Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Ocean Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apor

Structural dynamic performance of floating continuous beam bridge under

wave and current loadings: An experimental study
Sheng Xiang c, Bin Cheng a, b, c, *, Derui Li c, Miao Tang c, Zhuo Zeng d
a
State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
b
Shanghai Key Laboratory for Digital Maintenance of Buildings and Infrastructure, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
d
Design & Research Institution, The Second Harbor Engineering Company Ltd., China Communications Construction Company Ltd., Wuhan 430056, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Very large floating bridges supported by pontoons are thought to have a promising prospect in crossing the wide
Floating bridge and deep water areas, especially for those with weak foundation. The floating bridges are directly subjected to
Hydrodynamic model test the wave and current actions, and remains in the state of stochastic vibration during their whole service life; thus,
Wave-current loading
the dynamic behavior is an important issue in the structural design process of such type of structure. However,
Dynamic characteristic
Spectral analysis
limited experimental researches on the floating bridge structures have been reported in literature. This paper
presents a scaled model test regarding to a floating continuous beam bridge with mooring system, where the
actions of wave, current, and their combinations are considered. The hydrodynamic responses of the structure,
including the displacements, internal forces and support reactions, have been finely measured by the established
data collection system. The recorded data have been processed based on statistical and spectral analyses, so as to
comprehensively investigate the hydrodynamic characteristics of the tested floating bridge, and further to
identify the influences of wave and current loads on the structural performance. The presented research work
gives an insight on the hydrodynamic performance of the deep-water floating continuous beam bridge with
mooring system, and also extends the experience on the design and implementation of the experimental study of
floating bridge structures. The presented test data can also provide a reference for the calibration of numerical
investigations.

1. Introduction structural style and performance.

The floating bridge is a kind of bridge structures that carries dead
and live loads with buoyancy. It is an attractive option for various sce­
narios of crossing wide and deep waters such as lakes, fjords, and straits,
where it is technologically and financially challenging for the con­
struction of traditional fixed bridges, and numerous conceptual designs
of such type structure have been raised by researchers around the world
(Moan and Eidem 2019; Watanabe 2003; Jun and Wei 2021; He et al.,
2021). As the bridge construction goes forward, the deep-water envi­
ronment conditions will inevitably be a challenge for the bridge engi­
neers and researchers, which would handicap the development of
transportation facilities. For this reason, the floating bridge is consid­
ered as a promising concept for overcoming the challenges in crossing
the deep-water environment, and recent years, a number of researchers
paid their attentions on the studies of floating bridges regarding the
Firstly, the multi-span girder-type floating bridge has been exten­
sively studied by many researchers. Sha et al. (2018) carried out a time
domain analysis for a multi-span floating bridge, in which the effects of
wind load, first-order and second-order wave loads on the dynamic re­
sponses of the investigated bridge were evaluated. Further in­
vestigations regarding to the ship collision responses of the floating
bridge were also conducted by the authors (Sha et al., 2019). For the
same floating bridge concept, Cheng et al. (2018a, Z. 2018b, 2019,
2020) investigated the effects of inhomogeneous wave conditions on the
structural dynamic responses, and further studied the combined effects
of environmental wind, wave and current loadings. Also for this concept,
Viuff et al. (2019) studied the effects of wave directionality on bridge
extreme response based on numerical simulations, and a low sensitivity
in response is found for natural occurring short-crested waves and for
main wave directions within 15◦ from beam sea. Viuff et al. (2020a,

* Corresponding author at: Department of Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
E-mail address: cheng_bin@sjtu.edu.cn (B. Cheng).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2023.103604
Received 28 February 2023; Received in revised form 24 April 2023; Accepted 18 May 2023
Available online 25 May 2023
0141-1187/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
S. Xiang et al.
2020b) also conducted some investigations on the numerical modeling
of floating bridges, which improved the understanding of numerical
simulation techniques for such type of structures under environmental
loadings. By defining different wave spectra in the divided regions along
bridge axis, Wei et al. (2019) investigated the effects of wave in­
homogeneity on the hydro-elastic responses of a curved multi-span
floating bridge with 19 pontoons, based on numerical approach. Wan
et al. (2021) conducted a numerical study to evaluate the influences of
bridge radius, cross-sectional rigidity on the structural performance of
floating bridge with three pontoons, where static loads and wave load
were considered. Dai et al. (2020, 2021) conducted numerical simula­
tions of a straight side-anchored floating bridge under inhomogeneous
waves, and further investigated the effect of wave inhomogeneity on the
fatigue damage of mooring lines base on the simulation results. By
considering typical wave height distributions, Xiang et al. (2022) stud­
ied the influences of wave inhomogeneity on the dynamic responses of
multi-span floating bridges, based on time domain numerical analysis.
Besides, many efforts have also been devoted in the study of the
floating suspension bridges. Wang et al. (2018) conducted a time
domain analysis on a three-span suspension bridge with two floating
towers under wind and wave actions by using finite element software
ABAQUS, in which the radiation forces acting on the floating towers
were computed by a specially developed user-defined subroutine. Xu
et al. (2018a, Y. 2018b) investigated the dynamic behavior of a sus­
pension bridge with floating towers considering wind and wave load­
ings, where the state-space model was applied to calculate the radiation
forces on the floating towers and the self-excitation forces acting on the
bridge girder. Considering wave and wind loads, Wei et al. (2021)
studied the influence of the sag-to-span ratio on the dynamic response of
a long-span suspension bridge with two floating towers, and results
show that the natural period of the floating bridge decreases with the
reduction in sag-to-span ratio.
Studies on the basis of field measurement data have also been con­
ducted by many researchers. Based on the measured response data of the
Bergsøysund Bridge, Kvåle et al. (2017) investigated the dynamic
characteristics of the structure by using stochastic subspace identifica­
tion method. For the same bridge, Petersen and Øiseth (2017) performed
a finite element model updating based on a sensitivity method, and the
study indicates that the numerical models of floating bridge can
generally be improved while many practical challenges still exist.
Moreover, some researchers paid their attentions on the hydrody­
namic aspect of the pontoons of the floating bridge structures. Fre­
driksen et al. (2019) carried out a hydrodynamic analysis for evaluating
the performance of floating bridges with the floating platforms of
different geometries, and the results shown that the elliptic cylindrical
pontoon has the prior performance compared to the other considered
shapes. Based on bridge structural simulation, Xiang et al. (2017)
investigated the effects of the heave plates of pontoons on the bridge
performance, concluding that properly designed heave plates can lead to
a reduction of the maximum bending moments in bridge girder. Other
researches dealing with the wave-current interaction on bridge foun­
dation or various submerged bodies (Mazarakos and Mavrakos 2012;
Pan et al., 2013; Monroy et al., 2012), can also provide reference for the
loading study of the floating bridge structures.
The previous studies are mostly conducted based on the numerical
analysis techniques, and few of them have been verified with the field-
measured data of real floating bridges, or the tested data of in-lab ex­
periments, since there is lack of the relevant engineering applications
and experimental investigations. The water basin test is thought the
most reliable research method for the structural performance of floating
structures; nevertheless, the experimental study on floating bridges has
rarely been reported, which is mainly due to the complexities in model
fabrication and instrument setup. For one thing, the design of the scaled
model needs to consider not only the similarity of dimension and mass,
but also the similarity of mechanical properties such as the flexural
stiffness of bridge girder, for theoretically modeling the elastic behaviors
2
Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604
of structures. For the other thing, the measurement of the floating bridge
model test includes the applied environment conditions, and the dis­
placements, forces, and strains/stresses of the investigated structure.
What’s more, it is of great importance to synchronize the data collec­
tions of instruments, so that the relationship between the structural
response and the applied actions can be retained in the recorded data,
ensuring the rationality and integrality of the structural performance
analysis. Till now, water basin tests have been widely performed for the
investigations of vessels, floating production platforms, and floating
wind turbines that involve a single floater (which are largely regarded as
a rigid body) (Wan et al., 2015; Xiao et al., 2017; Ruzzo et al., 2019;
Bisinotto et al., 2022). Rodrigues et al. (2022) conducted a basin test of a
generic floating bridge with the scaled model of truncated segment, in
which the load conditions comprise the combinations of wave, current,
and wind. With the thoroughly explanation on the test campaign,
valuable experiences and recommendations have been gathered for the
experimental study of floating bridges.
In the presented study, a scaled model test is conducted for investi­
gating the hydrodynamic performance of a deep-water moored floating
continuous beam bridge under wave and current loadings. The tested
floating bridge model was designed based on a conceptual prototype
composed of steel box girder, concrete piers and pontoons, and the
mooring system of polyester ropes. Still water tests, regular wave tests
and the environmental loading tests were conducted for the floating
bridge, and the hydrodynamic responses of the structure, including the
displacements, internal forces and support reactions, have been finely
measured by the established data collection system. Based on statistical
and spectral analyses, the dynamic behaviors of the floating continuous
beam bridge under regular wave, irregular wave, and the combination of
irregular wave and current are comprehensively investigated, and the
influences of wave and current loads on the structural performance are
also discussed. The presented research work gives an insight on the
hydrodynamic performance of the deep-water moored floating contin­
uous beam bridge, and also extends the experience on the design and
implementation of the experimental studies on the floating bridge
structures. The presented test data can also provide a reference for the
relevant numerical investigations.
2. Test setup
2.1. Scaling criterion
Reasonably scaling the investigated structure and the environmental
condition for water basin test is of great importance for obtaining
effective and meaningful test results. The similarity theory in fluid me­
chanics is the basic methodology for guiding the implementation of
hydrodynamic model tests. Based on the theory, the test model and
prototype systems are required to satisfy the similarities regarding ge­
ometry, kinematics and dynamics. However, practices have proved that
it is almost impossible to simultaneously satisfy the mechanical simi­
larity of all aspects for the model test in water basin, and the regular
approach for dealing with such issues is choosing a suitable scaling
criterion to meet the similarities claimed by the dominant factors
(Sarpkaya and Isaacson 1981).
Generally, gravity and inertia force play the dominant roles in the
hydrodynamic model tests that investigating structural motions and
mechanics under environmental loading. As Froude number describes
the relationship between inertial and gravitational forces, it forms a
basic scaling criterion (i.e., the Froude Similarity Criterion) for the
physical experiments considering wave and current loadings. Specif­
ically, the criterion requires the Froude numbers of model and prototype
to be equal, as expressed by Eq. (1) (Sarpkaya and Isaacson 1981):
vm vp
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ = √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ (1)
gLm gLp
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

where L and v represent the linear length and velocity parameters, 2.2.1. Girder
respectively; g refers to the gravity acceleration; the subscripts m and p In order to satisfy the similarities required by dimension, weight and
respectively denote the test model and the prototype. the sectional flexural stiffness, the bridge girder is modeled by an elastic
For a linear scaling ratio λ (defined as Lm/Lp), to follow the Froude beam coated by foamed polyurethane plates. The elastic beam, which
Similarity Criterion, the conducted model test has to satisfy the scaling simulates the elastic bending behavior of the bridge girder, is made of
factors for various properties as list in Table 1, where the symbol β the ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) plastic with a double-cell box
represents the density ratio of the water in test to the water in full-scale section. The foamed polyurethane coats are in segments, attached to the
scenario (usually are fresh water and sea water, respectively). In this elastic beam by point-contact bonding with flexible adhesive. Thus, the
study, the fresh water was used in the model test, and the condition of polyurethane coats hardly participate in the bending resistance of the
β=1 is taken in the test design. bridge girder, but have contributions on the modeling of shape and
It is worth to mention that, as the motion and force responses of weight. Fig. 2(a) shows the typical cross-section of the girder model, of
floating body subjected to wave loading have the nature of periodicity, which the sectional height varies following the law of arc curve with the
equality of Strouhal numbers between test model and prototype (i.e., the highest sections (corresponding to h = 40 mm) at the middle supports,
Strouhal Similarity Criterion) should be ensured as represented in Eq. and the lowest sections (corresponding to h = 25 mm) at the girder
(2): midspan and ends. The physical model of the bridge girder is shown in
Fig. 2(b), weighting 10.76 kg in total. The flexural and torsional stiff­
vm Tm vp Tp
= (2) nesses of the girder are respectively calibrated by applying a concen­
Lm Lp
trated force centrally or eccentrically at the midspan section (as
where T represents the time parameters (e.g., the period). However, as illustrated in Fig. 2(c)), and finally signified by the representative values
the scaling factors in Table 1 (requested by the Froude Similarity Cri­ of 8.90 N/mm (for bending) and 17.49 (N⋅m)/deg (for torsion).
terion) has been met, the requirements of the Strouhal Similarity Cri­
terion can be automatically satisfied. 2.2.2. Piers and supports/constraints
The international ocean engineering circle recognizes that the linear For the tested model, the two middle supports of bridge girder are
scaling ratios of 1:80 to 1:60 are appropriate for balancing the accuracy positioned on piers that are fixed on pontoons, while the girder ends are
and economy of the basin model test, and are widely adopted in the constrained to the side walls of the circulating water channel. Since the
relevant experimental studies (Wan et al., 2015; Xiao et al., 2017; flexural stiffness of the concrete piers are quite greater than that of the
Bisinotto et al., 2022). Considering the dimensions and the technical steel girder regarding to the bridge prototype, the physical model of
parameters of the circulating water channel employed in this study, as piers was designed as rigid bodies and modeled by aluminum tubes as
well as the test accuracy, a scaling ratio of 1:70 was adopted for the shown in Fig. 3. The aluminum piers are fixed to the pontoon models
presented hydrodynamic model test. Detailed descriptions of the test with bolted fastening through the base plate. The top plate of the pier
model would be introduced in the following text. model is designed for installing the six-component force sensor, and also
the hinge support for the girder (as shown in Fig. 4(a)), so that the
relative rotation between girder and pier about the y-axis can be
2.2. Test model released, while the other degrees of freedom (DOFs) are coupled. The
weights of each aluminum pier, six-component force sensor and hinge
The superstructure of the tested floating bridge model (including the support, are 2.70 kg, 0.69 kg and 0.52 kg, respectively.
girder and piers) is designed based on a three-span continuous beam The girder ends are constrained by a mechanism that allows the
bridge in the practical engineering, so as to ensure the representative of displacements in x- and y-directions, as well as the rotations around y-
the test result for the mechanical characteristics of typical bridge and z-axis, while the z-directional displacement and the rotation around
structures. The girder of the bridge prototype is a steel box girder with x-axis (i.e., the bridge axis) have been prevented. This mechanism is
variable cross-sections, and its span division is (56+98+56) m. The piers realized by two constraint blocks and a rod as illustrated in Fig. 4(b). The
are made of prestressed concrete with hollow section, and the piers’ constraint blocks are clamped to a rail on the side wall of the water
height is 21.5 m from the pier base to the top. To provide carrying ca­ channel, providing a slideway for the round rod that connected to the
pacity for the superstructure, floating foundations consisting of concrete girder end. At each end, the round rod is fastened to the elastic beam
pontoon and polyester mooring ropes were designed, considering a with two unidirectional force sensors as shown in Fig. 4(b), by which the
water depth of 98 m in the prototype dimension. Fig. 1 illustrates the reactions of vertical force and torsional moment (i.e., the z-directional
schematic of the designed floating bridge model, where the global co­ force and the moment around x-axis) can be finely measured. The rod
ordinate system (O-xyz) utilized in the following study has also been and force sensors at each end weights 0.42 kg, individually.
presented. With a specialized girder-end constraint applied in the model
(introduced later), the tested structure can also be regarded as a trun­ 2.2.3. Pontoon and mooring lines
cated model of the floating bridges with more spans. As shown in Fig. 5(a), the pontoon of the floating bridge is shaped in
elliptic cylinder with the outward heave plate at the bottom. The long
Table 1 and short axes of the ellipse section are 780 mm and 360 mm, respec­
Summary of scaling factors. tively, and the height of pontoon is 210 mm in total. The heave plate is
Properties Symbols Scaling factors
10 mm in thickness and 60 mm in width, attached around the bottom
edge of pontoon. The draft of pontoons is set to be 150 mm in this study.
Length Lm/Lp
Additionally, fairleads modeled by metal rings were assembled to the
λ
Area Am/Ap λ2
Volume Vm/Vp λ3 designate positions on the bottom of the pontoons (labeled by F1 to F4
Linear velocity vm/vp λ0.5 for Pontoon-A, and F5 to F8 for Pontoon-B, as shown in Fig. 6) for
Time tm/tp λ0.5 connecting the mooring lines. Table 2 further gives the measured
Frequency fm/fp λ− 0.5 physical properties of the two pontoons fabricated for the tested floating
Angle φm/φp 1
Angular velocity ωm/ωp λ− 0.5
bridge model, in which the design values have also been presented for
Mass mm/mp βλ3 comparison. It should be noted that the location of the center of mass,
Moment of inertia Jm/Jp βλ5 abbreviated as CM, represents the height with respect to the bottom
Force Fm/Fp βλ3 surface of pontoon.
Moment Mm/Mp βλ4
As illustrated in Fig. 6, two types of mooring lines, which are the

3
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

Fig. 1. Schematic of floating bridge model: (a) Perspective view; (b) Top and front views of superstructure (Unit: mm).

Fig. 2. Bridge girder: (a) Typical cross-section; (b) Physical model; (c) Schematic of loading for stiffness calibration (Unit: mm).

4
S. Xiang et al.
Fig. 3. Bridge pier.
incline cables and the tension legs (labeled by IC and TL, respectively),
are contained in the mooring system of the floating bridge. The co­
ordinates of the fairlead and anchoring point (under the pontoon local
coordinate system O’-x’y’z’) corresponding to each mooring line are
given in Table 3, based on which the lengths of the incline cables and the
tension legs can be computed as 1774.9 mm and 1250.0 mm, respec­
tively. As shown in Fig. 5(b), the physical model of mooring line is
constituted by a steel wire rope and a spring fastened to the anchoring
point. The weights of the models of incline cable and tension leg are
relatively low with the averages of 34 g and 25 g, respectively. As the
tensile deformation of wire ropes can be negligible, the elasticities of the
Fig. 4. Support and constraint: (a) Middle support; (b) Girder-end constraint.
Fig. 5. Pontoon and mooring line: (a) Pontoon; (b) Mooring line.
5
Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604
mooring lines are modeled by adapting the spring lengths. To capture
the mooring forces during the testing, tension sensors were arranged at
the top end of each line, linking the wire ropes to the fairleads positioned
on the pontoons. The tensile stiffnesses of all mooring line models were
tested before the installation of bridge model, by applying multistage
tensile loads to the lines and measuring the corresponding elongations.
Fig. 7 demonstrates the tested tension-elongation curves of all mooring
lines. From the figures it can be seen that, the tensile stiffnesses of the
mooring lines are consistent well with each other, and the averages were
computed as 0.344 N/mm and 0.474 N/mm, respectively for incline
cables and tension legs. Meanwhile, good linearities between the tensile
force and the elongation are found for all lines, within the tested range.
Before loading test, the pretension forces in mooring lines were adapted
in accordance with the target values.
2.3. Load cases
The experimental campaign of the floating continuous beam bridge
is divided into three categories, which are the still water test, regular
wave test, and the environmental loading test. The still water test was
primarily implemented to verify the horizontal stiffness of the mooring
system, and obtain the natural frequencies of the bridge model in typical
motion modes. The regular wave test studied the frequency response
functions (FRFs) of floating bridge structure, in which the regular waves
of frequencies in 0.5~2.2 Hz and wave heights of 30 mm were adopted.
In order to obtain the finely representative FRF curves, the regular
waves with the frequencies near the natural frequencies (that identified
from the still water test) were intensively selected for loading.
Based on the inherent properties identified from the previous tests,
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

Fig. 6. Schematic of mooring system.

Table 2
Physical properties of pontoon model.
Item Unit Design value Pontoon-A Pontoon-B

Measured Deviation Measured Deviation

Mass kg 16.0 16.0 0.00% 16.0 0.00%

CM mm 88.0 88.1 0.11% 88.3 0.34%
rx-inertia kg•mm2 814,844 812,467 − 0.29% 813,193 − 0.20%
ry-inertia kg•mm2 272,661 273,720 0.39% 274,088 0.52%
rz-inertia kg•mm2 894,774 891,856 − 0.33% 892,496 − 0.25%

Table 3
Coordinates of fairleads and anchoring points of mooring lines (Unit: mm).
Mooring lines Fairleads Anchoring points

No. x’ y’ z’ No. x’ y’ z’

IC1(IC5) F1(F5) 125 270 0 M1(M9) 640 1420 − 1250

IC2(IC6) F2(F6) − 125 270 0 M2(M10) − 640 1420 − 1250
IC3(IC7) F3(F7) − 125 − 270 0 M3(M11) − 640 − 1420 − 1250
IC4(IC8) F4(F8) 125 − 270 0 M4(M12) 640 − 1420 − 1250
TL1(TL5) F1(F5) 125 270 0 M5(M13) 125 270 − 1250
TL2(TL6) F2(F6) − 125 270 0 M6(M14) − 125 270 − 1250
TL3(TL7) F3(F7) − 125 − 270 0 M7(M15) − 125 − 270 − 1250
TL4(TL8) F4(F8) 125 − 270 0 M8(M16) 125 − 270 − 1250

Fig. 7. Tension-elongation curves of mooring lines: (a) Incline cables; (b) Tension legs.

6
S. Xiang et al.
the environmental loading test was further conducted for analysis,
where the environmental conditions corresponding to real sea state,
including the cases of current only, wave only, and the combination of
wave and current, were considered. In this test, the applied waves follow
the JONSWAP spectrum (Det Norske Veritas 2014), and the currents
were modeled by uniform and steady flows. In accordance with the
similarity criteria, the considered load cases corresponding to real sea
state have been scaled down to the model dimension. The controlling
parameters (including current velocity vc, significant wave height Hs,
spectrum peak period Tp, and the peak enhancement factor γ) of the load
cases, corresponding to both prototype and model dimensions, are listed
in Table 4. Herein, the value γ=3.3, which was proposed by Goda (1988)
as the mean value for the JONSWAP spectrum based on the wave data in
the North Sea, is taken for the considered wave conditions. The wave
conditions were selected by referring to the sea states near the coast of
north China, which can be regarded as a representative since they
generally reflect the relationship between the natural frequencies of the
test structure and the peak frequencies of waves in the focused site. And
it is thought that the corresponding test results can give an insight on the
behaviors of the test structure under environmental waves, supple­
menting to the results summarized from regular wave tests. In this
paper, the response characteristics of the floating continuous beam
bridge under wave loading would be emphasized, and attentions would
also be paid to the loading effects of the combined currents.
The qualities of the generated environmental conditions were cali­
brated before the bridge model had been installed into the water
channel. The wave elevations and the current speeds in the test area
have been measured and validated. The wave heights and frequencies of
the generated regular waves were verified to be highly stable in time
histories, and consistent with the input values for the wave maker. For
the irregular waves, the measured wave spectra have been compared to
the target spectra, as shown in Fig. 8, and it indicates that the spectra of
the generated 1-year and 100-year waves agree well with the target
curves. Current environments produced by the water circulating system
were surveyed by the current meters (pitot tubes) arranged within the
test area, and good agreement between the system settings and the
measurements can also be confirmed regarding to current speeds.
Meanwhile, the measuring results also indicated that the created current
environments performed a satisfied uniformity within the test area.
2.4. Measurement
Fig. 9 illustrates the arrangement of the measuring instruments
employed in the test campaign. Non-contact displacement measurement
system, which is composed of high-speed cameras and markers, is
employed in the test to collect the motion data of the pontoons and
girder. Specifically, three markers were arranged on each pontoon for
capturing their rigid body displacements in all 6 DOFs; the displace­
ments of bridge girder were recorded by using eight markers, two of
which were located at the girder-end sections (i.e., End-A and -B), and
the rest were for the sections of Sec-A, -B, and the Midspan. Additional
industrial cameras were also adopted to record the dynamic images of
Table 4
Definition of experimental load cases.
Case No. Prototype scale
vc (m/s) Hs (m) Tp (s)
1-year condition LC1.1 – 2.52 8.8
LC1.2 1.67 – –
LC1.3 1.67 3.78 8.8
100-year condition LC2.1 – 3.78 9.7
LC2.2 2.51 – –
LC2.3 2.51 3.78 9.7
*
γ is the peak enhancement factor in the theoretical formula of JONSWAP wave spectrum, which is related to the concentration of wave energy in frequency (Det
Norske Veritas 2014).
7
Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604
both floating structure and the mooring lines. Beside the structural
motions, the internal forces and the constraint reactions of the floating
bridge have been synchronously surveyed during the loadings. To
measure the bending moment at girder midspan, totally four strain
gauges have been stuck on the upper and lower surfaces of the elastic
beam in the corresponding cross section, during the fabrication process.
The internal forces at the pier supports and the girder-end reactions are
measured by the six-component force sensors and the unidirectional
force sensor, respectively, as introduced previously. Regarding to the
environmental condition, two capacitive wave probes and a pitot tube
(as shown in Fig. 10) were positioned in the channel cross-section that is
1450 mm upstream the test model as depicted in Fig. 9, which has been
validated to be hardly affecting the wave and current conditions formed
at the area where the test model located.
2.5. Experimental rig
The experimental campaign presented in this paper was conducted in
the circulating water channel of State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engi­
neering (SKLOE) in Shanghai Jiao Tong University. The employed water
channel is a water circulating system equipped with a propulsion device
by which the circulating flows can be generated inside the channel
system. The water channel provides a test section as shown in Fig. 11(a),
of which the length, width, and water depth are respectively 8.0 m, 3.0
m and 1.6 m, for the implementation of model tests. Inside the water
channel, a set of layered dividers are installed upstream the test section
to rectify the generated water flow, so that a steady current condition
can be produced within the test section. Besides, a high-precision hy­
draulic wave maker is also equipped upstream the test section to
generate the required wave conditions for the tested object.
Fig. 11 presents the schematic and photographic views of the test
setup.. It can be seen that, the bridge model locates transversely to the
water channel in the test section, with a sufficient distance downstream
the wave maker assuring the full development of the generated waves.
Correspondingly, the applied waves and currents would load in the
transverse direction of the bridge. A support frame made of aluminum
profiles was utilized for mooring the floating bridge. Specifically,
anchoring points were prefabricated on the bottom of the support frame,
to which the lower ends of mooring lines would be fastened to during the
testing. In order to minimize the negative effects of the reflected waves
on the model test, a wave absorber was equipped at the downstream side
of test section to absorb the incoming waves. Water flows were gener­
ated by the circulating system to model the currents in real sea state.
2.6. Verification of mooring system
To confirm the correctness of the model installation, once the
floating bridge model had been assembled and moored to the support
frame in the water channel, a horizontal stiffness test was conducted to
verify the restoring behavior of the mooring system, considering both
the x- and y-directional displacements. The measured relation curves
between the floater offsets and the corresponding restoring forces are
Model scale γ* Remark
vc (mm/s) Hs (mm) Tp (s)
– 36 1.05 3.3 irregular wave only
200 – – – current only
200 36 1.05 3.3 current and irregular wave
– 54 1.16 3.3 irregular wave only
300 – – – current only
300 54 1.16 3.3 current and irregular wave
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

Fig. 8. Verification of irregular wave conditions: (a) 1-year condition; (b) 100-year condition.

Fig. 9. Layout of the measuring instruments (Unit: mm).

plotted in Fig. 12, where the theoretically calculated stiffnesses in both respectively), which is understandable since the restoring force
directions are also included for verification. It is shown that the mooring (contributed by the incline cables) are more remarkable in this direction
system behaves consistently with the designed performance, and a good due to the spatial layout of incline cables, as shown in Figs. 6 and 9.
linearity in horizontal stiffness has been shown for the two directions.
The slight differences of the test results to the theoretical values should
mainly be due to the operation errors during the test. As can be seen
from Fig. 12, the restoring stiffness in y-direction is greater than that in
x-direction (theoretically calculated as 0.582 N/mm and 0.169 N/mm,

8
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

Fig. 10. Instruments for wave and current measurements: (a) Wave probe; (b) Current meter (pitot tube).

Fig. 11. Experimental rig of the floating foundation model test: (a) Schematic diagram; (b) Site arrangement.

3. Inherent dynamic characteristics
3.1. Natural frequencies of typical motion modes
Before the loading test, free decay test in calm water was also carried
out to identify the natural frequencies of the floating bridge, considering
five typical motion modes as shown in Fig. 13. The tested natural fre­
quencies of the floating bridge model corresponding to the considered
motion modes are given in Table 5. It can be seen that, the frequencies
between Mode-A and Mode-E, Mode-C and Mode-D, are respectively
comparable. The reason lies in that the motions of these two groups
represent respectively a displacement of the pontoons in the x- and y-

9
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

shows a relatively high natural frequency, read as 1.33 Hz, compared to

the other four modes. Referring to Fig. 8, it can also be found that the
natural frequencies of the floating bridge remain well away from the
prominent frequency ranges of the wave conditions, which can basically
avoid the prominent resonance of the structural system. This situation
also conforms to the rationale of structural dynamic design; thus one can
believe that the test results can give some representative remarks to the
floating continuous beam bridge.

3.2. FRFs of bridge motions

Regular waves of frequencies ranging from 0.5 to 2.2 Hz were

applied to test the FRFs of the investigated floating bridge. Fig. 14
presents the tested FRFs of the movements of pontoon and girder mid­
span regarding to the y- and z-displacements, as well as the rotation

Fig. 12. Verification of the horizontal restoring stiffness of mooring system. Table 5
Natural frequencies of the floating bridge model (Unit: Hz).
directions, for which the restoring stiffnesses provided by the mooring Motion mode Natural frequency
system are distinctive as discussed previously. Also for this reason, the
Mode-A 0.27
natural frequencies of Mode-A and -E are remarkably lower than those of Mode-B 1.33
Mode-C and -D as the stiffness in x-direction is quite smaller than that in Mode-C 0.65
y-direction. The motion of Mode-B is correlated with the bending of Mode-D 0.61
Mode-E 0.32
bridge girder and the vertical constraint of the mooring system, and it

Fig. 13. Tested modes in free-decay test.

10
S. Xiang et al.
Fig. 14. Frequency response function of the motions of pontoon and girder midspan: (a) y-displacement; (b) z-displacement; (c) rx-rotation.
around x-axis. The other motions are relatively unimportant or are
insignificant due to the symmetry, and thus would not be emphasized
herein. Generally, for the focused three motion types of pontoon and
girder midspan, prominent FRF values are concentrated near the fre­
quency of 0.6 Hz that corresponds to the natural frequency of y-direc­
tional movement (i.e., the Mode-C in Fig. 13). This phenomenon
indicates that the z- and ry-directional motions are, in some degree,
coupled to the y-directional displacement for the floating bridge system,
which could be attributed to the hyperstatic constraint of the mooring
system. Moreover, the following findings can further be drawn for the
focused motions:
(1) Regarding to the y-directional displacement, the peak values of
FRF (read as 7.9 and 7.5 for pontoon and girder, individually) at
0.6 Hz are apparently corresponding to the resonance in y-
directional motion. As the frequency increases from 0.6 Hz, the
FRF values drop down sharply, and fairly limited values are read
for the frequencies greater than 0.9 Hz. It can also be seen from
Fig. 14(a) that, the FRF curves of pontoon and girder midspan are
highly consistent with each other, which can be interpreted by
the fact that the bridge translates in y-direction with relatively
slight rotations around the x-axis, as illustrated in Fig. 14(c).
(2) Considering the rx-rotational response, prominent vibration en­
ergies can also be found around the frequency of 1.6 Hz, with the
extreme FRF values of 0.032 deg/mm and 0.019 deg/mm
respectively for pontoon and midspan, which reveals an inherent
mode of the floating bridge corresponding to rx-rotation (with the
11
Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604
natural frequency of 1.6 Hz). Comparing the FRF curves between
the pontoon and girder midspan, it is found that the variation
trends of both curves are quite similar, whereas the FRF values of
pontoon are generally smaller than those of midspan for each
tested frequency. The differences of the rotational responses be­
tween pontoon and girder shall be induced by the deformations of
piers that connect the girder and pontoons. However, for the
tested model in this case, as that the aluminum piers are designed
to be relatively rigid, such differences are mainly contributed by
the deformations of hinge supports.
(3) For the z-directional displacement, relatively high values are
found near the frequency of 0.6 Hz for both the pontoon and the
girder midspan (of which the maximum values are respectively
0.30 and 0.49), while visible differences are existing between the
two FRF curves. From 0.5 to 1.2 Hz, the FRF values of girder
midspan are higher than those of pontoons by 28.5%~82.1%,
which is understandable as that the amplitude of z-directional
vibration at midspan is definitely greater than that of pontoons,
due to the bending deformation of girder. As the frequency get­
ting greater, the z-directional vibration of pontoon is found more
significant than the girder midspan, which is attributed to the
coupling of the z-displacement with the rx-rotation. As the rx-
rotational responses of pontoons are more intensive, the z-
directional response would also be greater. Since the vertical
displacements of the bridge are well restrained by the girder-end
constraints and the mooring system, the z-directional resonance
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

corresponding to Mode-B as shown in Fig. 13 has been effectively

depressed.

3.3. FRFs of mooring tensions

The FRFs of the tension forces in mooring lines are further illustrated
in Fig. 15 with divisions of incline cable and tension leg. The results of
both upstream and downstream lines, which are respectively repre­
sented by the lines corresponding to the fairleads F4 and F1 of Pontoon-
A, are plotted together for comparison. It can be seen that:

Fig. 16. Maximum displacement positions of pontoon during vibration.

(1) Under regular wave loadings, the FRF curves of the tensions in
upstream and downstream incline cables are consistent well with
each other, and both are similar in shape to the FRFs corre­
sponding to the bridge’s y-directional displacements as shown in
Fig. 14(a), noting that the peak FRF values of upstream and
downstream lines are read 1.54 N/mm and 1.29 N/mm, respec­
tively. This high correlation between the tensions in incline ca­
bles and the structural y-displacements indicates that the lateral
constraint for the bridge structure is chiefly provided by the
incline cables.
(2) Regarding to the tension legs, it is found that the variations of
forces are much more slight compared with that of the incline
cables, as the greatest FRF value of tension legs is only 0.26 N/
mm. This should be attributed to the fact that the incline cables
also provide a vertical constraint to the structure, so that the z-
displacements of bridge are quite limited. Additionally, the ten­
sion legs contribute little to the lateral constraint of the bridge,
thus the relatively significant y-displacements make limited in­
fluence on the inner forces of the tension legs.
(3) For the frequencies near 0.6 Hz, the FRFs of downstream tension
legs are remarkably greater than those of upstream ones by up to
148.1%, which can be revealed by the phase analysis of the y-, z-
displacements and the rx-rotation of the floating bridge. To be
specific, the motion phases indicate that, the vibrations in y-, z-
directions and the rx-rotation are basically in phase, which means
that the y-, z- and rx-directional vibrations will reach their
maximal positive values almost at the same time (as illustrated in
Fig. 16). Beside the maximal values at 0.6 Hz, local peak values
around 0.07 N/mm can also be seen at the frequencies of 1.4 Hz
4. Responses under environmental loadings
4.1. Responses under irregular waves
Table 6 gives the standard deviations of the floating bridge’s motions
under the load cases of irregular wave only (i.e., LC1.1 and LC2.1),
where the Δy, Δz and Δrx denote the displacements along y-, z-axes, and
the rotation around x-axis, respectively. It can be found that, under the
excitations of irregular waves, the standard deviations of Δy corre­
sponding to the pontoon and the girder midspan are comparable, and
the z-directional vibrations are comparatively insignificant. Meanwhile,
the standard deviations of the rx-rotations are relatively small in values
(up to 0.25 deg in LC2.1). Thus the results demonstrate that, under the
irregular wave loadings, the motion of the tested floating bridge is
dominated by the y-directional displacements, which is consistent with
the conclusion drawn from the regular wave test. Considering the z-
directional displacement, the standard deviations of the Δz of pontoon
are generally smaller compared to those of girder midspan (respectively
computed as 28.8% and 32.5% for 1-year and 100-year conditions),
which is due to the bending deformation of the girder as analyzed
previously.
To reveal the bridge vibration components, Fig. 17 further presents
Table 6
Standard deviations of structural motions under wave-only cases.
Load case Object Δy (mm) Δz (mm) Δrx (deg)

and 1.6 Hz, which is correlated to the rx-rotation of bridge as LC1.1 Pontoon 12.38 0.79 0.15
shown in Fig. 14(c). Midspan 12.26 1.11 0.12
LC2.1 Pontoon 25.45 1.70 0.25
Midspan 24.63 2.52 0.17

Fig. 15. Frequency response function of tensions in mooring lines: (a) Incline cables; (b) Tension legs.

12
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

Fig. 17. PSDs of the structural motions under LC1.1: (a) y-displacement; (b) z-displacement; (c) rx-rotation.

the power spectral density (PSD) curves of the bridge motions under large standard deviations as given in Table 6. Additionally, vi­
LC1.1 for analysis. It can be seen that: bration components corresponding to the z-resonance can also be
found, though their energies are pretty insignificant compared to
(1) The PSD curves of the y-displacements of pontoon and girder the wave-excited components.
midspan are highly identical to each other, indicating that the
vibration components of the two positions are the same. Thus, the Table 7 presents the standard deviations of the mooring tensions
lateral displacements of the pontoon and girder are evidently under the load cases with irregular wave only (i.e., LC1.1 and LC2.1),
synchronous, and the rotation of the bridge around x-axis are where the responses of mooring lines corresponding to fairleads F4 and
fairly slight. The energy of the y-directional vibration is concen­ F1 are still taken for representing the upstream and downstream lines,
trated near the peak frequency of wave, while the resonance respectively. For incline cables, compared to the downstream line, the
corresponding to the frequency of 0.6 Hz has not been excited standard deviations of upstream line are more remarkable by 12.0% and
which is because the wave energy at 0.6 Hz is rather insignificant. 15.4%, respectively for 1-year and 100-year conditions. On the contrary,
(2) The z-directional responses for both the girder midspan and the force responses of the upstream tension legs are read smaller than
pontoon are also contributed mainly by the wave excitation. The that of the downstream legs, respectively by 26.9% and 36.3% for the
wave-excited vibration of the girder midspan is much more considered two conditions.
prominent than that of pontoon, which corresponds to the rela­ Fig. 18 further illustrates the PSD curves of the tension responses in
tively large standard deviations as given in Table 6. Additionally,
vibration components corresponding to the z-resonance can also
Table 7
be found, though their energies are pretty insignificant compared Standard deviations of mooring tensions under wave-only cases (Unit: N).
to the wave-excited components.
Load case Position Incline cable Tension leg
(3) For the rx-rotational responses, the girder midspan and pontoon
are also contributed mainly by the wave excitation. The wave- LC1.1 Upstream 2.70 0.49
Downstream 2.41 0.67
excited vibration of the girder midspan is much more promi­
LC2.1 Upstream 5.47 0.86
nent than that of pontoon, which corresponds to the relatively Downstream 4.74 1.35

13
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

different load cases, the current effects are discussed in this section.

4.2.1. Structural motions

Fig. 18. PSDs of the tensions in mooring lines under LC1.2.
mooring lines. From the figure it can be found that the tension variations
of the incline cables are much more significant than the tension legs, and
it is contributed mainly by the wave excitation as the response energy is
concentrated over the peak frequency of the applied wave. The response
spectra corresponding to the tension legs are detailedly presented in the
zoom figure, from which one can see that the responses in the tension
legs are also dominated by the wave-excited component. Meanwhile, the
vibrations contributed by the z- and rx-resonances can also be observed,
which is coherent to the pontoon motion that has been illustrated in
Fig. 17(b). The observations from the power spectra of mooring tensions
convincingly demonstrate again that the dynamic response of the tested
floating bridge is primarily in the peak frequency of the incident wave. It
is worth to note that the identical conclusion can be drawn from the
loading of 100-year condition.
4.2. Effects of current on structural responses
In order to identify the effects of current on the structural responses
of the floating continuous beam bridge, load cases of current only, as
well as the combination of wave and current were conducted in the test.
Based on the comparative analysis on the test results corresponding to
Table 8 lists the statistical parameters, including the maximum
(Max.), minimum (Min.), and mean (Mean) values, as well as the stan­
dard deviations (S.D.), of the structural displacements corresponding to
the tested load cases, noting that the presented data of pontoon are
taking the averages of both Pontoon-A and Pontoon-B. The following
discussions are primarily based on the mean values and standard de­
viations, while the maximum and minimum responses are presented
basically as references, considering their randomness related to the
applied stochastic wave series.
Under the loadings of current-only cases, the bridge structure
responded statically as the standard deviations are extremely limited in
value. It is understandable since the applied currents are stationary in
velocity. Meanwhile, this feature also indicates that the loadings of
normal environmental currents would not cause the vortex-induced vi­
bration (VIV) on the floating bridge (with the typical dimension com­
parable to the tested structure) as the current speeds are relatively low
and the triggering condition of the VIV cannot be reached. Therefore,
the effect of the individual loadings of steady environmental currents on
the floating bridge can be reasonably regarded as static actions.
Comparing the statistical data between LC1.1 and LC1.3 it can be
seen that, as the current has been superposed to the wave, an offset of
the equilibrium position is shown in the y-direction response, while the
changes of standard deviations of the displacement in this direction are
insignificant. On the other hand, under the loading of combined wave
and current (i.e., LC1.3), the standard deviations of the z-directional
motion have increased compared to those under the wave-only case
LC1.1, which indicates that the coupled current could have an
enhancing effect on the vertical response of the floating bridge. It is
worth to note that, due to an operational error or the effect of the su­
perposed current, the generated wave for the case LC2.3 was found
minor than the target wave, which mainly manifest in that the signifi­
cant wave height has been reduced by approximately 10%. Therefore,
by comparing the response data of cases LC2.1 and LC2.3 presented in
Table 8, one can reasonably believe that the above conclusion can also
be supported by the situation of 100-year condition.
Figs. 19 and 20 compare the power spectra of the motion responses

Table 8
Statistics of structural motions under different load cases.
Pontoon Midspan

Δy (mm) Δz (mm) Δrx (deg) Δy (mm) Δz (mm)

1-year condition wave only (LC1.1) Max. 40.03 2.61 0.50 38.74 3.45
Min. − 37.69 − 2.62 − 0.58 − 37.92 − 3.45
Mean 0.36 − 0.15 0.01 0.15 − 0.20
S.D. 12.38 0.79 0.15 12.26 1.11
current only (LC1.2) Max. 1.95 − 0.43 0.10 1.55 − 0.36
Min. 1.62 − 0.69 0.04 1.19 − 0.52
Mean 1.79 − 0.54 0.07 1.35 − 0.44
S.D. 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.03
wave and current (LC1.3) Max. 37.03 3.81 0.75 36.24 4.86
Min. − 33.34 − 3.76 − 0.58 − 33.75 − 4.35
Mean 1.74 − 0.26 0.10 1.10 − 0.04
S.D. 12.44 1.17 0.18 12.18 1.50
100-year condition wave only (LC2.1) Max 82.58 4.57 0.97 77.15 7.37
Min. − 77.55 − 6.06 − 0.77 − 76.34 − 8.64
Mean 0.10 − 0.32 0.02 0.01 − 0.38
S.D. 25.45 1.70 0.25 24.63 2.52
current only (LC2.2) Max. 3.72 − 0.95 0.25 2.53 − 0.72
Min. 3.14 − 1.60 0.13 2.22 − 1.06
Mean 3.42 − 1.25 0.19 2.36 − 0.88
S.D. 0.08 0.09 0.01 0.05 0.06
wave and current (LC2.3) Max. 74.85 4.81 0.76 75.29 6.70
Min. − 65.75 − 5.28 − 0.73 − 63.68 − 6.23
Mean 3.43 − 1.06 0.01 3.16 − 0.58
S.D. 23.00 1.78 0.22 22.48 2.27

14
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

Fig. 19. PSDs of the displacements of Pontoon-A: (a) y-displacement; (b) z-displacement; (c) rx-rotation.

Fig. 20. PSDs of the displacements of girder midspan: (a) y-displacement; (b) z-displacement.

15
S. Xiang et al.
of the floating bridge under LC1.1 (wave only) and LC1.3 (wave-current
combination), respectively for the Pontoon-A and the girder midspan.
From Fig. 19(a) one can see that, under the loading of wave-current
combination, the y-directional response of pontoon is still primarily
composed by the wave-excited component as the high PSD values are
located only near the peak frequency of wave. Meanwhile, although
differences are found between the PSD curves corresponding to the two
load cases, the peak frequencies and maximum values of the two spectra
are very close to each other. With the findings from the standard de­
viations and the power spectra, it can be concluded that the superposed
current would have little influence on the wave effect to the floating
bridge in the wave-incident direction, and thus the lateral displacement
response of the structure has no essential change compared to that under
the wave-only case. The same characteristics can be identified in Fig. 20
(a) that corresponds to the y-directional response of girder midspan.
Fig. 19(b) presents the power spectra of the z-directional displace­
ment of Pontoon-A under LC1.1 and LC1.3. The PSD curves corre­
sponding to the two load cases are similar in shape; in other words,
under the loading of LC1.3, the z-displacement of pontoons are also
contributed mainly by the wave excitation and the rx-resonance as that
under LC1.1. However, both of the vibration components are found
enhanced as the current has been introduced, especially for the wave-
excited response. From Fig. 20(b) one can also find an enhancement in
the wave-excited vibration for the z-displacement of girder midspan,
comparing the response spectrum under LC1.3 to that under LC1.1. The
observations from the PSD distributions have revealed the insight of the
aforementioned enhancing effect of current on the bridge’s vertical
response; that is, the enhancement in vertical vibrations is chiefly
attributed to the increase of wave excitation effect induced by the su­
perposed current.
Fig. 19(c) plots the response spectra of the pontoon rotation corre­
sponding to the loadings of LC1.1 and LC1.3. The rx-rotation of pontoon
under the case of wave-current combination is found slightly more
remarkable than that under the wave-only case, as the vibration energies
of both the wave-excited component and the rx-resonance component
have been improved, showing a promotion of the current to the wave
excitation in the rx-direction.
4.2.2. Internal forces and reactions
Table 9 compares the standard deviations of the bending moment at
girder midspan (My,midspan), as well as the reactions of vertical force and
torsional moment at girder ends (denoted by Fz,end and Mx,end, respec­
tively), between the load cases of LC1.1 and LC1.3, noting that the
presented data for end reactions are the averages of the responses at two
ends.
As the current has been introduced (i.e., LC1.3), the standard de­
viations of the midspan moment and the girder-end vertical force have
increased by 29.9% and 20.5%, respectively, compared to the wave-only
case LC1.1. The intensities in the dynamic responses of My,midspan and Fz,
end are coherent to the enhancing effect of current in the bridge’s z-
directional responses that has been discussed previously. It is worth
noting that, for such a three-span continuous beam bridges with hinge
connections between girder and piers, the responses of My,midspan and Fz,
end should vary in an equal proportion under symmetrical static loadings;
however, the increase of My,midspan in this case (i.e., 29.9%) are quite
higher than the Fz,end (increased by 20.5%). Such discrepancy (read as
9.4%) can be attributed to the effect of inertia force induced by the
girder’s weight during the vertical vibration of bridge. Taking the status
Table 9
Standard deviations of internal forces and reactions under LC1.1 and LC1.3.
Load case My, midspan (N⋅m) Fz, (N) Mx,
end end
LC1.1 0.77 1.12 1.30
LC1.3 1.0 1.35 1.29
Diff. 29.9% 20.5% − 0.8%
Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604
corresponding to the maximum displacement of the bridge vibration (as
shown in Fig. 21) for interpretation, the response of girder is the com­
bined effect of the pier displacements and the loading of the self-weight-
induced inertia force of girder. This observation suggests that the inertia
force of girder makes considerable influence on the inner forces of the
floating bridge, and it should be taken into account in the structural
dynamic design.
The dynamic responses of the torsional moments at girder ends
under LC1.1 and LC1.3 are approximately equal, indicating that the
coupled current makes limited effect on the rx-rotational excitation of
wave to the floating bridge. Besides, such response feature is also
resulted from the compliant characteristic of the girder-end constraint in
the lateral y-direction.
4.2.3. Mooring tensions
Table 10 presents the maximum, minimum, mean variations and the
standard deviations of the tension responses in mooring lines under the
considered load cases of 1-year condition, where the statistical data for
upstream and downstream mooring lines are still represented by the
responses of lines corresponding to fairleads F4 and F1, respectively.
Since the current speed is relatively low, the drag forces acting on
pontoons are limited in value, and thus the changes of mooring tensions
are generally insignificant compared to the pretensions. However, the
following response features can be drawn:
(1) Regarding to the mean variations of the mooring tensions, the
data corresponding to the wave-only case (i.e., LC1.1) are close to
zero since the wave load is approximately varying around the
zero value. For the cases of LC1.2 and LC1.3 that involving cur­
rent, relatively remarkable positive and negative changes of
tension forces are respectively found for the upstream and
downstream incline cables, and the opposite situation can be seen
for the tension legs. The mean variations of the mooring tensions
are consistent with the positive mean displacements of pontoon
in y- and rx-directions as given in Table 9.
(2) Under the loadings of LC1.1 and LC1.3, the standard deviations of
upstream incline cables are greater than those of downstream
ones (by 12.0% and 15.2%, respectively), while for the tension
legs, the standard deviations of upstream legs are read smaller
than the downstream legs (by 26.9% for LC1.1 and 19.0% for
LC1.3). Based on the phase analysis of the pontoon motions as
discussed in Section 3.3, the phase relations among the y-, z-
displacements and the rx-rotation have induced differences in the
strains of the upstream and downstream mooring lines, and thus
leading to such distinguishing responses in the tension forces.
(3) The oscillations of the tension leg forces under LC1.3 are
enhanced compared to LC1.1 as the standard deviations are read
increased by 30.6% and 17.9%, respectively for upstream and
downstream legs, while for the tensions of incline cables, minor
changes are found between the standard deviations correspond­
ing to the two load cases. The concluded features are coherent
with the structural motions as previously discussed. Specifically,
the insignificant changes in incline cable tensions correspond to
the comparable y-directional responses between the two load
cases, and the enhancements in the tension leg responses corre­
spond the increases of the pontoons’ heave motions (including
the z-displacement and rx-rotation).
5. Conclusions
A scaled model test is conducted for investigating the hydrodynamic
performance of a floating continuous beam bridge with mooring system,
(N⋅m)
under the wave and current loadings. The test campaign was imple­
mented in the circulating water channel in SKLOE, following the simi­
larity criteria of Froude and Strouhal numbers. The still water test,
regular wave test and the environmental loading test were conducted for
16
S. Xiang et al. Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604

Fig. 21. Composition of the dynamic displacement of girder.

loadings of steady environmental currents can be reasonably

Table 10
regarded as static actions. The coupling of current to the wave
Statistics of mooring tensions under 1-year load cases (Unit: N).
shows an enhancing effect on the vertical response of the floating
Incline cable Tension leg continuous beam bridge, while its influences on the lateral and
Upstream Downstream Upstream Downstream rotational responses are insignificant.
wave only Max. 8.82 7.54 1.68 2.42
(LC1.1) Min. − 7.96 − 7.29 − 1.69 − 2.21 Generally speaking, this paper gives an insight into the dynamic
Mean 0.09 − 0.07 − 0.04 − 0.03 response characteristics of the floating continuous beam bridge under
S.D. 2.70 2.41 0.49 0.67 the excitation of wave and current. The findings provide a beneficial
current only Max. 0.43 0.05 0.09 0.45
reference for the further research and design of floating bridge struc­
(LC1.2) Min. 0.06 − 0.21 − 0.57 − 0.11
Mean 0.27 − 0.07 − 0.27 0.14 tures in deep-water environment.
S.D. 0.05 0.04 0.11 0.10
wave and Max. 8.21 6.88 2.29 2.72 CRediT authorship contribution statement
current Min. − 7.07 − 6.82 − 2.33 − 2.30
(LC1.3) Mean 0.38 − 0.28 − 0.16 0.28
S.D. 2.73 2.37 0.64 0.79 Sheng Xiang: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal anal­
ysis, Funding acquisition. Bin Cheng: Conceptualization, Supervision,
Methodology, Funding acquisition. Derui Li: Methodology, Formal
the floating bridge, and the hydrodynamic responses of the structure, analysis, Writing – review & editing. Miao Tang: Formal analysis,
including the displacements, internal forces and the support reactions, Validation. Zhuo Zeng: Methodology, Validation.
have been measured by a finely established data collection system. The
recorded test data have been further processed based on statistical and
spectral analyses for investigating the structural response characteristics Declaration of Competing Interest
and the load effects. Based on the obtained results, the following main
conclusions can be drawn: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
(1) The dynamic displacement of the tested floating continuous beam the work reported in this paper.
bridge under wave loadings is dominated by the lateral vibration,
and the z-displacement and the rx-rotation are relatively small. Data availability
Due to the hyperstatic constraint of mooring system, the z- and rx-
directional motions of the floating bridge are coupled to the y- Data will be made available on request.
directional displacement in some degree, as their prominent FRF
values are concentrated near the natural frequency of y-direc­
tional movement. Acknowledgments
(2) The reactions of vertical forces and the torsional moments at
girder ends are quite limited in value, thanks to the effective The research work was supported by the National Natural Science
vertical constraint provided by the incline cables and tension Foundation of China (project No. 52278192, and No. 52208180) and the
legs. The variations of the moment at girder midspan and the Project of Science and Technology Innovation Action Plan, Shanghai,
vertical reactions at girder ends are apparently incompatible, China (project No. 20200741600). The supports are gratefully
indicating that the inertia force of girder can make considerable acknowledged.
influence on the structural responses of the floating continuous
beam bridge. References
(3) The incline cables provide both the lateral and vertical con­
Bisinotto, G.A., Mello, P.C., Filho, A.N.Q., Ianagui, A.S.S., Simos, A.N., Tannuri, E.A.,
straints for the floating bridge structure, while the tension legs 2022. Estimating wave spectra from the motions of dynamically positioned vessels:
make little contribution to the lateral constraint. Thus, the ten­ an assessment based on model tests. Appl. Ocean Res. 121, 103108.
sion responses of the incline cables are relatively significant due Cheng, Z., Gao, Z., Moan, T., 2018a. Hydrodynamic load modeling and analysis of a
floating bridge in homogeneous wave conditions. Mar. Struct. 59, 122–141.
to the prominent displacement of the structure in transverse di­ Cheng, Z., Gao, Z., Moan, T., 2018b. Wave load effect analysis of a floating bridge in a
rection, and the responses of the tension legs are comparatively fjord considering inhomogeneous wave conditions. Eng. Struct. 163, 197–214.
limited. Cheng, Z., Gao, Z., Moan, T., 2019. Numerical modeling and dynamic analysis of a
floating bridge subjected to wind, wave, and current loads. J. Offshore Mech. Arct.
(4) Under the excitations of lateral-incident wave, the intensities of
Eng. 141, 011601.
the dynamic responses of tensions in the upstream and down­ Cheng, Z., Gao, Z., Moan, T., 2020. Extreme responses and associated uncertainties for a
stream mooring lines can have discrepancies, which is correlated long end-anchored floating bridge. Eng. Struct. 219, 110858.
to the phase relations between the pontoons’ motion responses in Det Norske Veritas, 2014. Enviromental Conditions and Enviromental Loads (DNV-RP-
C205). Det Norske Veritas, Oslo, Norway.
different DOFs. The mentioned phase relations are mainly Dai, J., Leira, B.J., Moan, T., Kvittem, M.I., 2020. Inhomogeneous wave load effects on a
affected by the constraint conditions and the position of the long, straight and side-anchored floating pontoon bridge. Mar. Struct. 72, 102763.
barycenter of structure, which should be focused in the structural Dai, J., Leira, B.J., Moan, T., Alsos, H.S., 2021. Effect of wave inhomogeneity on fatigue
damage of mooring lines of a side-anchored floating bridge. Ocean Eng. 219,
design. 108304.
(5) The normal environmental currents would hardly trigger the Fredriksen, A.G., Heiervang, M.F., Larsen, P.N., Sandnes, P.L.G., Sørby, B.,
vortex-induced vibration of the floating bridge with the typical Bonnemaire, B., Nesteby, A., Nedrebø, Ø., 2019. Hydrodynamical aspects of pontoon
optimization for a side-anchored floating bridge. J. Offshore Mech. Arct. Eng. 141,
dimension comparable to the tested structure, thus the individual 31603.

17
S. Xiang et al.
Goda, Y., 1988. Statistical variability of sea state parameters as a function of wave
spectrum. Coast. Eng Jpn. 31 (1), 39–52.
He, Y., Ji, W., Ying, J., Han, B., 2021. Hydrodynamic performance of a continuous
floating bridge with heave plates. Appl. Ocean Res. 108, 102442.
Jun, Z., Wei, L., 2021. Dynamic model of a hinged-girder floating bridge subjected by
moving loads. Appl. Ocean Res. 114, 102804.
Kvåle, K.A., Øiseth, O., Rønnquist, A., 2017. Operational modal analysis of an end-
supported pontoon bridge. Eng. Struc. 148, 410–423.
Moan, T., Eidem, M.E., 2019. Floating bridges and submerged tunnels in Norway - the
history and future outlook. In: Proc., World Conf. on Floating Solution. Singapore.
Society of Floating Solutions Singapore.
Mazarakos, T.P., Mavrakos, S.A., 2012. Wave current interaction on a vertical truncated
cylinder floating in finite depth waters. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part M- J. Eng. Marit.
Environ. 227 (3), 243–255.
Monroy, C., Giorgiutti, Y., Chen, X.B., 2012. First and second order wave-current
interactions for floating bodies. In: Proceedings of the ASME 2012 31st International
Conference on Ocean. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Offshore and Arctic Engineering.
Petersen, Ø.W., Øiseth, O., 2017. Sensitivity-based finite element model updating of a
pontoon bridge. Eng. Struc. 150, 573–584.
Pan, J.N., Wang, D.T., Wang, X.G., Nie, F., 2013. Wave-current force on bridge
foundation. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Asian and Pacific
Coasts. Bali, Indonesia.
Ruzzo, C., Saha, N., Arena, F., 2019. Wave spectral analysis for design of a spar floating
wind turbine in Mediterranean Sea. Ocean. Eng. 184, 255–272.
Rodrigues, J.M., Viuff, T., Økland, O.D., 2022. Model tests of a hydroelastic truncated
floating bridge. Appl. Ocean Res. 125, 103247.
Sha, Y., Amdahl, J., Aalberg, A., Yu, Z., 2018. Numerical investigations of the dynamic
response of a floating bridge under environmental loadings. Ships Offshore Struc. 13
(sup1), 113–126.
Sha, Y., Amdahl, J., Liu, K., 2019. Design of steel bridge girders against ship forecastle
collisions. Eng. Struct. 196, 109277.
Sarpkaya, T., Isaacson, M., 1981. Mechanics of Wave Forces On Offshore Structures. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Viuff, T., Leira, B.J., Xiang, X., Øiseth, O., 2019. Effects of wave directionality on extreme
response for a long end-anchored floating bridge. Appl. Ocean Res. 90, 101843.
Viuff, T., Xiang, X., Leira, B.J., Øiseth, O., 2020a. Software-to-software comparison of
end-anchored floating bridge global analysis. J. Bridge Eng. 25 (5), 04020022.
18
Applied Ocean Research 137 (2023) 103604
Viuff, T., Xiang, X., Øiseth, O., Leira, B.J., 2020b. Model uncertainty assessment for
wave- and current-induced global response of a curved floating pontoon bridge.
Appl. Ocean Res. 105, 102368.
Watanabe, E., 2003. Floating bridges: past and present. Struct. Eng. Int. 13 (2), 128–132.
Wan, L., Gao, Z., Moan, T., 2015. Experimental and numerical study of hydrodynamic
responses of a combined wind and wave energy converter concept in survival modes.
Coast. Eng. 104, 151–169.
Wang, J., Cheynet, E., Snæbjörnsson, J.Þ., Jakobsen, J.B., 2018. Coupled aerodynamic
and hydrodynamic response of a long span bridge suspended from floating towers.
J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerod. 177, 19–31.
Wei, W., Fu, S., Moan, T., Song, C., Deng, S., Lie, H., 2019. A time-domain method for
hydroelasticity of a curved floating bridge in inhomogeneous waves. J. Offshore
Mech. Arct. Eng. 141, 014501.
Wei, K., Zhang, F., Zhang, M., Mei, D., Qin, S., 2021. Influence of the sag-to-span ratio on
the dynamic response of a long-span bridge suspended from floating towers under
wave and wind loads. Ships Offshore Struc 17 (5), 1023–1041.
Wan, L., Dai, J., Jiang, D., Ang, K.K., 2021. Parametric study and dynamic response
analysis of three single curved discrete pontoon floating bridges. Ships Offshore
Struc 17 (8), 1788–1801.
Xu, Y., Øiseth, O., Moan, T., 2018a. Time domain simulations of wind- and wave-induced
load effects on a three-span suspension bridge with two floating pylons. Mar. Struct.
58, 434–452.
Xu, Y., Øiseth, O., Moan, T., Naess, A., 2018b. Prediction of long-term extreme load
effects due to wave and wind actions for cable-supported bridges with floating
pylons. Eng. Struct. 172, 321–333.
Xiang, S., Cheng, B., Miao, T., Abdelbaset, H., 2022. Effects of spatial inhomogeneity of
wave excitations on structural behaviors of multi-span floating bridges. Ocean Eng
243, 110340.
Xiang, X., Svangstu, E., Nedrebø, Ø., Jakobsen, B., Eidem, M.E., Larsen, P.N., Sørby, B.,
2017. Viscous damping modelling of floating bridge pontoons with heaving skirt and
its impact on bridge girder bending moments. In: Proceedings of the 36th
International Conference on Ocean. Trondheim, Norway. Offshore and Arctic
Engineering.
Xiao, L., Lu, H., Tao, L., Yang, L., 2017. LH-moment estimation for statistical analysis on
the wave crest distributions of a deepwater spar platform model test. Mar. Struct. 52,
15–33.