative constant growth in FLB
across four measurements, while the proportional change
was significant and negative for all three variables. The
significant interindividual and intraindividual differences
in patterns of growth across time were found for the three
variables. Also, moderate and positive cross-system associa-
tions were revealed between IDLE and L2WTC across four
* Mariusz Kruk
mkruk@uz.zgora.pl
Tahereh Taherian
taherian87@yahoo.com
Majid Elahi Shirvan
elahishmajid@gmail.com; m.elahi@ub.ac.ir
Elham Yazdanmehr
yazdanmehr@attar.ac.ir
Mirosław Pawlak
pawlakmi@amu.edu.pl
1
Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
2
University of Bojnord, Bojnord, Iran
3 in the language classroom context in association with other
Attar Institute of Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran
4
University of Zielona Góra, Zielona Góra, Poland
5
Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland
6
University of Applied Sciences, Konin, Poland
measurements. Moreover, moderate and negative cross-sys-
tem associations were revealed between FLB and L2WTC as
well as between IDLE and L2WTC. Furthermore, changes
in FLB mediated subsequent associations between changes
in IDLE and L2WTC. The results highlight the pivotal role
of variations in FLB as a mediator for the longitudinal link
between IDLE and L2WTC.
Keywords Foreign language boredom · Informal digital
learning of English · Willingness to communicate · Latent
change score mediation
Introduction
During the COVID-19 pandemic the world witnessed an
unprecedented rate of development of digital devices and
online resources (including informal digital learning) in all
areas of education including L2 teaching and learning. Thus,
even after the pandemic era, the development of informal
digital learning (such as using online dictionaries, listen-
ing to songs in English, watching short videos in English
online, talking to people in English through online calls) has
drawn the attention of language materials developers and
language teachers in both online and in in-person English
classrooms. In the online class context, almost all language
learners have digital devices and take advantage of them as
affordances to improve their language learning skills. In this
case, the role of informal digital learning of English (IDLE)
can be highlighted. Therefore, exploring the role of IDLE
individual differences (IDs) seems essential (Lee & Sylvén,
2021). In light of this, there is a need to investigate the role
of IDLE as a new emerging ID construct in foreign language

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classrooms and explore its relationship with other language-
domain specific IDs.
IDLE, an important and extremely interesting sub-domain
of computer-assisted language learning, is defined as “self-
directed English activities in informal digital settings, moti-
vated by personal interests and undertaken independently
without being assessed by a teacher” (Lee & Lee, 2021, p.
359). IDLE may offer psychological advantages to students
with respect to grit, autonomy, community of practice,
flow, and affect (Chik, 2011, 2014; Han & Reinhardt, 2022;
Lee, 2022). Since learning a second or foreign language is
primarily motivated by the need to communicate, a grow-
ing number of SLA researchers have begun to investigate
whether there is a connection between IDLE and willingness
to communicate in a second language (L2WTC) (Lee, 2022;
Lee & Lee, 2020; Mulyono & Saskia, 2021; Soyoof, 2022).
These studies have found that IDLE has a positive effect on
L2 learners’ L2 WTC. Additionally, in light of the affective
turn in the area of applied linguistics, some previous studies
have already investigated the role of positive and negative
emotions, such as foreign language enjoyment (FLE: Lee
et al., 2021) and foreign language anxiety (FLA: Fang &
Tang, 2021; Lee, 2022; Lee et al., 2021) as mediators in the
relationship between the two constructs.
However, one of the potentially important mediators that
has been neglected in previous studies is foreign language
boredom (FLB). Considering this emotion while investi-
gating the association between IDLE and L2WTC is cru-
cial since when L2 learners are involved in IDLE activi-
ties, diminishing FLB can serve as a tool to facilitate their
engagement and satisfaction (Derakhshan et al., 2021a,
2021b, 2022a, 2022b; Pawlak & Kruk, 2022; Solhi et al.,
2023) resulting in enhancing L2WTC (Kruk, 2021a, 2021b).
Another important issue ignored in prior research is the par-
allel investigation of the longitudinal development of IDLE,
FLB, and L2WTC. Due to the dynamic and developmental
nature of these variables, the current project aimed to illu-
minate the mechanisms of change in IDLE and L2WTC,
while examining the way in which FLB can mediate the
link between IDLE and L2WTC. To do so, the current study
applied latent change score mediation (LCSM) modeling
(McArdle, 2009). LCSM models are structural equation
models which are suitable for the investigation of latent vari-
ables with short term and long-term developmental nature.
Literature Review
Informal Digital Learning of English (IDLE)
As an important and extremely interesting sub-domain of
computer assisted language learning (CALL), IDLE is an
under-researched area concerning attempts to learn an L2
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T. Taherian et al.
that occur outside class (Benson, 2011). IDLE has emerged
as self-initiated, informal use of English as a global lan-
guage with the help of a wide array of digital tools (e.g.,
social networks, chatrooms, and online forums outside the
formal context of language learning) (Lee, 2019b). Recent
research has shown that IDLE is closely linked to L2 learn-
ing outcomes (Lai et al., 2015). Benson (2011) proposed an
explanatory theory for the fundamental qualities of IDLE
with four aspects of informal L2 learning which include:
(1) formality level, (2) place (inside class, outside class,
extramural and extracurricular, i.e., the physical setting of
L2 learning), (3) pedagogy (the degree to which formal L2
learning procedures are involved, i.e., whether the additional
language is taught, self-taught, or acquired naturalistically),
and (4) locus of control (the degree to which L2 learners are
in control of their L2 learning experience, i.e., whether it is
self-driven or other-driven).
However, in previous studies, this type of ID has been
treated as a static, monolithic construct (Lee, 2022; Lee &
Lee, 2020; Mulyono & Saskia, 2021; Soyoof, 2022). With
the growing influence of CDST in applied linguistics, it has
been maintained that all IDs per se are complex, dynamic,
and multifaceted (see Derakhshan et al., 2023; Freeborn
et al., 2022; Hiver & Al-Hoorie, 2019). Thus, attention
should move away from the static perspective toward IDLE
to a dynamic one. More specifically, Dörnyei and Ryan
(2015) argue that the investigation of IDs requires the adap-
tation of a more dynamic conceptualization with a focus on
change in these constructs. Given the time-intensive nature
of change in IDs, the dynamic approach to IDLE should
incorporate longitudinal investigations. As Larsen-Freeman
and Cameron (2008) highlight, longitudinal research is suit-
able for investigating IDs as complex systems because it
enables researchers to explore changes in IDs over time.
Second Language Willingness to Communicate
(L2WTC)
L2WTC was initially described as the overall inclination
to start communication, referring to the freedom to choose
whether or not to do so (McCroskey, 1992). L2WTC is
regarded as the final psychological stage preceding the act
of actually engaging in communication in L2 (Elahi Shir-
van et al., 2019; MacIntyre et al., 1998). MacIntyre and
Gregersen (2021) argue that the nature of the construct in
question is dynamic and complex. Thus, it should be con-
sidered as a both permanent and contextually adaptive con-
struct (MacIntyre & Gregersen, 2021). Hodis et al. (2010)
highlighted four gaps in L2WTC studies: (1) no explana-
tion of the developmental mechanism underpinning varia-
tions in L2WTC over time was provided, (2) prior studies
investigating L2WTC mainly applied cross-sectional designs
(e.g. MacIntyre, 1994), (3) previous correlational research
A Longitudinal Analysis of Informal Digital Learning of English, Willingness to Communicate…
explored variables measured once, and (4) research did not
clarify “fundamental differences existing between static and
dynamic influences of predictors” (Hodis et al., 2010, p.
251). To fill this gap, in the present study, we adopted a
CDST approach to address these criticisms.
Foreign Language Boredom (FLB)
Foreign language boredom (FLB) is a relatively little
explored and understood negative emotion in the field of
SLA (Wang, 2023). The construct has been associated with
attention deficit, dissatisfaction, disengagement, modified
perception of time and limited vitality (Fahlman, 2009).
FLB is considered as the strongest and most frequently felt
emotion among students (Goetz & Hall, 2014; Pekrun et al.,
2010). It may lead to a loss of interest, diminished engage-
ment in the performance of instructional activities and lack
of dedication to learning (Chen & Kent, 2020; Skinner et al.,
2009; Veiga et al., 2014). This imperceptible emotional con-
dition (Derakhshan et al., 2021a, 2021b, 2022a, 2022b; Mer-
rifield & Danckert, 2014; Solhi et al., 2023) is still not suf-
ficiently explored in the L2 learning domain, although it has
been recognized as the most salient problem in L2 classes,
especially in the case of online learning (Derakhshan et al.,
2022a, 2022b; Kruk & Pawlak, 2022; Kruk et al., 2023a;
Pawlak et al., 2021). The still limited empirical evidence
portrays FLB as a distinctive affective condition which can
adversely affect the L2 learning experience (Kruk et al.,
2022a; Kruk, Pawlak, Elahi Shirvan, et al., 2022a, 2022b,
2022c) and can be experienced with varying degrees of
intensity (Elahi Shirvan et al., 2021; Kruk et al., 2021).
Numerous studies have revealed that FLB has a multi-
dimensional and dynamic nature (e.g., Elahi Shirvan et al.,
2021; Kruk et al., 2022a; Kruk et al., 2023b). With regard to
the dynamic nature of FLB, individual developmental pro-
cesses (Kruk et al., 2022a; Yazdanmehr et al., 2021) and its
sources (Kruk et al., 2022b) have been examined through
a person-oriented approach, also known as the idiographic
approach. In contrast, the variable-oriented methods, also
called the nomothetic approaches, have been applied to
investigate the longitudinal validity of its measurement scale
(Elahi Shirvan et al., 2021), and its simultaneous develop-
ment with other IDs (e.g., FLE: Kruk et al., 2022b and L2
playfulness: Kruk et al., 2023b).
Interplay of IDLE, L2WTC, and FLB
A number of research projects carried out in different coun-
tries have aimed to explore the degree to which the IDLE
might play a part in shaping in L2 learners’ L2WTC in class
(e.g., Indonesia: Lee & Drajati, 2019; Iran: Soyoof, 2022;
Korea: Lee & Lee, 2020; Taiwan: Lee & Hsieh, 2019).
At nearly the same time, SLA research was faced with an
emotional turn (White, 2018) or an emotional shift (Prior,
2019), which greatly contributed to the growth of empirical
investigations into the effect of emotions on L2WTC (Lee
& Hsieh, 2019) and on IDLE (Lee, 2019a) in exam-based
Asian settings. Despite the growing number of studies on
the relationship between IDLE, emotions, and L2WTC, two
gaps in the literature can be recognized.
Firstly, prior studies did not explore the potential influ-
ence of FLB, as the strongest and most commonly experi-
enced emotion in the ecology of an L2 class, on the rela-
tionship between IDLE and L2WTC. The role of FLB in
shaping L2WTC has been thoroughly investigated (Alrabai,
2022; Kruk, 2021a). For example, Kruk (2021b) attempted
to capture the links among L2WTC, boredom, motivation,
and language anxiety (along with motivation) in Second Life
(i.e., a virtual world). The findings indicated that these fac-
tors intermingled in a dynamic and unpredictable manner.
Kruk (2021b) argued that although a higher/lower level of
L2WTC is linked to a lower/higher level of boredom, this
relationship did not apply across the board and some dis-
crepancies from this tendency were also noted.
According to this rationale, investigating the role of FLB
as a mediator in the relationship between IDLE and L2WTC
is necessary because an FLB-provoking learning environment
includes physical and cognitive idleness, lack of purpose in
learning, reluctance to engage in the learning environment,
and disengagement or withdrawal from tasks or activities at
hand (Li et al., 2022a, 2022b). All of these are important fac-
tors that might influence the link between IDLE and L2WTC.
Secondly, previous research adopted a cross-sectional perspec-
tive on the relationship between IDLE and L2WTC. However,
with regard to the developmental and dynamic character of
IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC, researchers have been encouraged
to move from cross-sectional to longitudinal studies (Hiver &
Al-Hoorie, 2019) as the former fail to capture the details of
the dynamics in these constructs. To fill this gap, the current
study examined the dynamic developmental interrelationship
of IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC based on longitudinal data.
Purpose of Study
Considering the above-mentioned research gaps, the present
research employed an LCSM model within the structural
equation modelling (SEM) framework to test the asso-
ciation between IDLE and L2WTC with a representative
sample of Iranian EFL learners at a university level. The
analysis also included testing the mediating role of FLB.
The approach was longitudinal and the data were collected
in four phases of an L2 course over 4 months. Both the ini-
tial state of IDLE, FLB and L2WTC, and their patterns of
growth throughout the course were considered and the tra-
jectory of changes was mapped. Three research questions
were addressed:
13

RQ1 What are the patterns (decreasing or increasing) and
the degrees (decelerating or accelerating) of tra-
jectories for IDLE, FLB and L2WTC within latent
processes?
RQ2 How do the trajectories of IDLE and FLB influence
the trajectories of L2WTC via longitudinal media-
tion analysis?
RQ3 Are there inter- and intra-individual variations in the
development of IDLE-FLB-L2WTC system?
Methodology
Participants and Setting
This study included 354 university learners (218 females
and 136 male) attending an online general English course at
three Iranian universities in three major Iranian cities. The
course was a three-credit unit with 16 sessions that started
in September 2022 and finished in January 2023. We chose
classes where professors employed more technology-based
resources for online instruction.
Hair et al. (2010) proposed that the mean values are used
to estimate the missing values for the participants on four
measurements on circumstances that the response rate was
at least 90%. The replies of 22 students were ignored since
they had missed two of the four rounds of data collection.
To find outliers and extreme values in our data, we used the
boxplot method. An extreme outlier was defined as any value
that differed considerably from the norm by more than three
interquartile ranges (Hoaglin & Iglewicz, 1987). We identi-
fied two participants with outliers for IDLE, two participants
with outliers for FLB, and three participants with outliers for
L2WTC after reviewing the data on four measurement occa-
sions, all of whom were excluded for final analysis. The final
data were analyzed based on 325 respondents (197 female
and 128 male).
The learners’ English proficiency ranged from lower-
intermediate to upper-intermediate, as evaluated by the
Oxford Placement Test, and their ages ranged from 18 to
33. All participants were studying English as a foreign lan-
guage. The current study’s sample size was determined suf-
ficient to achieve 0.80 power to discover a substantial effect
Table 1  Reliability of the Scales/subscales Number of
scales at the four times of data items
collection
IDLE 8 0.88
FLB 23
L2WTC​ 3 0.86
IDLE informal digital learning of English, FLB foreign language boredom, L2WTC​L2 willingness to com-
municate inside the class, α Cronbach’s alpha, ω McDonald’s omega coefficient
13
T. Taherian et al.
size utilizing longitudinal mediation analysis (see Pan et al.,
2018). Furthermore, given the nesting of learners within
universities and classrooms, an investigation of intraclass
correlations (ICC) was conducted and showed a low degree
of data class-level dependency (0.03–0.05). Therefore, mul-
tilevel analysis was unnecessary.
Instrumentation
Questions were developed for an online survey according
to the operational definitions of the variables. The ques-
tionnaire was organized into four parts. Reliability of the
scales was established by means of Cronbach’s alpha (α) and
McDonald’s omega coefficient (ω) in four waves of measure-
ment (see Table 1).
The first part of the questionnaire comprised the partici-
pants’ demographic data. It aimed to gain information about
the students, including their age, sex, academic year, and
international experience. The participants were only asked
to respond to this part in the first round of data collection.
The second part of the instrument included the Infor-
mal Digital Learning of English (IDLE) questionnaire. The
eight-item version of the scale was designed to measure the
degree to which L2 learners engaged in receptive and pro-
ductive IDLE tasks (see Appendix). The scale was extracted
from Lee (2022). The IDLE questionnaire has two subscales:
receptive IDLE activities (four items: e.g., “I watch Eng-
lish-language YouTube clips”), and productive ones (four
items: e.g., “I chat with others in English on social media”).
Responses to the question (“How often do you engage in
the following IDLE activities?”) are provided on a 5-point
Likert-type scale: 1—‘Never,’ 2—‘Rarely (Once a week),’
3—‘Sometimes (2 or 3 times per week),’ 4—‘Fairly often
(Once a day),’ and 5—‘Very often (Many times per day).’
The third part of the questionnaire encompassed the Bore-
dom in Practical English Classes-Revised (BPELC-R) scale
(Pawlak et al., 2020). This instrument assesses the degree of
boredom that language learners manifest in English language
classrooms. The tool consists of 23 items representing two
sub-scales: disengagement, monotony and repetitiveness (14
items: e.g., “It would be very hard for me to find an excit-
ing task in language classes”) and lack of satisfaction and
challenge (nine items: e.g., “I often have to do repetitive or
ω α
T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4
0.88 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.87 0.87 0.86
0.92 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.90 0.90 0.91 0.91
0.87 0.86 0.87 0.84 0.85 0.85 0.85
A Longitudinal Analysis of Informal Digital Learning of English, Willingness to Communicate…
monotonous things in my language classes”). The items are
responded to on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = ‘I
totally disagree’ to 7 = ‘I totally agree’.
The fourth part consisted of the L2 willingness to commu-
nicate (L2WTC, see Appendix) questionnaire in the class-
room (three items: e.g., “When you have a group discussion
in an English class”), partially adapted from Lee (2022).
The responses to the question (“How much are you willing
to communicate in English in this situation?”) were rated
on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 which meant
‘definitely not willing’ to 5 which meant ‘definitely willing.
Data Collection
The questionnaire was distributed to the participants on four
occasions, beginning with the first session of the EFL course
over the time of 4 months. By collecting longitudinal data,
it was possible to track changes in IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC
over time. A step-by-step procedure was used to complete
the questionnaires. At the start of the course in October
2022, the first round of data collection was conducted. The
second, third, and fourth surveys were completed in Novem-
ber, December of 2022, and January of 2023, respectively.
The participants were informed about the confidential nature
of the information they supplied, and they gave their consent
to participate in the study.
Data Analysis
All LCS analyses were performed using Mplus 7.4. (Muthen
& Muthen, 2013). The univariate and multivariate normal-
ity tests were conducted. The dynamic parallel processes of
three constructs (IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC) was investigated
employing MLCSM models, which enabled modeling the
dynamic progress of constructs over time in terms of both
within-person variability and between-person variability.
Model Fit
Model fit was tested sequentially in line with Grimm et al.
(2005). The following LCS models for the three variables
were separately tested to determine the best model fit.
According to Grimm et al. (2005), model fit was checked
step by step. To obtain the best model fit, the following LCS
models for three constructs were examined separately:
• Model 1. No-change model: a lack of any change over
time.
• Model 2. Constant change model: linear variation
through time
• Model 3. Proportional change model: variation in the
system between adjacent measurements
• Model 4. Dual-change model: a combination of constant
and proportional change parameters
After evaluating the univariate models, the mediation
model was tested, with changes in FLB and FLE as media-
tors of the relations between variation in IDLE and varia-
tion in L2WTC. In order to evaluate the model fits, χ2 tests
was used across each pair models (Harrington, 2009). Given
that the χ2 assessment is extremely sensitive to the sam-
ple size (Browne & Cudeck, 1992), root mean square error
of approximation (RMSEA: < 0.08), Tucker-Lewis Index
(TLI: > 0.90), and comparative fit index (CFI: > 0.90). The
researchers used Δχ2 and ΔCFI to evaluate overall model
fit criteria. If the p-value of Δχ2 is significant and the ΔCFI
value is more than 0.010, we may infer that the difference is
statistically significant.
Measurement Invariance
It is critical to test the invariance of measurement models to
guarantee that comparisons of latent variables are reliable
throughout time at least at the configural and scalar levels
(Wickrama et al., 2021). Thus, in the next stage, we ran lon-
gitudinal confirmatory factor analyses (longitudinal CFA;
Wickrama et al., 2021) to assess measurement invariance
of the predictor, the mediator, and the outcomes at T1, T2,
T3, and T4.
Test of Mediation
To examine mediation, we computed confidence intervals
for the result ab. Because the product of a and b has a non-
normal distribution, asymmetric confidence intervals must
be calculated using Monte Carlo techniques such as boot-
strapping (MacKinnon et al., 2007). The percentile bootstrap
technique for establishing confidence intervals for mediation
using structural equation models takes into account the pos-
sibility of the relationship between a and b and has a suitable
balance of power and Type I error (Valente et al., 2018).
In the current investigation, we employed these confidence
intervals to evaluate the indirect impact ab alongside the
joint significance evaluation.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
Bivariate Correlations among Variables
The correlations for the IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC among
the four time-series are shown in Table 2. IDLE, FLB, and
L2WTC demonstrated large within-system correlations.
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 T. Taherian et al.

Table 2  Bivariate correlations among the three variables in the present study
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1. IDLE1 –
2. IDLE2 0.69*** –
3. IDLE3 0.61*** 0.70*** –
4. IDLE4 0.58*** 0.60*** 0.72*** –
5. FLB1 –0.36*** –0.32*** –0.28*** –0.27*** –
6. FLB2 –0.31*** –0.34*** –0.30*** –0.28*** 0.72*** –
7. FLB3 –0.37*** –0.38*** –0.40*** –0.31*** 0.67*** 0.78*** –
8. FLB4 –0.28*** –0.30*** –0.35*** –0.41*** 0.62*** 0.64*** 0.75*** –
9. L2WTC1 0.58*** 0.52*** 0.49*** 0.47*** –0.31*** –0.28*** –0.24*** –0.23*** –
10. L2WTC2 0.55*** 0.61*** 0.52*** 0.41*** –0.28*** –0.31*** –0.32*** –0.26*** 0.78*** -
11. L2WTC3 0.53*** 0.42*** 0.48*** 0.38*** –0.26*** –0.34*** –0.26*** –0.28*** 0.66*** 0.74*** –
12. L2WTC4 0.51*** 0.39*** 0.42*** 0.53*** –0.23*** –0.27*** –0.24*** –0.37*** 0.62*** 0.60*** 0.71*** –

IDLE informal digital learning of English, FLB foreign language boredom, L2WTC​L2 willingness to communicate inside the class
***p < 0.001

Besides, the analysis showed that there were overall mod-
erate and positive cross-system associations between IDLE
and L2WTC across the four waves and moderate and nega-
tive cross-system associations between FLB and L2WTC
as well as between IDLE and L2WTC.
Therefore, the results of the mediation models indicated
that FLB is a mediating mechanism for the longitudinal
association between IDLE and L2WTC.
Measurement Invariance

The researchers assessed the configural, weak, and strong

Model Fit
Univariate Latent Change Score Model
To assess within-system growth patterns across four times,
competing models were evaluated independently for IDLE,
FLB, and L2WTC. The evaluation of model fit was made
via the consideration of several indices.
Table 3 displays fit metrics for univariate IDLE, FLB,
and L2WTC models. Subsequent analysis of nested models
showed that the univariate dual variation model of IDLE,
FLB, and L2WTC fit relatively better than both the con-
stant change model and proportional change model. Thus,
due to the need for both constant change and proportional
change to properly characterize IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC
changes across four periods, these analyses together sup-
ported dual change as the optimal univariate model for
IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC.
Latent Change Score Mediation Model (LCSM)
The LCSM model was tested in which changes in FLB
as a mediating construct in the subsequent associations
between changes in IDLE and that of L2WTC. Model indi-
ces showed an acceptable model fit for the LCSM model.
invariance of latent variables in univariate and multivariate
LCS models over time. The results of the configural (i.e.,
free factor loadings), weak (i.e., factor loadings invariant)
and strong (i.e., factor loadings invariant) invariance meas-
urements are presented in Table 4. The results of the analysis
of measurement invariance supported that weak and strong
invariance models did not significantly different in fit for uni-
variate and multivariate LSC models. changes in CFI, TLI,
RMSEA, and SRMR were less than suggested cutoff scores
(ΔCFI ≤ 0.010, ΔRMSEA ≤ 0.015, and ΔSRMR ≤ 0.030,
Cheung & Rensvold, 2002). These results supported meas-
urement invariance for all models across time.
Pattern and Degree of Trajectories of IDLE, FLB
and L2WTC​
Regarding the pattern and degree of trajectories of the
variables under investigation, estimations of different
parameters from the LCSM model are shown in Table 5.
The initial means of IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC during
the first measurement were significant (μ I−IDLE = 5.647,
p < 0.001, μ I−FLB = 7.142, p < 0.001, μ I−L2WTC​= 3.471,
p < 0.001). Significant and positive linear growth
in IDLE and L2WTC (μ S−IDLE = 0.276, p < 0.001,
μS−L2WTC​= 0.314, p < 0.001) and negative linear growth
in FLB (μS−FLB = −0.431, p < 0.001) was observed across

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A Longitudinal Analysis of Informal Digital Learning of English, Willingness to Communicate…

Table 3  Comparative Univariate IDLE, FLB and L2WTC Model Fit

Models χ2 df RMSEA CFI TLI

IDLE models
No change 273.328 61 0.091 0.882 0.874
Constant change 254.451 66 0.086 0.924 0.911
Proportional change 231.597 64 0.081 0.945 0.927
Dual change 194.628 58 0.044 0.968 0.948
Nested comparisons Δχ2 Δdf p ΔCFI

Constant change to dual change 59.823 8 < 0.001 0.044

Proportional change to dual change 36.969 6 < 0.001 0.023
FLB models
No change 184.217 61 0.094 0.903 0.894
Constant change 162.587 66 0.062 0.922 0.917
Proportional change 129.539 64 0.061 0.938 0.925
Dual change 117.347 58 0.037 0.961 0.948
Nested comparisons
Constant change to dual change 45.240 8 < 0.001 0.039
Proportional change to dual change 12.192 6 < 0.001 0.025
L2WTC models
No change 247.671 61 0.082 0.864 0.857
Constant change 227.354 66 0.052 0.914 0.901
Proportional change 193.259 64 0.057 0.915 0.907
Dual change 176.478 58 0.034 0.948 0.925
Nested comparisons
Constant change to dual change 50.876 8 < 0.001 0.034
Proportional change to dual change 16.471 6 < 0.001 0.033

CFI comparative fit index; RMSEA root mean square error of approximation; TLI Tucker Lewis index; IDLE Informal digital learning of Eng-
lish; FLB foreign language boredom: L2WTC​L2 willingness to communicate inside the class

Table 4  Measurement Models χ2 df p RMSEA CFI TLI ΔCFI ΔTLI ΔRMSEA

invariance across time in
different LCS models LCSM
Configural 1745.574 118 < 0.001 0.045 0.956 0.944 – – –
Weak invariance 1817.481 115 < 0.001 0.047 0.958 0.946 0.002 0.006 0.002
Strong invariance 1872.744 114 < 0.001 0.047 0.956 0.950 0.001 0.004 0.000
LCS-IDLE
Configural 261.475 31 < 0.001 0.047 0.938 0.922
Weak invariance 281.455 29 < 0.001 0.043 0.945 0.934 0.003 0.008 0.005
Strong invariance 247.874 26 < 0.001 0.042 0.941 0.930 0.004 0.004 0.001
LCS-FLB
Configural 170.912 31 < 0.001 0.033 0.927 0.912 – – –
Weak invariance 174.524 29 < 0.001 0.034 0.927 0.917 0.002 0.006 0.004
Strong invariance 181.547 26 < 0.001 0.037 0.929 0.918 0.001 0.001 0.003
LCS-L2WTC​
Configural 234.475 31 < 0.001 0.035 0.937 0.923 – – –
Weak invariance 247.128 29 < 0.001 0.036 0.941 0.934 0.009 0.008 0.002
Strong invariance 281.284 26 < 0.001 0.037 0.946 0.931 0.005 0.003 0.001

CFI comparative fit index; TLI Tucker-Lewis index; RMSEA root mean square error of approximation, LCS
latent change score model, LCSM latent change score mediation model, IDLE informal digital learning of
English, FLB foreign language boredom, L2WTC​L2 willingness to communicate inside the class

13
 T. Taherian et al.

Table 5  Estimates from the LCSM model

Parameter Estimate SE 95% CI

Univariate information for IDLE

Mean
μI−IDLE 5.647*** 0.028 [4.218–6.714]
μS−IDLE 0.276*** 0.021 [0.227–0.301]
Variance
σ2I−IDLE 0.476*** 0.047 [0.354–0.517]
σ2S−IDLE 0.017*** 0.007 [0.007–0.021]
Constant change
σS−IDLE/I−IDLE −0.021*** 0.022 [(−0.016)–(−0.030)]
Proportional change
βIDLE −0.016*** 0.021 [(−0.009)–(−0.022)]
Univariate information for FLB
Mean
μI−FLB 7.142*** 0.014 [5.147–8.024]
μS−FLB −0.431*** 0.25 [(−0.137)–(−0.213)]
Variance
σ2I−FLB 0.243*** 0.031 [0.197–0.224]
σ2S−FLB 0.006*** 0.002 [0.005–0.008]
Constant change
σS−FLB/I−FLB 0.061*** 0.034 [0.052–0.102]
Proportional change
ßFLB −0.039*** 0.027 [(−0.031)–(−0.042)]
Univariate information for L2WTC​
Mean
μI−L2WTC​ 3.471*** 0.018 [3.321–3.701]
μS−L2WTC​ 0.314*** 0.11 [0.225–0.324]
Variance
σ2I−L2WTC​ 0.211*** 0.014 [0.192–0.227]
σ2S−L2WTC​ 0.007*** 0.002 [0.004–0.008]
Constant change
σS−L2WTC​/I−L2WTC​ −0.058*** 0.020 [(−0.042)–(−0.064)]
Proportional change
ßL2WTC​ −0.046*** 0.026 [(−0.037)–(−0.062)]
Mediation portion
a [coupling IDLE → FLB], (constrained to be equal through time) −0.071** 0.040 [(−0.061)–(−0.093)]
b [coupling FLB → L2WTC], (constrained to be equal through time) −0.083** 0.017 [(−0.074–(−0.113)]
c’ [coupling IDLE → L2WTC], (constrained to be equal through time) 0.045** 0.021 [0.037–0.054]
ab (product of a and b) 0.037*** 0.003 [0.002–0.007]

LCSM latent change score mediation; 95% CI bootstrap confidence interval; SE standard error; IDLE informal digital learning of English; FL
foreign language boredom; L2WTC​L2 willingness to communicate inside the class; I Intercept; S Slope
**p < 0.05
**p < 0.01
***p < 0.001

the four measurements. The proportional change (self- negative for all three variables (βIDLE =  − 0.016, p < 0.001;
feedback parameter) components were significant and βFLB =  − 0.039, p < 0.001; βL2WTC​=  − 0.046, p < 0.001).

13
A Longitudinal Analysis of Informal Digital Learning of English, Willingness to Communicate…
Overall, the negative proportional change parameters
taken with the positive slope mean for IDLE and L2WTC
indicated that IDLE and L2WTC increased over time, and
those increases decelerated with each successive wave.
By contrast, FLB decreased over time, and this decrease
decelerated with each successive wave.
Influence of IDLE and FLB Trajectories on the L2WTC
Trajectory
Coupling parameters (i.e., a, b, and c’) were used to define
the mediation paths. The study revealed that earlier levels
of IDLE predicted the later reduction in FLB adversely
(i.e., coupling from IDLE to FLB; a = −0.071, p < 0.001),
and they significantly predicted further increase in L2WTC
over time (i.e., coupling from IDLE to L2WTC; c’ = 0.045,
p < 0.001). Earlier FLB levels had a significant influence on
the prediction of a subsequent increase in L2WTC (coupling
between FLB and L2WTC; b = −0.083, p < 0.001).
Thus, using joint significance analysis allowed the
researchers to establish that earlier levels of IDLE substan-
tially predicted later decrease in FLB, and earlier levels of
FLB strongly and negatively predicted subsequent changes
in L2WTC. The 95% percentile bootstrap confidence inter-
val of the outcome of the coupling parameters ab likewise
did not entail zero, 95% CI = [0.02, 0.07], supporting the
existence of mediation and validating the results of the joint
significance analysis.
Inter‑ and Intra‑individual Variations
in the Development of IDLE‑FLB‑L2WTC System
The interindividual variations at the latent level of the
constructs were determined by variance (σ2), illustrated
in Table 5. The results showed significant interindividual
variations at the initial level (σ2I−IDLE = 0.476, p < 0.001;
σ2I−FLB = 0.243, p < 0.001; σ2I−L2WTC​= 0.211, p < 0.001)
and at the subsequent development of three constructs
(σ2S−IDLE = 0.017, p < 0.001; σ2S−FLB = 0.006, p < 0.001;
σ2S−L2WTC​= 0.007, p < 0.001). More specifically, the vari-
ances of three variables decreased over time, indicating that
at the beginning of the study the levels of IDLE, FLB, and
L2WTC differed substantially between participants, but
eventually they reached closer levels over time.
Intraindividual variations were determined by self-
feedback parameter (ß) and covariance between intercept
and slope (σI−S), illustrated in Fig. 1 and Table 5. The self-
feedback parameters were negative for all three variables
(β IDLE =  − 0.016, p < 0.001; β FLB =  − 0.039, p < 0.001;
βL2WTC​=  − 0.046, p < 0.001). The negative self-feedback
parameters of IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC mean that within the
short-term changes of the three variables, the participants
with higher IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC at t−1 experienced
smaller changes at time t compared to the participants with
lower IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC.
Also, within the long-term changes of the three con-
structs, intraindividual differences showed significant
and negative covariances between intercept and slope in
IDLE and L2WTC (σS−IDLE/I−IDLE = −0.021, p < 0.001;
σS−L2WTC​/I−L2WTC​= −0.058, p < 0.001), which indicates
that the participants with lower initial IDLE and L2WTC
scores experienced more changes in these variables than
those with higher initial IDLE and L2WTC scores. On the
other hand, a significant and negative covariance between
intercept and slope in FLB was found (σS−FLB/I−FLB = 0.061,
p < 0.001) indicating that the participants with lower initial
FLB scores manifested less change in their boredom than
those with higher initial FLB scores.
Discussion
This research project was inspired by a lack of investigations
on the impact of changes in IDLE, an implicit approach to
learning, on changes in L2WTC. Additionally, the role of
changes in FLB, the strongest and most commonly experi-
enced emotion in language classes, as mediator between the
development of IDE and L2WTC were investigated. The
present study showed that it is essential to longitudinally
explore L2 learners’ informal digital learning, boredom
and willingness to communicate to provide a more realistic,
dynamic view of these variables as they emerge out of the
live experience of L2 learning.
Regarding the first research question, considering the
constant change component of the three variables over
time, the results indicated a systematic increase in IDLE
and L2WTC but a systematic decrease in FLB during the
language course. However, the proportional change compo-
nent confirmed that the increasing development of IDLE and
L2WTC and the decreasing trend of FLB were decelerated
from Measurement 1 to Measurement 4. This means that the
growth of IDLE and L2WTC was faster at the early stages
compared to later phases of the language course. Addition-
ally, learners’ levels of FLB decreased faster at the beginning
of semester compared to the end of semester. These results
confirm that the early sessions of the course can possibly
represent a critical period to influence learners’ IDLE, FLB
and L2WTC. Thus, L2 teachers should be very meticulous in
the early sessions of their courses to develop their learners’
IDLE and L2WTC as well as decreasing their FLB. Lee and
Drajati (2019, p. 176) provided an extensive explanation of
how IDLE can be integrated using a three-stage continuum
paradigm:
• Stage 1 (in-class CALL): technology can be integrated
into the classroom syllabus as a supplementary material.
13

Fig. 1  LDSM model of IDLE predicting L2WTC, mediated by FLB. Unlabeled paths are set at 1. IDLE informal digital learning of English,
FLB foreign language boredom, L2WTC​L2 willingness to communicate inside the class, I Intercept, S Slope. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
• Stage 2 (extracurricular CALL): teachers can engage
learners in extracurricular tasks outside of class that
enable them to learn and apply a variety of digital tech-
nology while accomplishing assignments.
• Stage 3 (extramural CALL): according to evaluation of
learners’ digital device equipment out of class as well as
their learning requirements and interests, L2 instructors
can assist learners in creating their own IDLE setting in
which they can constantly learn and use English in differ-
ent IDLE settings without the involvement of a teacher.
During Stage 1 and Stage 2, IDLE could be a valuable
addendum to formal language classes. The final pedagogical
aim for L2 instructors is to help learners develop their own
IDLE activities in which they can continually learn and use
English in different IDLE tasks independent of formal L2
learning.
With respect to the second research question, that is,
the association between the trajectories of IDLE, FLB,
and L2WTC, the findings revealed that changes in IDLE
affected the L2WTC’s growth significantly through the tra-
jectories of FLB. The significant role of IDLE on L2WTC
13
T. Taherian et al.
is supported by the results of previous studies (e.g., Lee,
2022; Mulyono & Saskia, 2021; Soyoof, 2022). For exam-
ple, Lee and Sylvén (2021) revealed a positive associa-
tion between IDLE and L2WTC in English in class-based
learning. The positive effect of changes in learners’ IDLE
on changes in their L2WTC can be discussed in light of
the psychological benefits that IDLE has for L2 learners by
creating a sense of flow and lowering their affective filter
(Chik, 2011, 2014; Han & Reinhardt, 2022; Lee, 2022; Li
et al., 2022a, 2022b). Firstly, in online L2 settings, when
individuals participate in implicit training while being
engaged in IDLE, they tend to completely enjoy the pro-
cess, resulting in a flow state or being “in the zone.” In
fact, these IDLE learners frequently lose track of time and
become fully engaged in L2 learning, as a result of which
they can increase their L2WTC level. Thus, it could be
concluded that engaging in IDLE appears to play a highly
positive role in helping L2 learners increase their L2WTC,
paving the way for easier and more genuine L2 commu-
nication (Lee et al., 2022). Secondly, learners in class-
room contexts with IDLE-rich activities could learn and
practice English in an environment conducive to lowering
A Longitudinal Analysis of Informal Digital Learning of English, Willingness to Communicate…
the affective filter (less monotony, boredom and anxiety)
(Kiaer et al., 2021; Kruk, 2022; Li & Dewaele, 2021; Li
& Wei, 2022). This, in turn, leads to an increase in their
level of L2WTC.
As the results showed, the trajectories of FLB were a
statistically significant mediator for the developmental rela-
tionship between IDLE and L2WTC. One plausible expla-
nation for the negative link between IDLE and FLB can
be the use of various modalities when engaging in IDLE
activities. As previously stated, contemporary EFL learners
have access to and use English through a variety of online
resources (e.g., online dictionaries, news broadcasts, social
media, online forums, digital games, email, e-books, movies,
songs, comedies or dramas, YouTube, and Google). From
a multimodal point of view, learning through and employ-
ing a range of digital texts, audio, pictures, and animated
images can improve students’ comprehension and acquisi-
tion of a target language, resulting in a decrease in FLB.
Overall, it seems that IDLE has the potential to trigger ideal
psychological states characterized by low boredom, more
engagement, an active and creative approach to learning as
well as the use of English for its own sake when engaging
in activities of one’s own choice. Consequently, a low self-
perceived level of boredom can motivate EFL learners to
become more willing to communicate in English in online
classes (e.g., Kang, 2005; Lee, 2022).
Considering the third research question, the findings
revealed two sources of variation in the development of
the IDLE-FLB-L2WTC system: (1) interindividual varia-
tion and (2) intraindividual variation. The interindividual
variations of IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC were reduced over
time as they were constantly multiplied by the negative self-
feedback component, indicating that the between-person dif-
ferences converged with time. Therefore, it can be inferred
that individuals’ levels of IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC initially
diverged significantly, but subsequently converged.
The convergence of interindividual variation of the three
constructs through time can be explained by the concept
of peer contagion (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011). Peer conta-
gion is a process of reciprocal impact that happens between
an individual and a peer. Peer contagion mechanisms are
prominent in natural peer interaction contexts such as the
language classroom. In this context, learners can be involved
in relational behaviors that lead to companionship, and unin-
tentionally impact themselves or others. As reflected in the
results of this study, it can be postulated that over time the
levels of IDLE, FLB, and L2WTC in the participants tended
to converge as a result of the interactions with their peers.
Intraindividual variations were another source of vari-
ation in the developmental system of IDLE, FLB, and
L2WTC. As represented in the results, the participants with
lower initial IDLE and L2WTC experienced more variation
in these variables than those with higher initial IDLE and
L2WTC. Those with lower initial FLB levels, on the other
hand, showed less change than those with higher initial FLB
levels. An important consideration at this juncture is the
ergodicity issue concerning individual difference variables
(Lowie & Verspoor, 2019). Consistent with the complex
dynamic systems theory that takes into account individual
differences, students are not regarded as ergodic ensembles
and the mean scores of their trait or behavior are not always
indicative of the reality of the target trait or behavior among
learners. Thus, as shown in the current results, on aver-
age, learners were changing in a systematic way, yet there
were interindividual variations around the mean score of
change in the three variables. Case studies are thus needed to
uncover the subtleties of the change trajectory in these vari-
ables over time. Besides, the findings of this study regarding
intraindividual variations might provide supporting explana-
tions for using LCSM modeling to analyze inter-and intrain-
dividual variation in developmental trajectories.
Conclusion
The present study has extended our understanding of the
impact of trajectories of FLB on the association between the
growth of IDLE and L2WTC, highlighting the role of this
negative emotion as an important mediator. The longitudinal
mediation analysis confirmed the significant role of FLB as
the mediator. The analysis also provided evidence for the
different rates of growth of the three variables under inves-
tigation during different periods of the L2 course, providing
detailed insights into the increasing and decreasing patterns
of change. This said, in view of the fact that this study only
included EFL students with almost no international experi-
ence, its results and implications might be more relevant to
EFL learners in Asian contexts including students who prac-
tice the English language not only in the classroom but also
in extracurricular digital contexts (Toffoli & Sockett, 2015).
The present investigation provides a basis for some peda-
gogical recommendations. First, teachers can be advised to
help EFL students benefit from IDLE activities matched to
their own needs and interests. Second, teachers could try
to ask more active informal digital learners of English to
describe their individual experiences in this respect by
introducing the most effective digital media (e.g., English-
language movies, podcasts, audiovisual tracks), learning
strategies (e.g., frequently engaging in reviews or listing
useful words and idiomatic phrases for subsequent use),
and benefits of practicing English with the help of digital
resources (e.g., increasing the knowledge of English lexis,
honing receptive and productive target language skills; Lee,
2022). Third, teachers are also recommended to help stu-
dents create groups with peers sharing their interests and
engaging in similar IDLE practices. IDLE activities can help
13

EFL learners become more conscious of IDLE via sharing
content with peers or engaging in learning English on an
individual basis by means of involvement in IDLE practices
in and out of the class context.
Regarding the limitations of the current study, collect-
ing longitudinal qualitative data was not feasible in the
case of this empirical investigation. We are fully aware that
the incorporation of a qualitative emic perspective could
have provided us with potential explanations regarding the
interplay of the changes in the three variables over time.
Hence, we propose that future research projects consider a
mixed-methods design in order to provide further evidence
on mechanisms of change in the temporal co-development
of the three variables.
Data availability Not applicable.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adap-
tation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.
Appendix: Items on the IDLE and L2WTC Scales
IDLE
(1) I listen to English songs.
(2) I watch English-language YouTube videos.
(3) I view English content on social media.
(4) I watch English-language movies or dramas on the
Internet or on TV.
(5) I write comments in English on social media.
(6) I write comments in English on online communities.
(7) I chat with others in English on social media.
(8) I talk with others in English on online communities.
L2WTC in in‑class settings
(1) When you can talk in an English class.
(2) When you have a group discussion in an English class.
(3) When you can interact with English teachers.
13
T. Taherian et al.
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