VectorAnalysis 10032899

VE C T O R AN A L YSIS
A TE XT-B O O K F O R T H E U SE O F S TU D E N T S
OF M ATH E M ATICS AN D P H YS ICS
F O UN D E D UP ON TH E L E C T UR E S OF
JWIL L A R D
. G IB B S, P H D . LL D. .
P rofe s s o r f M a th e m a tic a l
o P by s z c s i n Ya le Un ive rs ity
E D WI N B ID WE L L WIL SO N , PH D . .
In s t ru c t o r i n M a t/i n n a t ic s in Ya le Un ive rs ity
N EW YO RK : C H ARLE S S CRI N ER ’ S S O N S B
LO N DO N : EDWARD ARN O LD
1 901
B Y YA L E U NIV E S I R TY .
P u bl i s h e d , De c e mb e r , 1 9 01 .
U
AN D
NIV ITY PCAM B IDJOG N IL ON
ERS
SO N
RESS
R
H
E,
W
U S A
.
S
. .
P RE FA CE B Y P R OFE SSOR G IB B S
SIN C E the printing of a short pamphl et on the E le m e n ts of

Ve c t o r An a ly s is in the years 1 88 1 -8 4 never published but , ,
somewhat widely circulated among those who were known t o

b e interested in the sub ject the desire has been e xpressed
,
in more than one quarter that the sub stance of that t rea,
tise perhaps in fuller form should be made accessib le t o

, ,
the pub lic

y
.
A s however the
, , ears passed without my fi ndi ng the
leisure to meet this want which seemed a real one I was
, ,
very glad to have one of the hearers of my course on Vec t or

A nalysis in the year 1 8 9 9—1 900 undertake the preparation of
a tex t-b ook on the sub ject .
I have not desired t hat Dr Wilson should aim simply .
at the reproduction of my lectures but rather that he shoul d ,
use his own judgment in all respects for the production of a

te x t b ook in which the subject should be so illustrated b y an
-
adequat e numb er of e x amples as to meet the wants of s t u

dents o i geometr and ph sics y y .
JWILLARD
. GI BB S .
YALE U NI ER S ITY
V , Se p t e m be r
, 1 9 01 .
ENG INEERIHG l
G EN E RA L P REFA CE
WH EN I undertook to adapt the lectures of P rofessor G ibbs

on VE CTOR A N A LY S IS for pub lication in the Yale B ic e n t e n
nial Series Professor G ibb s himself was already so fully
,
engaged upon his work to appear in the same series E le m e n t a ry ,
P r in c ip les i n St a ti s ti c a l M e c h a n ic s that it w a s understood no

,
material assistance in the composition of this book could b e

e xpected from him Fo r thi s reason he wished me to feel
.
entirely free to use my own di scretion ali ke in t h e selection

of the topics to b e treated and in t h e mode of treatment .
It has been my endeavor to use the freedom thus granted

y
only in so far as was necessar for presenting his m e t hod in
te x t-book form .
B y far the greater part of the material used in th e follow

ing pages has been taken from the course of lectures on
V ector A nalysis delivered annually at the Universit by y
Professor G ib bs Some us e however has been made of the
.
, ,
chapters on V ector A nalysis in Mr O liver H e a vis ide s E le c

.
’
t ro m a gn e tic Th e o ry ( Electrician Series 1 8 9 3 ) and in P rofessor

,
Fop p l s lectures on D ie M a xwe ll s c h e Th e o ri e de r E le c t ric i t ci t

’ ’ ’
( T e u b ner
, M y previous study of Q uaternio n s has
also b een of great assistance .
Th e m aterial thus o b t ained has been arranged in the way

whi ch seems b est suited to easy mastery of the sub jec t .
Those Arts whi ch it seemed b est to incorporate in the

.
te x t b u t which for various reasons may well b e omitted at

the fi rst readi ng have b een marked with an asterisk Nu
m e ro u s illustra t ive e x amples have been dra wn from geometry ,
mechani c s and physics Indeed a large part of the te x t has

, .
,
to do wi t h applications of the met hod These application s .
have not been set apart in chapters b y themselves b u t have ,

G E N E RAL P RE FA CE
b een distributed throughout t h e b ody of the book as fast as

the analysis has b een developed su ffi ciently for t heir adequate
treat men t It is hoped t hat b y t his means t h e reader may b e
.
b e t t er enab led t o mak e prac t ical use of the book G rea t care .
has b een t a k en in avoidi ng t h e introduction of unnecessary

ideas and in so illus t ra t ing each idea that is introduced as
,
to mak e its necess it y evident and its meani ng easy to grasp .
Thus t h e b ook is not intended as a complete e x position of

the t heory of Vector Analysis b u t as a te xt-b o ok from whi ch
,
so much of t h e sub jec t as may b e required for practical a p p li

cations may b e learned Hence a summar inclu di ng a list
. y ,
of t h e more important formul ae and a num b er of e x erc ises

, ,
have b een placed a t t h e end of each chapter and many less ,
e s sen t ial points in the te x t have b een indica t ed rather t han

fully worked o u t in t h e hope that t h e reader will supply th e
,
de t ails Th e sum mary may b e found useful in revie ws and

.
for reference .
Th e s ub ject of Vector A nalysis naturally divides i t self into

three di stinc t part s Firs t t hat whi ch concerns addi t ion and
.
,
the scalar and vector produc t s of vectors Second that which .

,
concerns the differential and i ntegral calculus in it s relations

to scalar and vector func t ions Third that which contain s
.
,
the theory of the lin ear vector function Th e fir st part is .
a necessary introdu c t ion to b oth other parts Th e second .
and t hird are mutually independent Ei t her may be taken .
up fi rst Fo r practic al purposes in mathema t ical physics the

.
second must b e regarded as more elementary than the t hird .
B u t a studen t not prima ri ly in t ereste d in physics would nat

u ra ll
y pass from the fi rst part t o the t hird which he would ,
pro b ab ly fi n d more attrac t ive and easy than the second .
Follo wi ng thi s division of t h e sub ject the main b ody of ,
the b ook is divided into s ix chap t ers of which two deal wi t h

each of the three part s in the order named Chapters I and . .
II treat of addi t ion su b trac t ion scalar mul t iplica t ion and
.
, , ,
t h e scalar and vector products of vectors Th e e x po s i t ion.
h a s b een made quite elementary It can rea di ly b e under

.
stood b y and is especially suited for such readers as have a

k nowledge of only the elements of Trigonometry and An a
lytic G eometr y
Those who are w ell versed in Q uaternions
.
or allied sub jects may perhaps need to read only t h e s u m

m a ries Cha pters III and IV c ontain the treat ment of
. . .
those topics in Vecto r A nalysis which t hough of les s value ,
to the studen t s of pure mathematics are of the utmost impor ,
t a nce t o students of physics Chapters V and VI deal wi t h

. . .
the linear vector function To s t udents of physics t h e linear

.
vector function is of particular importance in the m a t h e m a t i

cal trea t ment o f phenomena conn ected with non isotropic -
media ; and to the student of pure ma t hemati cs t his part of

the b ook will prob ab ly b e the most interesting of all o win g ,
t o the fact tha t it lea ds to M ulti ple A lge b ra or the Theory

of Matrices A concluding chapter VII which con t ains the
.
,
.
,
development of cert ain hi gher parts of the theory a num b er ,
of applica t ions and a short sketch of imaginary or comple x

,
vectors has b een added

, .
In the treatment of the integral calculus Chapter IV , .

,
questions of mathematical rigor arise Al t hough modern .
theoris ts are devoting much time and thought to rigor and ,
al t hough they will doub tless cri t icise this portion of the b ook
adversely it has been deemed b est to give b u t li ttle attention
,
to t h e disc u ssion of this sub ject An d the more so for the

.
reason that whatever system of notation b e employed ques

tions of rigor are indissolub ly associate d wi t h t h e c a lc u lus
y
and occasion no n e w diffi cul t to t h e s t udent of V ector
A nalysis who must fi rst learn what the facts are and may
,
pos t pone until later the detailed consideration of the re s t ric

tions that are put upon those facts .
N otwi t hstan di ng t h e e fforts which have b een made dur ing

more than half a century to introduce Q uaternions in to
physics the fact remains that t hey ha ve not fou nd wi de favor .
O n the o t her hand there has b e en a growing tendency espe

c ia ll
y in the l a st decade toward the adoption of some form of
V ector A nalysis Th e works of Heaviside and Fo p p l re
.
ferred to b efore may be cited in evidence A s yet ho wever .
no system of V ector Analys is whi ch makes any claim to

completeness has b een publ is hed In fact Heavi side s ays : .
“
I am in hopes that the chapter whi ch I now fi ni sh may
xii G E N E R AL P R E FA C E
serve as a stopgap till r e gular vectorial treatises come to be

wri t t en suitab le for physicis t s b ased upon the vectorial treat
,
ment of vectors ( Elec t romagne t ic Theory Vo l I p , . .

, .
E ls e where in the same chapter Heaviside has set fort h the

claims of vector analysis a s against Q uaternions and others ,
have e xpre s s ed similar views .
Th e k eynote then to any system of vector analysis must

, ,
b e its prac t ical utility This I feel con fi dent was P rofessor
.
, ,
G ib bs s po int of view in b uil di ng up his system He us es it

’
.
entirely in his cours es on Electricit y and M agne t is m and on

Elec t romagne t ic Theory of L
ight In writing this b ook I
.
have t ried to present the sub ject from this prac t ical s t and
point and keep clearly before t h e reader s mind the ques
,
’
t ions : What comb inations or functions of vectors occur in

physics and geometry ? A n d how m a y these be represented
symb olically in t h e way b es t sui t ed to facile anal t ic manip y
ula t io n ? Th e t reatmen t of these que s t ions in modern b ooks
on phys ics has b een too much confi ned to the addi tion and
sub t raction of vectors This is scarcely enough It has
. .
b een the aim here to give also an e x position of scalar and

vector products of the Operator v of divergence and curl
, ,
which have gained such universal recognition since the a p

p e a ra n c e of M a x well s Tre a t is e o n E le c tri c i ty a n d M a gn e tis m
’
,
of slope po t ential linear vector function etc such as shall

, , , .
,
be adequat e for t h e needs of students of physics at the

present day and adapted to them .
It has b een asserted by some that Q uaternions V ector ,
A nalysis and all such alge b ras are of little value for investi
,
ga t ing ques t ions l n mathematical physics Whe t her this .
assert ion shall prove true or not one may s t ill maintain that,
vectors are to ma t hematical phys ics what invariants are to

geometry A s every geometer must b e thoroughl y conver
y
.
sant with the ideas of invariants so every student of ph sics ,
shou ld be ab le to t hin k in terms of vecto rs A n d there is .
no way in which he espe c ially a t t h e b eginning of his sci

,
e n t ifi c studies can come to so true an appreciation of t h e

,
import an c e of vecto rs and of the ideas connected with t hem

as by working in Vector A nalysis and dealing directly with
GE N E RA L P RE FA CE i
x ii
r
the vecto s themselves To those that hold these views the
.
success of P rofessor Fop p l s Vo rle s u n ge n itbe r Te c h n is c h e

’
M e c h a n i le ( four volum es Te u b n e r 1 8 9 7 —1 9 00 already in a

, , ,
second edi t ion ) in which the t heory of mechanics is devel

,
oped b y means o f a vector analysis can be b u t an e n c o u r ,
aging sign .
I t ake pleasure in tha nking my colleagues D r M B P o rt e r , . . .
and P rof H A B umstead for assist in g m e wit h t h e m a nu

'
. . .
,
script Th e good servi ces o f the latte r have been particularly

.
valuab le in arrangin g Chapters III and IV in their present . .
form and in suggesting many of the illustrations used in the

work I am also un der ob ligations to my father Mr E dwin
.
, .
H Wilson for help in connec t ion both wi t h the proofs and

.
,
the manuscript Finally I wish to e xpress my deep indeb t

.
,
e dn e s s to P rofessor G i bb s Fo r although he h a s been so

.
preoccupied as to be u nable t o read ei t her manuscript or

proof he h a s always b een ready to talk matte rs over with
,
me and it is he who has furnished me with inspiration suf

,
y
fi c ie n t to carr through the work .
ED WIN B ID WE LL WIL S O N .
YA L E U NI E S I
V R TY , O c to b e r , 1 901 .
TA B LE O F C O N TE N TS
PREFAC E BY ROFE SSOR GIBBS

P
G ENERA L REFAC E
P
CHA P TE R I
AD D ITION A ND S C ALAR M ULTIP LICATION
S CAUALALR SANDANDNULLECTORVECTOR
VS
P OINT OF VIEW OF T I S C AP TER
EQ S
TH
S CADDITION
E
L AR MU L TI PL ICATION NE G ATIV E S IGN

P A A LL E L OGRAM L AW
.
H
TH E
H
A
S UAWB TRACTION . TH E R
S G OVERNING T E FOREGOING O P ERATION S

L
C OM PONENT
T RE S OF VECTOR S
E UNIT VECTOR S
H
ECTOR E .UATION VS Q
PPL IC A TION S S UNDRY P RO B L EM S IN G EOMETRY

TH E H i, jk
,
E CTOR RE L ATION S INDE P ENDENT OF T E ORIGIN

A To .
V
C ENTERU S ES OFOF GRAVITY
V ARYC E NTRIC CO RDIN A T E S
E CTOR S TO DENOT E AREA S
. B
H
O
TH
S U MARY OFON CC AAPPTERT E R I I
M
E
E xE R CI SE S
H
H
CH AP TE R II
D IRE C T AN D S KE W P R OD U C TS OF VECTORS
2 7 28 TH E DIRECT S CA LA R OR DOT P RODUCT OF

DIS SEWTRIBVECTOR
UTIVE L AWOR CRO
,
A ND APPL ICATION S
, Two VE CTOR S 55
SS PRODUCT OF VECTOR S
2 9—3 0 TH E 58
3 1 —3 3
3 4—3 5
36
TH
TH
TH
E
E
DITRIS TRILEB UTIV
K
P
,
E L AW A ND A PPL ICATION S
P RODUCT
,
B A
°
C
Two 60
63
67
x vi
C ON TE N TS
TH E CA
VECTOR
S L AR TRI
TRI PLE P RODUCT
PL E P RODUCT
B B OR A°
x0 [ A B C]
TH E
P RODUCT
CATION S OF MORE T AN T REE VECTOR S WIT
RIGONOMETRY H H
A X ( X C)
H A P P LI
R ECI P ROCA L S Y S TEM S OF T RE E V E CTOR S

OLAUTION
S
OF
To T
S CA L AR AND V E CTOR E UATION S L INE A R IN

H
S
N
YINEMATIC UN NOWN VECTOR
S TEM S OF FORCE S A CTING ON A RIGID B OD
K
Q
S OF A RI G ID B ODY
S Y
K
C ONDITION
ETLATION S FOR E UI L I B RIUM OF A RI G ID B ODY
S B ETWEEN
Q
OF
R
REE
ROUMMARY
H P ER P ENDICU L AR UNIT VECTOR S
T wo
B L EM S IN G EOMETRY L ANAR CO RDI ATE S

J R I G H TZH AN DE D Y ST E M S
P
S
E xE R C ISE S
OFONC C AAPTER
H
H
II
P ER IIT
. P O N
C H AP TER III
TH E DIFFE REN TIAL C ALCUL U S OF VE C TOR S
5 5— 5 6 DE RIVATIVE S AND DIFFER A E NTI AL S OF VECTOR FUNCTION S

S CA L AR ARIA B L E
C
W
URVATURE
INEMATIC A ND TOR S ION OF GAUC E CURV S
E SP EQ .
To
S OF A P ARTIC LE ODOGRA
V
H E
K
TH
NTE IN S TANTANEOU S
G RATION W T APPL IC A TION S
E OF ROTATION
A x rs
INEM
.P TH E H
A TIC S
H
I
S CALARECTORFUNCTION S OF PO S ITION IN S PACE
I H
DIFFERENTIATING O P ERATOR
To K
S CA L A O P ERATOR
TH E V
TH
ECTOR FUNCTIONS OF POSITIO PA E
E R A jz o
V N IN § Q
I NTER
NTER P RETATION OF T E
PR E TATION OF T E CUR L
H D IV E R G ENQ E V
I
L AWSPOFARTIAO PERATION OF
L A PPL ICATION OF
H
V V
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A VEC
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TOR FUNCTION A NALOGOU S AYLOR S EOREM
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V E x P A N SIO N
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To T
’
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77 TH EDIFFERENTIATING O P ERATOR S OF T E S ECOND OR E R

G EOMETRIC INTER PRETATION OF A PLA C E S O P ERATOR
H D
1 59
1 66
78
T E DI S PE R S ION
L
’
S UMMARY OFONC C AAPTER

V V
Ex E R CISE S
As H
III
PT E R III
H
H
C ON TE N TS XVII
CH AP TE R IV
L
TH E INTEGRAL
INTIONE INTEGRA L S OF VECTOR FUNCTION S WIT APPL ICA

A
C ALC UL U S OF VE CTORS
H
P GE
G AU SS S EOREM
S
’
TH
C
T
ONVER S E OF TO E S S EOR E M WIT APPL ICATION S
RAN S FORMATION S OF LINE S URFACE AND VOL UM E
S K
’
TH H
IN
, ,
R EMAR
OTENTIA S ON M U L TI PL E VA L UED FUNCTION S
K
INTEGRATING O P ERATOR
-
OMMUTATIVE L
PRO P ERTY OF
TH
AND POT
“
P . E
C
R EMARINTES GURATIN
P ON T E FOREGOING
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G O P ERATOR S
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P OT V
TH
E LATION S B OETWEEN T E INTEGRATING AND DIFF ER
N E W, LA P , MAx
“ ” “ ” “
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P ERATOR S
R H
P OTENTIA L A S O L UTION OF OI SS ON S
E N TIA T I N G
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’
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POT Is
9 3 94 SOFUNCTION
L ENOIDA L AND IRROT A TIONA L P ART S OF A VECTOR
EQ
ERTAIN O P ERATOR S AND T EIR INVER S E

‘
M UTUA L OTENTIA L S EWTONIAN S APL ACIAN S AND

. C H
P ,
N , L ,
CERTAIN B OUND A RY VA L UE T EOR E M S

M A X WE L L IA N S
UMMARY OF C A P TER IV
H
E RCI S E S ON C A P TER IV
S H
EX H
CHA P TE R V
LINE AR VE C TO R F UN C TIONS
INE A R VECTOR FUNCTION S DEFIN E D
D YADIC S DEFINED
L
L IN E AR VECTOR FUNCTION MAY B E RE PR E S ENTED

B Y A DYADIC RO P ERTIE S OF DY A DIC S
AN Y
TH NONION
DYAD
E
ORFORM OF A DYADIC
INDETERMINATE
. P
P RODUCT OF VEC
TH
TOR
OF TS I S T E MO S T GENERA L
E
E UNCTIONA
S CA L AR AND VECTOR P RODUCT S
H L P RO P ERTY . F
Two
RODUCT S OF DYADIC S
H
D EGREE S OF NU LL IT OF DYADIC S
P
TH IDEMF ACTOR
E
Y
XVI II
0 0 .
C ON TE N TS
R ECI P ROCA L DY A DIC S

ONS ELUFGCON
ATE U GDYADIC OWER
E S A ND ROOT S OF DYADIC S
L F CON U G ATE AND ANTI
. P
C J
ATE P ART S OF A DYADIC
S S J
.
-
NTI S ELF UADRANTA

CON UGATEL DYADIC S
J
VECTOR PROD
-
1 1 2 -1 1 4 A - - J . TH E
EDUCTION
UCT .
OF Q
DYADIC NORMA
D OU B L E MU L TI PL ICATION OF DYADIC S
R S L FORM
V E R SO R S
To
S ECOND AND T IRD OF A DYADIC

CONDITION
TH
ONION
E
S FOR DIFFERENT DEGREE S OF NU LL ITY

FORM D ETERMINANT S
H
N
INVARIUATION
A NT S OF A DYADIC
.
H A MI L TON A Y LE Y
. TH E - C
SUMMARY
EX
EQ
OF C A P TER V
ERCI S E S ON C A PTER H
H v
CH AP TE R VI
ROTATION S AN D S TRAIN S
H OMOGENEOU
OTATION S S TRAIN RE PRE S ENTED B Y A DY A DIC
S A OUT A FI ED POINT
R
VECTOR
BIYCUADRANTA
TH E S EMI TANGENT OF VER S ION
B
AND T EIR P RODUCT S

-
X . VE R SO R S
L IC DYADIC S
Q L V E R SO R S H
C
R IGONICTS TENANDSOR S
H
T
R EDUCTION OF DYADIC S TO CANONICA L FORM S TONIC S
C Y C L O TO N I C S
S IM PL E AND S EARER S
, ,
UMMARY OF C A PTER VI
C Y C L O TO N I C S ,
S H
C o M P L Ex H
CH AP TE R VII
MIS C E LL AN EOU S AP P LICATION S
1 36 1 42 QUADRIC S URFACE S
P RO PAG ATION OF IG T IN CRY S TA L S
1 4 3 -1 4 6
1 4 7— 1 4 8 VARIA
TH E
B L E DYADIC S
URVATUR E OF S URFACE S
L H
H A MONIC I B RATION S AND

1 4 9 —1 5 7 C
1 5 8 -1 6 2 R V B IV E C T O R S
c i Cf/
VE C TOR A N AL YSI S
,
t
Th e p o s i ti ve a n d n e ga tive n u m be rs o f o rdi n a ry a lge bra a re the

typ ic a l s c a l a rs this reason th e ordinary
Fo r alge b ra is called
y
.
s c a la r alge b ra when necessar t o distinguish it from the ve c to r
algeb ra or analys is which is the sub ject of thi s book .
n s la
Th e typ ic a l ve c to r is the disp la c emen t o f t ra tio n i n
L et
sp a c e .
C onsider fi rst a point P ( Fig . P b e di splaced in a

straight line and take a new position P ’
.
This change of position is represented by the

1 line P P Th e magnitude of the di splace
'
'
~
.
ment is the lengt h of P P ; the direction of ’
it is the direction of the li ne P P fro m P to ’
P N e x t cons ider a displacement not of one

’
L
.
,
F G 1I
but of all the points in space
. .
et all the .
points move in s t raight li nes in t h e same direction and for the

same dista nce D This is equivalent to shifting space as a
.
rigid b ody in t hat direction through t h e dis t ance D without

ro t ation Such a displacement is called a tra n s la tio n It
. .
possesses di rection and magnitude When Space undergoes .
a translation T each point of Space undergoes a displacemen t

i
,
equal to T in magnitude and d rection ; and conversely if

t h e displacement P P which any one particular point P s u f
’
fers in t h e translati on T is known then that of any other

l
,
point Q is a so known : for Q Q must b e equal and parall el ’
to P P ’
.
Th e translation T is represented geometrically or graphically

by an arrow T ( Fig 1 ) of which the magn itu de and direction
.
are equal to those of the translation Th e ab solute position .
of th is arrow in Spa ce is entirely immate rial Technically the .
arrow is called a s tro ke Its tail or initial point is its o rigi n ;

.
and its he a d or fi nal point its te rm in u s In the fi gure the , .
origin is designated by 0 and the terminus b y T Thi s geo .
metri c quanti t y a stroke is used as the mathematical sym b ol

, ,
for all vectors jus t as the ordinary positive and negative num
,
bers are used as the symbols for all scalars .

A DDI TION AND S CA LAR M UL TIP LI CA TI ON 3
ex amples of scalar quantities mass ti me den

As , ,
s ity and temperature have been mentioned

, O thers are di s .
tance volume moment of inertia work etc Magnitude

, , , , .
,
however is b y no means the sole propert y of these quantities

, .
Each implies somethi ng b esides m a gni t ude E ach has its

i
.
own d stingu ishing characte ristics as an e xample of which ,
its dim e n s i o n s in the sense well known to physicists may

be cited A distance 3 a time 3 a work 3 etc are ver
.
, , , .
,
y
differen t Th e magnitude 3 is ho wever a prope rty common , ,
to them all — perhaps the only one O f a l l scalar quanti .
tities p u re n u m be r is the Simplest It implies nothing but

y
.
magnitude It is the scalar p a r e xc e lle n c e and consequentl

l
.
it is used as the mathemat ical symbol for all sca ars .
A s e x amples of vector quantiti e s force displacement velo , ,
city and acceleration have been given Each of these has

, .
other characteristi cs than those which b elong to a vecto r pure

and Simple Th e concept of vec to r involves t wo ideas and
.
two alone — magnitude of the vector and direction of the

i
vector B u t force s more complicate d When it is applied
y
. .
to a rigid bod the lin e in which it a cts must b e taken into

consideration ; magnitude and di rection alone do not suf
fice . An d in cas e it is applied to a non -rigid bo dy the p o i n t
of application of the force is as important as the magnitude or
direc t ion Such is frequen t ly true for vector quantit ies other
.
tha n force M oreover t h e question of dimensions is present

.
as in the case of scalar quantities Th e mathematical vector .

,
t h e s t roke which is the primary object of consideration in

,
t hi s b ook a b s t racts from all directed quantities their m agni

,
tude and di rection and nothing but t hese ; jus t as the mat he
m a ti c a l scalar pure numb er abstracts the magni t ude and
, ,
that alone Hence one must b e on his guard lest from

.
analogy he attribute some properties to the mathematical

vector which do not belong to it ; and he must be even more
careful lest he Obta in erroneous results b considering the y
4 VE C TOR A N AL YSIS
vector quantities of physics as possessing no properties other

than th o se of the mat hemat ical vector Fo r e x ample it would .
never do to consider force and its e ffects as unaltered b y

s h ift ing it parallel t o it s elf This warnin g may not be .
necessary yet it may pos s ib ly s ave some confusion

,
.
Inasmuch as taken in its entirety a vector or stroke

, ,
is b u t a Single concept it may appropriately be designated b y

,
one let ter O wing however to the fundamental di fference

.
be tween scalars and vecto rs it is necessary to dis t inguish ,
caref u lly t h e one from the o t her Sometimes as in mathe

l
.
,
m a t ic a l physics t h e distinction is furnished b y the physica

,
int erpreta t ion Thus if n b e the inde x of refraction it

.
must b e scalar ; m the mass and t the time are also , , , ,
scalars ; b u t f t h e force and a the acceleration are

, , , ,
vectors When however t h e letters are regarded merely

.
, ,
symb ols with no particular physical signi fi cance some

y
as
t pographical difference must b e relied upon to distinguish

vectors from scalars Hence in this b ook Clar e n do n typ e is
.
used for sett ing up vectors and ordinary type for scalars .
This permits t h e use of t h e same letter di fle re n t ly printed

to represent the vector and its scalar magnitude } Thus if
G b e t h e electric current in magni t ude and direction 0 may ,
b e used to represent the magnitude of tha t current ; if g b e

the vector acceleration due to gravity g may be the s calar ,
value of that acceleration ; if v b e the veloci t y of a moving

mass v may b e the magni t ude of that velocit y Th e use of
, .
Clarendons to denote vecto rs makes it possi b le to pass from

directed quan t i t ies to t heir scalar magnitudes by a mere
change in t h e appearance of a letter wi t hout any confusing
change in the lette r itself
fi
.
De n i t io n Two vectors are said to b e e qu a l when they have

the same magnitude and t h e same direction
m m
.
1 Th i s i
c o n ve n t o n , by n o e a n s i n va ria bl y fo llo we d In
h o we ve r, is . so e
in s t a n c e s it wo ul d p ro ve j us t a s u n d e s i ra bl e a s it is c o n ve n i e n t in o t h e rs . It is
c h i e fly va l ua bl e in t h e a ppl i c a t i o n o f ve c t o rs t o p h y s i c s .
A DDI TI ON A N D S CA LAR M UL TIP LI CA TI ON 5
equali t
Th e y of two vectors A and B is denoted by the
usual Sign Thus
A B .
Evidently a vector or stroke is not a ltered b shi fting it y

ab out p a r a lle l to itself in space Hence any vector A P P .
’
( Fig 1 ) may b e dr a wn from any a s signed point 0 as origin

.
for t h e segment P P may b e moved parallel to itself unt il

’
the point P fal ls upon the poin t 0 and P upon some po nt T ’

i .
Th e n
In y
this wa all vectors in space may b e replaced by directed
segments radiating from one fi x ed point 0. E qual vectors
in space will of course coincide when placed with their ter ,
mini a t the same point 0 Thus ( Fig 1 ) A P P and B Q Q

. .
’
,
’
,
b o th fall upon T 0T .
Fo r the numerical determination of a vector th re e scalars

are necessary These may be chosen in a variet of ways
. y .
If r ,
0 b e polar co ordinates in Space any vector r drawn
wi t h its origin at th e origin of co ordinates may be represented ’
by the three scalars r (I) 9 which determine the terminus of

, ,
the vector S (
.
7 , q,
Or if x y z be Cartesian coordi na te s in space a vector r may

, ,
be considered as given b y the differences of the co ordinates as ’

,
y z of its term inus and those at y z of its origin

’ ’
, , ,
.
r - co r - r
, y y , z
If in particul ar the origin of the vector co ncide with the i

origin of c o Ordi n a t e s the vector will b e represented by the
,
three co ordin ates of its termi nus

y"
l 1
(m 2
)
r r
,
When tw o vecto s are equal the three scala s which re p e r
sent them must b e equal respecti vely each to each Hence

y
.
one vector equalit implies th ree scalar equali t ies .

6 VE C TOR A N AL YS I S
De fivector A is said to be e ua to z e ro when its

n i ti on A q l
magnit ude A is z ero .
Such a vector A is called a n u ll or z e ro vec to r and is writte n

equal to naught in the usual manner Thus .
A = O if A = 0 .
All null vectors are regarded as equ al to each other w thout i

any considerat ions of direction .
In fact a n u ll vec t or from a geometrical standpoint woul d

b e represented b y a linear segment of length z ero that is to
say b y a point It consequently woul d have a W holly inde
, .
terminate direction or what amounts to t h e same thing none at

y
, ,
all If however it b e regarded as the limit approached b a

.
, ,
vector of fi n i te length it might be considered to have that

i
,
d rection which is the limit approached by the direction of the

fi ni t e vector when t h e lengt h decreases inde fi ni t ely and a p
,
p ro a c h e s z ero as a limit Th e jus t ifi cation for di sregar

. di ng
this direction and looking upon all n ul l vectors as equal is
tha t when they are added ( Art 8 ) to other vectors no change .
occurs and when mul t iplied ( Arts 2 7 3 1 ) b y o t her vectors .

,
the product is z ero .
In e x tending to vectors the fundamental Opera t ions

of algebra and arithmetic namely addition sub traction and , , , ,
multiplication care must be e x ercised not only to avoid self

y
,
contradictor de fi nitions b u t also to lay down u seful ones .
B oth these ends may be accompl ished most naturally and

easil y b y looking to physics ( for in that science vectors con
t in u a ll y present themselves ) and b y observing how such
quantiti es are treated there If then A be a given displace .
ment force or velocity what is t wo three or in general 3:

, , , , ,
t imes A ? Wha t the negative of A ? An d if B be ano t her

, ,
what is the sum of A and B ? That is to say what is the ,
equivalent of A and B taken together ? Th e obvious answers

to these questi ons suggest immedi ately the desired de fi nitions .
A DD I TI ON A ND S CA LAR M UL TIP LI CA TI ON 7
Sc a la r M u ltip lic a t io n
De fi vector is said to be mul tiplied b a

n i tio n A y
positive scalar when its magni t ude is mul tiplied by that scalar
and its direction is left unaltere d
.
Thus if V be a velocity of nine knots E ast b y N orth times

y
,
v is a velocity of t went -one k nots with the di rection still

E ast b y N orth O r if f be the force e x erted upon the scale
.
pan b y a gram weight 1 000 times f is the force e x erted b y a

,
kilogram Th e direction in both cases is verti cally down

.
ward
r
.
If A be the vector and a: the scalar the p oduct of ac and A is

denoted as usual by
a: A or A cc .
It is however more customar to place the scalar multiplier

, , y
before the multipli cand A This multiplicati on by a scalar
.
is called s c a la r m u ltip lic a tio n and it follows the assoc iati ve law
,
y
as in or di nar algebra and arithmetic This statement is im
y
.
me di atel ob vious when the fact is taken into consideration

that scal a r mul tiplication does not alter directi on but merely
multiplies the length
fi y
.
De n i tio n : A u n i t vector is one whose magnitude is uni t .
A n y vector A may be looked upon as the product of a unit

vector a in its di rection b y the positive sca ar A its magni l ,
tude .
A A a
Th eunit vector a may similarly be written as the product of

q
A by l /A or as the uotient of A and A .
8 VE C TOR A N A L YS I S
De fi negative Sign
n i tio n : Th epre fix ed to a vector ,
re ve rs e s its di rection b u t leaves its magni tude un changed .
Fo r e x ample if A b e a displacement for two feet to t h e right ,
A is a di s placement for two feet to the left A gain if the .
s t roke A B b e A the stroke B A whi ch is of the same length

, ,
as A B b u t whi ch is in the direction from B to A instead of

from A to B will be A A nother ill ustration of the use
i
.
,
of t h e negative S gn ma y b e taken from N ewton s th ird la w ’
of motion If A denote an action

. A will denote t h e “
,
”
reaction Th e positive Sign

.
”
may be prefi x ed to a vec ,
tor to call particular at tention to the fact that t h e direction

has not been reversed Th e two signs and when used .
in connection wi t h scalar m ul tiplication of vectors foll ow the

same laws of operation as in ordi nary algebra Thes e are .
symboli cally
— A) .
Th e interpretation is ob vious .
A ddi tio n a nd Su btra c ti o n
addi tion of t wo vectors or strokes may be treated

Th e
mos t simply b y regarding them as de fi n ing translatio n s in
space (Art L
et S b e one vector and T the other
. et P . L
be a poin t of space ( Fig Th e trans .
lat ion S carries P into P such that the ’
li ne P P is equal to S in magni tude and ’
direction Th e transformation T will then

y
.
carr P into P ”
the line P P b eing ’ ’ ”
parallel to T and equal to it in magnitude .
Fm 2 . Consequently the result of S follo wed by

,
T is to carry t h e point P into the point

P ”
If now Q be any other point in space S will carry Q
.
,
in t o Q such that QQ S and T will then carry Q into Q

’ ’ ’ ”
10 VE C TOR A N A L YS IS
s q y p
e uentl the oints P, P
’
and P lie at the ve tices of
,
P ”
,
’”
r
a parallelogram Hence .
P P”
is equal and par’ ”
allel to P P Hence S ’
.
carries P into P T fol ’” ”

.
‘
lowed b y S therefore car

ries P into P through P ” ’
,
whereas 8 followed b y T
FI G 3 . .
carries P into P thr ough ”
Th e fi nal result is in
either case the same . y
This ma be designated s mbolicall y y
b y writing
It is to be noticed that S P P and T P P are the two sides

’ ’
of the parall elogram P P P P which have the point P as

’ ” ’”
common origin ; and that R P P is the diagonal dr awn ”
through P This leads to another ver common wa of

. y y
stating the defi nition of the sum of two vectors
r
.
If two vecto s be drawn from the same origin and a parall elo
gram be constructed upon them as sides their sum will be that ,
diagonal which passes through their com mon origin .
Thi s is the well-known parallelogram law according to

“ ”
whi ch the physical vector quantities force acceleration v o loe , ,
ity and angular velocity are compounded It is important to

, .
note that in case the vectors lie along the same line vector
addi tion b ecomes equivalent to algebraic scalar addi tion Th e .
lengths of the t wo vectors to b e added are added if the vectors

have the same direction ; but subtracted if the have Oppo y
site directions In either case the sum has the same d rection
. i
as that of the greater vector
r
.
After the de fi n ition of the sum of two vecto s has

b een laid down the sum of several ma be found b y adding
, y
t o gether the fi rst two to this sum the third to this the fourth
, , ,
and so on until all the vectors have been combined into a sin
A DDI TION AND SC ALAR M P
UL TI LI CA TI ON 11
gle one Th e fi nal result is the same as tha t obtained by placing

.
th e origin of each succeedin g vector upon the terminus of the

precedin g one a n d then drawing at once the vecto r from
the origin of the fi rst to the term inus of the last In cas e
r
.
these two points coincide the vecto s form a closed polygon

and t heir sum is z ero Interpreted geometrically this s t ates
.
that if a number of dis placements R S T are such that the , ,
strokes R S T form the sides of a closed polygon taken in

y
, ,
order then the effect of carr ing out the displacements is n il

, .
E ach point of space is brought b ack to its starting point In

y
.
t e rp re t e d in mecha nics it state s that if an number of forces

a c t at a point and if the y
form the sides of a closed polygon
taken in order then the resulta nt force is z ero and t h e po int
i
,
s in equi librium under the action of the forces .
Th e order of sequence of the vectors in a sum is of no con

sequence Thi s may b e shown by proving that any two a dja
r i i l
.
c e n t vecto s may be interchanged w thout af fect ng the resu t .
To show
L et
T hen
L et now B O = D ”
Then 6 B 0 1) ”
p r ll l r
is a a a e og am and
conse quently
.
0 D =C
’
. Hence
i
wh ch proves the statement Since an two adjacent vectors y
rr
.
may be interchanged and since the sum may be a anged in

,
an
y order by successive interchanges of adjacent vectors the ,
order in whi ch the vectors occur in the sum is immaterial

fi
.
De n i t io n : A vector is said to be subtrac ted when it

i rl
s added afte r reve sa of di rection S mbolically . y ,
A B A B) .
By i r i
th s means subt act on is reduce d to ad di tion and needs
12 VECTOR ANA L YSIS
no special consideration There is however an interestin g and
.
import an t way of represen t ing t h e di fference of two vec t ors

geome trically . L
et A 0A B O B ( Fig ,
C omplete .
the parallelogram of whi ch A and B

are t h e sides Then the di agonal .
O O = C is the sum A + B of t h e
two vectors N e x t complete the .
parallelogram of which A and B

O B are the sides Then the di
’
.
agonal OD D will be t h e sum of

Fro 4
. ,
A and the negative of B B u t the .
segment O D is parallel and equal

y
to B A Hence B A ma be taken as the difference to the two
.
vectors A and B This leads to t h e foll o wing rule Th e di ffer

.
ence of two vectors whi ch are drawn from the same origin is
the vec t or drawn fro m the terminus of the vecto r to be s u b
tracte d to t h e te rminus of the vector from which it is s u b
tracted Thus the two diagonals of the parallelogram which
.
,
is constructed upon A a n d B as sides give the sum and di f ,
ference of A and B .
In the foregoing parag raphs addition sub traction and , ,
scalar multiplication of vectors have been de fi ned and inte r

p re t e d
. To make the development of vector algeb ra ma t he
m a t ic a l l y e x act and systematic it wo ul d now become necessary
to de mo ns tra te that these three fundamental operations foll o w
the same formal laws as in the ordi nary scalar algebra a l ,
though from the standpoint of the physical and geometrical

interpretati on of vectors this may seem super uous These fl .
laws are
I : m (n A)
I,
II
Il l a
III , ’
m (A + B ) m A + m B,
III, °
— A — B .
ADDI TI ON A ND S CALAR M P
UL TI L I CA TI ON 13
is the s o -called law of association and commutation of

Ia
the scalar factors in scalar multiplication .
Ib is the law of association for vectors in vector addi tion It .
states that in addi ng vectors parentheses may be ins erted at

y
an points without altering t h e result .
II is the commuta t ive law of vector addition .
III is the di stri b utive law for scalars in scalar multipli

,
cation .
III, is the distri b utive l a w for vecto rs in scalar mul tipli

cat ion .
III is the distribu t ive law for the negative sign

,
.
Th e proofs of these laws of operation depend upon those

propo sitions in elementary geometry which have to deal wi t h
the fi rst properties of the parallelogra m and si m ilar triangles .
They wil l not b e given here ; b u t it is suggested that the

reader work them o u t for the sake of fi x ing the fundamental
ideas of ad di tion sub traction and scalar multiplication more
, ,
clearly in mind Th e res ul t of the laws may b e summed up

.
in the statement
Th e l a ws wh ic h go ve rn a ddi tio n , s u btra c ti o n , a nd sc a la r
m u l tip lic a tio n of ve c to rs a re ide n t i c a l wi th tho s e go ve rn in g th e s e

o
p e ra t io n s i n o rdin a ry s c a l a r a lge bra .
0
is precisely thi s identity of formal laws which justi fi es
It
the e x tension of the use of the familiar signs and
of ari t hmetic to the alge b ra of vectors and it is also this
which ensures the correctn ess of results ob ta ined b y operat
ing with t hose signs in t h e usual manner On e caution only .
need b e mentioned Scalars and vectors are en t irely di fferent

y
.
sorts of quantit Fo r t his reason they can never b e equated

.
to each other e x cept perhaps in the trivial case where each is

z ero Fo r the same reason they are not to be added to gether
. .
So long as t his is borne in mind no difii c ul t y n e ed b e antici

p ated from dealing wi th vectors much as if they were scala rs
r
.
Thus fr om equations in which the vecto s enter lin early with

14 VECTOR A NA L YSIS
scalar coeffi cients unknown vecto s ma be el iminated or r y
found b y solution in the same way and wi th the same limita
tions a s in ordinary algebra ; for the eliminations and solu
tions depend solely on the scalar coe ffi cients of the equations
and not at all on what the variab les represent If for .
instance
then A , B , C, or D y
ma be e xpressed in terms
t hree
1
—
as —
Cl
An d two vector equations such as
and 2 A+ 3 B =F
yield by the usual processes the solution s
A= 3 E — 4 F
B = 3 E ~
Z E .
Co mp o n e n ts o f Ve c to rs
Defin itio n : Vectors
are said to be collinear when
they are parallel to the same line ; coplanar when parallel ,
to the same plane Two or more vecto rs to which no line

.
can be dra wn parallel are said to be non -collinear Three or .
more vectors to which no plane can be drawn parallel

said to be non -coplanar Obviously any two vecto s are
. r
00 planar .
An y vector b collinear with a may be e xpressed as the

product of a and a positive or negative scalar which is the
ratio of the magnitude of b to that of a Th e sign is posit ive .
when b and a have the same directi on ; negative when they ,
have op p osite directions If then 0A a the vector r drawn

.
,
ADDI TI ON AN D S CALAR M P
from the origin 0 to an point of the lin e y OA produced in

either direction is
r x a . 1
( )
If x be a variable scalar parameter th s equation may there i
fore b e regarded as the ( vector) equation of all points in the
line O A . L
et now B b e any point not
upon the line 0A or that lin e produced
in either direction ( Fig
L
.
et O B b Th e vector b is surely
.
not of t h e form se a D raw thr ough B .

F c 5 r . .
a line pa ra llel to 0A and let R be a n y

point upon it Th e vector B B is collinear with a and is
r
.
consequentl y e xp essible as m a Hence the vector drawn .
from O to R is
0R = OB + B R
r =b + x a
This equation may be regarded as the ( vector) equation of

all the points in the line whi ch is parallel to a and of which
B is one point .
14 ] An y vector r coplanar with two non -collinear vecto rs

a and b may be resolved into two components parallel to a
and b respectively This resolution may .
b e accomplished b y construc t ing the pa r

a ll e l o ra m ( Fi
g g 6 ) of whi
. ch the sides are
parallel to a and b and of which the di
agonal is r O f these components one is
.
m a ; the other y b 5c and y are re s p e c

, .
t ive ly the scalar ratios ( taken with the

proper sign) of the lengt hs of these components to the lengths
of a and b Hence
.
r x a yb
y
is a typical form for an vector 00plan ar with a and b If
r
.
several vecto s r 1 r 2 r 3 may b e e xpressed in this form as

, ,
their sum r is then
Th is the well -kno wn theorem that the compon ents of a

is
sum of vectors are the sums of the components of those

vecto rs If the vector r is z ero each of its components must
q y q
.
b e z ero Conse uentl

. th e one vector e uation r O is
eq u ivalent to the two scalar equations
t = 0 . 3
y
vector r in space ma be resolved into three
An y
components para llel to any t hree given non -coplanar vec t o rs
L
.
et the vectors b e a b , ,
and c Th e resoluti on .
may then b e a c c o m
p li s h e d b y constructing
the parallelopiped ( Fig .
7 ) of which t h e edges
are parallel to a b and , ,
\
c and of which the di
agonal is r Thi s par .
a l l e l o p ip e d m a y b e
a >
F c 7 r . .
drawn easily b y pass i ng
three planes parallel re
s p e c t ive l y to a and b b and c c and a through the origin 0
, ,
of t h e vector r ; and a similar set of t hree planes through its

t erminus B These s ix planes w
. ill
then b e parallel in pairs
18 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
r = fl,
r x a + gb + z q
’
r
9: cc
'
, g z
y
’
, z z
’
.
’ ’
—
w b fl z - z
w .
x — cc z O, y
—
y z O, z
B this wo ul d not be true if a b and 0 were coplanar In

ut , , .
t hat case one of the th ree vectors could be e xpressed in terms

of the other two as
c =m a + n h
sc a + yb + z c
’ ’ "
n a + y b + z c b,
’ ’
r [( x ) m z
( r
c a,
[a w e —
(m i ss b = 0
i r i i
.
Hence the indiv dual componen t s of r

’
in the d rect ons
a and b ( supposed difi e re n t ) are z ero
H
.
ence x + m z m + m e ’ ’
B ut y
this b no means necessitates cc y z to be equa re s p e c , , l
t ive ly to x y z In a similar manner if a and b were col
’ ' '
, , .
linear it is impossible to infer that their coe ffi cients vanish

i
in d viduall y
Th e theorem ma perhaps be stated as follows :
. y
In c a se t wo e qu a l ve c to rs a re e xp re s s e d i n te rm s f
o o n e ve c to r ,
or two non-collinear ve c to rs , or th re e non-coplanar ve c to rs , th e

co rre sp o n di n g s c a la r coe fi c ie n t s a re e qu a l . B ut this is not n e
c e s s a r il
y t ru e if t h e t wo ve c to rs be c o lli n e a r ; or th e th re e ve c to rs ,
c op la na r . This principle will be used in the appli cations

( Ar ts . 18 et
Th e Th re e Un i t Ve c to rs i, j , k .
the foregoing paragraphs the method of e xpress

In
ing vecto rs in term s of three given non-coplanar ones has been
explained Th e simplest set of three such vecto s is the rect
. r
recta ngular syst em may however be either of t wo very distinct
y
t pes In one case ( Fig 8 fi rst part) the Z axis lies upon
.
— 1
.
,
that side of the X Y plane on which rotati on through a right

angle from the X-axi s to the Y-ax is appears c o u n te rc l o c kwis e
or p o si t ive a ccordin g to the convention adopted in Trigo n o m e
tr y Thi s relation may be stated in another form
.
If the X .
ax is be di rected to the right and the Y-ax is vertically the ,
Z- ax is will be d irected toward the observer O r if th e X .
axis point toward the observer and the Y-ax is to the right
d ill
,
the Z -axis will point upwar St another method of state .
L ft h e - a nde d
FIG 8
l y
. .
ment is common in mathematica ph sics and engineering If .
a right -handed s c re w b e turn ed from th e X-ax is to the Y

axis it will advance along the ( p o s i tive ) Z —a sc is Such a s s . y
tem of ax es is call ed right-ha nded positive or c o u n t e rc l o c k , ,
wise 2
It is easy to see that the Y ax is li es upon that side of
.
-
the Z X-plane on which rotation from the Z -ax is to the X

i
ax s is coun tercl o ckw se ; and the X-ax is upon that side of i
m
,
pl a ne m i ig d d y m
B y th X Y
1
t h pl
Z — x i t h p it iv h lf ft h t x i i
wh i hea ns
e
t i th X e d Y- x i i
or
a ne
t
t h pl
Th X Y
a
c 0
s e
con a ns
os e
e
a o
an
a
a
a
s,
s
.
s
c .
,
ea n
e
.
a ne 2
e
A
m b fi fi g d g
i
ig
l y il bl
m
h t-h a n i wh wa
3 c o n ve n e n t r st e a nd o ne h is e c o ns s t s
e s c a s a va a
fig f m p l m p di l
o fthe thu ,
rs t nd b
e r, a n d se c o n fin e r o ft he r h t ha n . Ift h e t h u a nd
dfi g p lm ig g fi fi g ig
fi rs t n d er be s t re t c he o ut ifro t he a pe r en cu a r to e a c h o t h e r, a n d the
d d y m f m d b fig k m b fi fi g
se c o n b n d er be l
e n t o ve r t o wa r the a a t r ht an es to rs t n e r, a r ht
dfi g
han e s s te is dor e y th e n e rs ta en in t h e o r e r th u , rs t n e r,
se c o n n er .
20 VEC TOR A NAL YSIS
the YZ -plane on which rotation from the Y axis to the Z -
a xis is counterclockwise Thus it appears that t h e relation

.
between the three ax es is perfec t ly symmetri cal so long as the

same cyclic order X YZ X Y is o b served If a righ t -handed .
screw is turned from one axis toward the ne xt it advances

along the third .
In t h e other case ( Fig 8 second part ) the Z -a x is lies upon

.
,
that side of the X Y-plane on which rotation through a right

angle from the X-axis to the Y-axis a ppears c lo c kwis e or n e g
a ti ve . Th e Y-a xis then lies upon that side of the Z X plane -
on whi ch rotation from the Z -a xis to the X a x is appears -
clockwise and a similar s t a tement may be made concerning

the X-axis in its relation to the YZ —plane In this case too .
, ,
the relation between the three a xes is symm etrical s o long

as the same cyclic order X YZ X Y is preserved b u t it is just
the Opposite of that in the former case Ifa left-handed screw .
is t urned from one a xis toward the nex t it advances along

the third Hence this system is cal l ed left-handed negative
.
, ,
or clockwise 1
.
Th e two sys t ems are not superposable They are sym .
metric O n e is t h e image of the other as seen in a

.
mirror If t h e X and Y-ax es of the two difi e re n t syste m s be

.
superimposed the Z -ax es will point in opposite di rections

, .
Thus one system may be obtained from the other by reversing

the direction of o n e of the ax es A little thought will show .
that if two of the ax es be reversed in direction the system will

not b e altered but if all th re e b e so reve sed it will b e
, r .
Whi ch of the two syste m s be used m a t t e rs little B u t in , .
a s m u c h as the formul ae of geometr and mech a nics differ

y
slightly in the matter of sign it is advisab le to settle once for
all which shall be adopte d In th s book the right-handed or
.
,
i
counterc lock wise system will be invariab ly employed .
o ne
A
m
wa s fo r e d b y t h e ri
mg
le ft-h a n d e d s ys t e ma y b e
ht .
m
fo r e d by t h e l e ft ha n d j us t a s a r i g h t -ha n d e d
ADDI TI ON A ND S CALAR MU L TI P LI CA TI ON 21
De fi n i ti o nthree letters i k will be reserved to de

Th e , j ,
note three vectors o f un it length drawn respe ctively in the

directions of the X Y and Z ax e s of a right-handed re c ta n
gular system
y
.
In terms of these vectors any vecto r ma be e x pressed as

,
( )
6
Th e coe ffi cients x y z are the ordi nary Cartesian coordinates

, ,
of the term inus of r if its origin be situated at the origin of

co ordinates Th e components of r parallel to the X Y a n d
.
Z -a x es are respec t ively
a t y fi z k .
Th e rotations about i fro m jto k about from k to i and j

j
, ,
about k from i to are all pos itive

j
.
B y means of these vectors i k such a correspondence is

, ,
established between vector analysis and the analysis in Ca r

t e s ia n co ordi nates that it becomes possible to pass a t will
from either one to the other Th ere is nothi ng c o n t ra dic
y y
.
tor between them O n the contrar it is often desirab le

y
.
or even neces sar to translate t h e fo rm ul m ob tained b y

vector methods into Cartesian co ordinates for the sake of
comparing t hem with results a lready kno wn and it is
still more frequently convenient to pass from Cartesian
analysis to vectors both on accoun t of the b revit y thereby
obta ined and b ecause the vector e xpressions show forth the
intrinsic meaning of the fo rmul ae .
Ap p lic a tio n s
Problems in plane geometry may frequently be solved

easily b y vector methods A n y two no n -c ollinear vecto s in
. r
the plane may be taken as the fundamen t al ones in terms of
which all others in that plan e may be e x pressed Th e origin .
may also be selected at pleasure O ften it is possib le t o .

make such an advanta geous choice of the origin and fun da
mental vectors that the analytic work of solution is ma teriall y
i
.
simplifi ed Th e adapta b ility of the vector me thod s about

i
.
the same as that of ob lique Cartesian co ord nate s with difi e r

en
t sc al es upon the two a x es .
E xa mfi dg Th e line which joins one vert e x of a parallelo

;
f
’
m h mid dl e point
’
of an opposite side the diag

'
r fi t t
’
g a e n s e c s
onal (Fig
L
.
et A B OD be the parallelogram B E the lin e joining t h e ,
verte x B to the middle point E of the side

A D R the point in which this line cuts the
i
,
diagonal A C To show A B is one th rd of

.
A O Ch o o s e A as origin A B and A D as t h e
.
F G 9 I . .
,
two fun damenta l vectors 8 and T Then M

.
A O is the sum of S and T Le t E B ) To show

/
. .
where a; is the rati o of E R to EB — an unkn own sca arl .
An d R= y ( S T),
’
where y r
is the scalar atio of A g to AO to be sho wn e ua q l
to
Hence ; T+ n
(S
Hence e quating correspondi g coef cient

, n fi s A
( t
r .
ADDI TI ON AN D S CALAR M UL TIP LI CA TI ON 23
From which
Inasmuch i
as a: s also 1 the line E B must be t r secte d a s i
well as the diagon al A O
y
.
< Eaea mp le
‘
? D If through
a
an
fl
po int within a triangle lines
/
be drawn parallel to th e sides the sum of the ratios of these

lines to their correspo ndi ng S1 de s is 2
L
.
et A B C be the trian gle R the point within it Choos e

’
, .
A as origin A B and A O as the two fundamenta l vectors 8

L
,
an d T et .
( ) a
i y
A
m S is the fract on of A B which is cut o ff b the line th rough

R parallel to A O Th e remainder of A B mus t be the frac
i q yy l r
.
t on 1 m 8 Conse uentl b simi ar t ian gles the ratio of

.
the l ine parallel to A O to the line A C itself is ( 1 m ) ’

.
Similarly the ratio of the line parall el to A B to the l ine A B

l
itse f is ( 1 n ) N e x t express B in te rms of S and T S the
i
. .
th rd side of the tri angle Evidently from ( a ) .
— S) .
Hence ( m n ) S is the fraction of A B whi ch is cut o ffb the y

line through R parallel to B 0 Conse uently by similar tri q
i li l
.
angles the ratio o f th s n e to B O itse f is ( m n ) A dding

r
.
the three a t ios

(1
and the the o rem
F -f
‘
proved 1s .
E xa mp le 3 If from any poin t withi n a p a ra ll e l o gra m lines

be drawn parallel to th e sides the diagonals of the pa allelo , r
grams thus formed intersect upon the di agonal of the given
parallelogram
L p
.
et A B CD be a parallelogram R a o int within it KM

’
d i y
, ,
an L N two lines e l resp ect vel to A B and

A D, the point s
D
B O, C_ re s
pe c ti
LM of the two p ara- l lelograms KE N D a n d

- v I
on A C T
fl flu
a or Ann 3
Ch o o s e A as origin A B and E as the two funda

.. .
L
. ,
c p c w 4
mental vectors 8 and T et .
R AR m S n T,
and let P be the point of inte rsection of KN wi th L M .
Then — n
)T
,
P =A P =A K+ x KM
LM = ( I
P = A P = A L + y LM
E quat ng i c o e fii c ie n t s ,
l — n
n + se
( )
n
By soluti on , so -r
m + n — 1
m
m + n — 1
either of these solutions in the e x pression
m + n
which shows that P is collinear with A O

y y
.
Problems in three dimensional geometr ma be

solved in essentially the same manner as those in two dim e n
sions In this case there are three fundamental vec t ors in
r
.
terms of whi ch all others can be e xp essed Th e method of .
solution is ana logous to that in the simpler case Two .

26 VE C TOR ANA LYSIS
manner A B ’
z x
2 /2 D
0+ y
— B
) .
— B
)
O = 1 + k2 (l
x
2
= k 2 m,
y2 = k n .
Henc e k,
1 l
P B ’
kr — l
’
B B a
In i y
the same wa y t ma be shown tha t
’
'
D
P C
c o " ” d DD F
‘
Addi ng t h e ri
four at os the res ul t s i
1
E xa mp le 2 a lin e which passes th ough a g ve n

: To fi n d r i
point and cuts two given lines in space
L
.
et the two lines be fi x ed respec t ively by two poin ts A

and B O and D on each L
et 0 be the g ven point Choose i
i
. .
,
it as orig n and let

A = OA , B = OB , D = 0D .
An y po int P o fA B y
ma be expresse as d
— A)
An y po int Q of CD i
may likew se be written
— O) .
If th e points P and Q li e in the sa i

me l n e th ough r 0, P an Qd
a re c o llin e a r
. . That is
P = z Q
A DDI TI ON AND SC ALAR M P
Before it is possib le to equate coeffi cients one of the

vectors must be expressed in te rms of the other three
L
.
et
Then P = A + ze ( B — A)
Henc e l — x zy l,
ac z m
y ,
H enc e a :
m
l + m
9
Subst ituting in P and Q
E ither of these may be taken as de ing a fin dr a wn from O

and cutting AB and OD
’
.
Vec to r Re la tio ns i n dep e n de n t of th e Origin
20 ] E xa mp le 1 To divide a line AB in a g ven i

m Fi
( g
y ry
n .
Choose an arbit ar po int 0 as

origin L
et OA A and O B B
. .
To fi n d the vecto r P O P of which

the terminus P d vides A B in the i 0
rati o m n .
Fro . 10 .
m
P = 0P = 0A + A B =A+
m +
That is ,
28 VE C TOR ANA L YSIS
Th e component s of P parallel to A and B a re in inve se ratio r
t o the segm ents A P and P B into which the line A B is
di vided b y t h e point P If it should so happen t hat P divided
.
t h e line A B e x ternally the ratio A P / P B would be nega

,
t ive and t h e signs of m and n would be oppos ite b u t t h e

, ,
formula would hold without change if this difference of sign

in m and n be taken into account .
E xa mp le 2 To fi n d the point of intersection of the me di ans

of a triangle
L
.
Choose the origin 0 at ran dom et A B C be the given

L L
.
t riangle . et OA A O B B and O C G , et , C .
’
b e respectively the middle po ints of t h e sides opposi t e t h e

vertices A B 0 , ,
. L
et M be the point of intersection of the
medians and M OM the vec t o r drawn t o it Then .
(B —
A)
2
(C — B )
2
Assuming that 0 has been chosen outside of the plane of the

triangle so that A B C are non-COp l a n a r corresponding c o e ffi
y q
, , ,
eleu t s ma be e uated .
x = l — y,
Hence
Hence 5 (A B C) .
A DDI TI ON AND SC ALAR M P
Th e vector drawn to the median point of a triangle is equal

to one third of the sum of the vecto rs drawn to t he vertices .
In the pro b lems of which t h e solution has j u st b een given

the orig in co ul d b e chosen arb itrarily and the result is in
dependent o f that choice Hence it is even possible to dis re
.
gard the origin entirely and replace the vectors A B 0 etc , , , .

,
b y their termin i A B C etc , , Thus the points themselves

,
.
become the subjects of analysis and the formul ae read

n A + m B
m + n
This y
is t pical of a whole class of problems soluble b vector y
methods In fact a n y p u re ly ge o m e tri c relati on b etween t h e
.
difi e re n t parts of a fi gure must neces sarily be independent

of the origin assumed for the analytic demonstration In .
some cases such as those in Ar t s 1 8 1 9 the position of th e

, .
, ,
origin may be specializ ed with regard to some crucial point

of the fi gure so as to facilitate the computation ; b u t in many
other cases the generality obtained b y leaving the ori gin u n
Speciali z ed and undeterm ined leads to a s y mm e try w hi ch
renders the results just as eas y to compute and more easy

to rememb er
y
.
Th e o rem : Th e necessar and su f fi cient condition that a

vector equation represent a relation independent of the origin
is that the sum of the scalar coeffi cients of the vectors on
y
one side of the sign of equalit is equal to the sum of the
coe ffi cients of the vectors upon the other side Or if all the .
terms of a vector equation b e tra nsposed to one side leaving

z ero on the other , the sum of the scalar coe ffi cient s must
be z ero
L q
.
et the e uation wri tte n in the latte r form he

0
.
C ha ngethe origin from O to O b y addi ng a constan t vector
’
O O to each of the vectors A B C D Th e equation

’
R , , ,
o
then becomes
Ifthis is to be independent of the origin the coeffi cient of B

mus t vanish Hence .
That
thi s condition is ful fi lled in the two e xamples cited
is obvious .
If
necessary and su ffi cient condition that two

Th e
vectors sa t isfy an equation in which the sum of the scalar
,
coeffi cients i s z ero is that the vectors be equal in magnitude

,
and in direction .
Firs t l e t a A+ bB = O
and a + b z 0
.
It is of course assumed that not both the coeffi cients a and b

vanish If they did the equation would mean nothing Su b
q
. .
s t it u t e the value of a obtained from the second e uation into
t h e fi rs t .
Hence A B .
A DDI TI ON AN D SC ALA R M UL TIP LI CA TI ON 31
Secon dl y if A d B q
are e ual in magni tude and d recti on i
q
an
th e e uati on
A B 0
subsists between them Th e sum of the coeffi cient s is z ero

y r
. .
Th e necessar and s u f fi cient condition tha t th ree vecto s

q
sa tisfy an e uation in wh ich the sum of the scalar coeffi cients
y
,
is z ero is that when drawn from a common origin the te rmi

,
nate in th e same s t raight line )
E mH % a A + bB + c C= 0
md a + b + c =fi
No t all the coeffi cients a b c van sh or the e uations i q

L
, , ,
wo ul d b e mean ingless et c be a non-vanis hing coe ffi cient

i dq
. .
Substitute the value of a obta ned from the secon e uation

in t o t h e fi rs t .
c (C — B )
.
i
Hence the vector wh ch jo ns the e xtremiti es of C an A is i d
i
collinear w th that which joins the e x tremities of A and B .
Hence those three points A B C lie on a line Secondl y , ,

’
.
suppose three vectors A O A B O B C 0 0 drawn from , ,
the same origin 0 termin ate in a stra ight line Then the
r
.
vecto s
A B =B — A a nd A O= C— A
are co llinear . Hence the e uati on q

i
subs sts Th e sum of the coeffi cients on the t wo s es s
. id i
t h e same
y q
.
Th e necessar and su f
fi cient condition that an e uati on
i
,
in which the sum of the scalar coe ffi cients s z ero subs ist
mm igi mi
,
mV e c t o rs wh i c h ha ve a c o lin e ll e d by
1
on o r n a nd te r na te in o ne a re c a
Ha ilt o n l a min a c o lline a r
“ - ”
.
32 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
between four vectors is that if drawn from a common
,
they terminate in one plane 1

.
Firs t l e t
and
L et dbe a non-van ishi ng coe ffi cient Sub sti t u te . t he
of a obtained from the last equation into the fi rst .
d (D —
C) .
Th e line A D is coplanar with A B and A 0 Hence all four

y
.
termini A B C D of A B C D li e in one pla n e Secondl

, , , , , , .
suppose that the termini of A B C D do lie in one plane , , ,

.
Then A D = D — A an d A B B — A a re c c ,
z
planar vectors O n e o f them may b e ex pressed in terms of

.
the other two This leads to the equation

.
l — A) -
0,
(B
where and n are certain scalars Th e sum of the c o e ffi
l, m ,
i
.
c ie n t s in th s equation is z ero .
B etween any fi ve vectors there e x ists one equation the sum

of whose coeffi cients is z ero
L
.
et A B C D E be the fi ve given vectors Form the

, , , , .
differences
E _ A, E _B, E _ C, E — D.
On e of these may be e x pressed in terms of the other three

— o r what amounts to the same thing there must e xist an
equation be t ween them .
70 ( 13 — 11 ) + l (n — B)+ m (E
Th e sum of the coeffi cients of th is e uation s z ero q i .
by m
Ve c t o rs wh ic h ha ve a c o
H a ilto n te rmin o — c o mp la
mm i gi
n a r.
on or
"
n a nd m
te r in a t e in o ne p la n e a re ca lle d
However the points E C and A lie upon the same st aight
, ,
r
line Hence the equation which connects the vectors E C
.
,
and A must be such that the sum of its coe ffi cient s is z ero .
This determines x as 1 n .
Hence E — n C= D— n B = (1 — n
)A .
By another rearrangement and similar reasoning
Subt ract the fi rst equation from the second

— n )A .
This vector cuts B C and A G It must therefore b e a .
multiple of F and such a multiple that the sum of the c o e ffi

i
c ie n t s of the equat ons whi ch conn ect B C and F o r G A , , , ,
and F shall b e z ero .
Hence
B + C
Hence 2
and the theorem has been proved Th e proof h a s covere . d

considera b le space because each detail of the reasoning has
b een given y
In realit however the actual anal sis h a s c o n y
q
.
, ,
sisted of just four e uations ob tained simply from the fi rst .
E xa mp le 2 : To determine the equations of the line and

plane
L L
.
et the line be fi xed b y two points A and B upon it et

y y
.
P b e an poin t of the line Choose an arbitrar origin

r li H
. .
Th e vecto s A B and P terminate in the same ne

, , enc e .
a A + bB + p P = 0
a + b +
p = Q
Therefo r
e
a A + bB
a b
A DDI TI ON AN D SC ALA R M UL TIP LI CA I T ON 35
Fo r i
d fferent point s P the scalars a a n d b have different
y
values They ma be replaced by x and y which are used
y
.
,
more generall to represent variables Then .
x A+ yB
x + y
L et a plane determined by th ee poin s

be and t A, B 0
L et be any point of the pla e ho se an arbitrary origin
r , .
P C
vecto rs P t rmi ate in one p lane Hence
n . o .
Th e A, B , C, an d e n .
a A + bB + c C
a + b + c
As b, y
var for di fferent point s of the plane it s more i
ry
a , c, ,
customa to write in th eir ste ad x y z , , .
x A+ yB + z C
x + y + z
E xa mp le 3 line whi ch joins one ver te x of a com

Th e
i
:
p l e t e quadrilateral to the intersection of two d agonals

divides the opposite sides har
m o n ic a ll y ( g
F i
L et
.
be four vertices
A , B , O, D
of a quadrilat ral L et meet
e . AB
CD in a fi fth verte x E and A D ,
meet B C in the six th vertex F 5

L
.
et the t wo di agonals A C and F G 12 I . .
B D inte rsect in 0 To show .
that F G intersects A B in a poin t E and CD in a point E

’ ’ ”
such that the lines A B and CD are divi ded inte rnall at y
E and E in the same ratio as they are d vided e xte rna y
”
i ll
y i
'
b E That is to show that the cross rat os

.
—
(A B ( OD E E
’ ”
EE ) o
) r .
36 VE C TOR A NAL YS S
Choos ethe or g n at random ii . Th e r
fou vecto s A B r , ,
C, D
drawn from it to t h e points A, B , O D terminate in
, o ne
plane Henc e
.
Separate q i
the e uat ons b transpos ing two terms y
d A+ c C=
a + c
a A+ c C bB + dD
Di vi de
b + d
d A + dD bB + c C
In lik e m a n n e r F
a + d b + c
( a + )Ge c C — dD
( a + c > ( a + c )
( a + )G c c C — dD
c — d c — d
Separate q
the e uations again and d vide i
a A + bB c C + dD
a + b c + d
Hence i
d vides A B in the ratio a : b and CD in
q i
E
d B u t e uation ( a ) shows that E ”
divides CD n the
y
c .
ra tio Hence E and E divide OD internall and ”

c : d
ii
.
e x ternally in the same ratio Whi ch of the two d v sions is

i
.
inte rnal and which ex ternal depends upon the relat ve signs
y
of c and d If the have the same sign the internal point
i y
.
of division is E ; if opposite sign s it s E In a similar wa ”
i
.
,
E and E may b e shown to div de A B harmonically

’
.
Exa mp le 4 : To di scuss geometric nets

r
.
B y a geometric net in a plane is meant a fi gu e composed

of points and straight lines obtained in the follow ng manner i
i p i
.
Start w th a certain number of oin t s all of wh ch lie in one

A DDI TI ON A ND SC ALA R M P
plane Draw all the lines joining these points in pairs

. .
These lines will intersect each other in a number of points .
N e x t draw all the lines whi ch connect these points in pairs .
Thi s second set of lines wil l determine a still greate r number

of points which may in turn be joined in pairs and so on
y
.
Th e co n struction m a y be kept up inde fi ni tel At each step .
the numbe r of points and li nes in the fi gure increases .
Prob ab ly the mos t interesting case of a plane geometric net is

that in which fo u r poin t s are given to commence with .
Joining these there are s ix lines whi ch inte rsect in three

i
point s d fferent from the given four Three new lines ma . y
now be drawn in the fi gure Thes e cut out s ix new points
. .
From thes e mo re lines may be obtained and so on

i l ri q i
.
To trea t th s net an a ytically w te down t h e e uat ons
and
which subsist be tween the fo u r vectors drawn from an unde
t e rm in e d origin to the fo u r given points From these t is i
i
.
poss ible to obta n

a A + bB c C= dD
9
a + b c + d
a A+ c C bB + dD
a + c b + d
a A + dD bB + c C
a + d b + c
by li
sp tting the equations into tw o parts and dividin g N ext
y q
.
four vectors such as A D E F ma be chosen and the e ua

i
, , ,
tion the sum of whose coe ffi cient s is z ero ma y be determ ned .
This would be
By i q
treating th s e uati on as ( c ) wa s t reated ne w p int may
o s
be obtained .
38 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
—d A + dD
9
_ a + d 2 a + b + c
b d + e +d
dD+ (a + b) E
c a + b + d
E quations between other se t s of four vecto rs selected from

A B C D E F G may be found ; and from these more points
, , , , , ,
obt ained Th e process of fi nding more points goes forward

.
inde fi nitely A ful ler account of geometric nets ma y be

.
found in Hamilton s E le m e n ts of Qu a te rn io n s B ook I

’
,
”
.
As regards geometric nets in space jus t a word may be

said Five points are given From these new points may be
. .
obta ined by fi n di ng the intersections of planes passed thr ough

sets of three of t h e given points w th lin es connecting the i
remaining pairs Th e cons truction may then be carried for
y
.
ward with the points thus ob tain ed Th e anal tic treatment .
is similar to th at in the case of plane nets There are .
fi ve vectors drawn from an undetermined origin to the given

fi ve points B etween these vecto s there e x ists an equation r
i
.
the sum of whose coe ffi cients s z ero This equation may be

y
.
separated into parts as before and the new point s ma thus

be ob tained .
and
a A + bB c C + dD + e E
a + b c + d + e
a A+ c C bB + dD + e E
a + b b + d + e
are two of the poin t s and others may be found in the same
wa y N ets in sp a ce are als o s cus sed by Hami lton lo c c it
. di , . .
ADDI TI ON AND S CA LAR M UL TI L I CA TI ON P 39
Ce n te rs f
O G r a vi ty
Th e c e n te r o f gr a vi ty of a s stem of particles may y

be foun d very easily b y vec t or methods Th e two laws of
y
.
ph sics which will b e assumed are the following :

Th e center of gravity of t wo mas ses ( considered as
situated at points ) lies on the lin e connectin g the two mas ses
and divides it into two segment s which a re inversel pro y
portional to the masses at the ex trem iti es .
In fi n ding the center of gravity of two systems of

y
masses each system ma b e replaced by a sin gle m a ss equal
in magnitude to the sum of the masses in the system and
situated at the center of gravity of the system .
G iven two masses a and b situated at two points A and B

y y
.
Their cente r of gravit G is given b
a A+ bB
9
a + b
where the vecto rs are referred to an origin whatsoever y .
This follows imme di ately from law 1 and the formula ( 7 )

for division of a lin e in a given ratio
y
.
Th e center of gravit of three masses a b c situated at the , ,
three points A B C may be found b y means of la w 2 Th e

y
.
, ,
masses a and b ma be considered as equivalent to a single

mass a b situated at th e point
a A + bB
a + b
Then G (a
a + b + c
a A+ bB + c C
Hence
a b c
40 VE C TOR ANAL YSIS
E videntl y th e y
cente r of gravit of any number of masse s
d, si tuated at the points A B C D
r
a , b, c, , , , ,
be found in a si milar manner Th e esult is.
Th e o re m 1lines which join the center of g a v t of a

Th e r iy
i
triangle to the vert ces divide it into three tri angles whi ch
a re proportion a l to the masses at t h e o p
p o s it e vertices ( Fig et A B C . L , ,
be the vertices of a tri angle weighted

with masses a b c et C be the cen L
y
.
, ,
Fro 1 3
ter of gravi t Join A B C t o G and .
, ,
produce the lines until they in te rsect

. .
the opposite sides in A B C res ectivel ’

,
’
To show th at
,
’
p y .
the areas
Th e last proporti on between A B C and a b c comes
from compounding the fi rst three . It is however us eful n

, , i
the demonstration .
AB C A A ’
A C CA ’
b + c
’ + ’
CB C G A ’
G A CA a
Henc e
AB C
G B C
a + b+
a
c
B CA a + b + c
In a s i mi lar man ner
G CA 6
CA B a + b + c
GAB c
r
Hence the p oportion is proved
i y
.
The o re m 2 : Th e lines wh ch join the center of gravi t of

i
a te t rahedron to the vertices d vide the tetrahedron into four
a ,
may therefore be looked upon as co ordi nate s of the
b, c
'
points P ins ide of the triangle A B C To each set there .
corresponds a de fi nite point P and t o each po in t P t here

,
corresponds an in fi nite n umber of sets of quantities which ,
however do not di ffer from one another e xcept for a factor

of proportionality .
To obtain the points P of the plane A B C which lie o u ts ide

of the triangle A B C one may resort to the conception of
negative weights or masses Th e cente r of gravity of the
.
masses 2 and 1 situated at t h e points A and B respectively

would b e a point G dividi ng the li ne A B e xte r n a lly in the
ratio 1 2 That is .
An y point of t h e line A B produced ma be represented b y y

a suitab le set of mas ses a b w hi ch difi e r in sign Similarly
, .
any point P of the plane A B C may be represented by a

s u itab le set of m a sses a b c of which one will di ffer in sign
, ,
from the other two if the point P lies outs ide of the triangle
AB C Inasmuch as only the ratios of a b and c are im
.
, ,
portant t wo of the quantities may always be ta k en positi ve .
Th e idea of employi ng the masses situated at the vertices

as coordinates of t h e cente r of gravity is due to M ob ius and
was publis hed b y him in his book entitled B a ry c e n tris c h e “
Ca lc i tl in 1 8 2 6 This may be fairl regarded as the start ing

”
y
y
.
,
point of modern analyt ic geometr .
Th e concept ion of negative masses which have no e xistence

y
in nature may be avoided b replacing t h e masses at the
vertices b y the areas of the triangles G B C G CA and , ,
G A B to whi ch they are proportional Th e co ordi nates of

r
.
a poin t P would then b e three numbe s proportional to the

areas of the three triangles of which P is the common ver t e x ;
and the sides of a given triangle A B C the bases Th e sign
y
.
,
of these areas is determined b the follo wing de fi nition .

A DDI TI ON AND S CA LAR M P
De fi n i tio n : area A B C of a tri angle is said to be

Th e
positive when the vertices A B C fol low each other in the, ,
positi ve or counterclockwise di recti on upon the circle de

scri bed thr ough them Th e area is said to be negative when
.
t h e poin t s foll ow in th e negative or clockwise direction

r
.
Cyclic permutation of the lette s t herefore does not alter

the sign of the area .
A B C = B CA = C A B .
Interchan ge of two letters which amounts to a reve sa of rl

y
the c cli c order changes the sign .
A CB = B A C = CB A — AB C .
IfP be an
y point withi n the triangle the equation
P A B + P B C + P CA = A B C
mus t hold Th e same will also hold if P be outside of the

.
triangle provided the s ign s of the are as be t aken into con

sideration Th e areas or th ree uantities proportiona l to q
y
.
them ma be regarded a s coo rdi nates of the point P .
Th e e x tension of the idea of co ordin ates to ”

ba ry c e n tric “
space is imme di ate Th e four points A B C D situate d at

.
, , ,
t h e verti ces of a tetrahedr on are weighted wi th mass a b c d , , ,
respectively Th e cent er of gravity G is represented b y

q
.
these uan tities or four others proportional to them To .
obta in points outside of the tetrahedron negative masses

y
may be emplo ed O r in the light of theorem 2 page 4 0
.
, ,
the masses may be replaced by the four tetrahedra which

are proportional to them Then the idea of negative vol
.
umes ta k es the place of that of negative weights As thi s .
idea is of considerab le importa nce later a brief treatment of ,
it here may not be out of place .
Defin i tio n Th e volume A B CD of a tetrahedron is said

r
:
to be positive when the triangle A B C appe a s positive t o

y
the e e situated at the point D Th e volume s n e gat ve . i i
if the area of the tri angle appear negative .
To make the discussion of the sig n s of the vario u s

y
tetrahedra perfectl clear it is a lmo s t n e c e ss a ry to have a
l i
solid mode A p la n e draw ng is scarcely s u ffi cient It is
i
.
.
di ffi cult to see from it wh ch triangles appear posi t ive and

which negative Th e following relat ons wi b e seen t o
. i ll
hold if a model be ex amined .
Th e in terchange of two letters in the te trahedron A B CD

changes the sign .
A C B D = C B A D = B A C D = D B CA
= A D CB = A B D C = — A B CD
'
Th e sign of the tetra hedron for any given one of t h e p o s

y
sible twent -four arran gements of the letters ma be obtained y
by reducing that arrangement to the order A B C D b y
means of a number of successive inte rchanges of t wo ette s l r
i
.
If the number of interchanges s even the sign is the sam e

as that of A B CD ; if odd opposite Thus , .
CA D B — C A B D = + A CB D — A B CD
is any point in ide of

.
If P the tetrahedron A B CD t h e
quat on
s
e i
A R OP — B CD P + C D A P — DA B P z A B CD
ill i
holds good It st s true f P be w thout the tetrahed on
. i i r
provi ded the signs of the volumes be taken into considera
y
tion Th e equation ma b e put into a form more s y m m e t ri
y y
.
cal and more easil remembered b transposing all the terms

to one number Then .
A B CD + B CD P +
Th e proportion in theorem 2 page 4 0 does not hold t u e r

i
, ,
f the signs of the te trah edra be rega rded It should read .

A DDI TI ON AND S CALAR M UL TI L I CA TI ON P 45
If the point G lies ins ide the te tr ahe dron a b c d re p re , , ,
sent quantities proporti onal to the masses wh ich must be

l o cated at the vertices A B C D respectivel if G s to be t h e y i
y y
, , ,
center of gravit If G lies outside of the te trahedron the may

i
.
still be regarded as masses some of wh ch are negati ve — o r

y
perhaps better merel as four numb ers whose ratios determine
i
the pos it on of t he poin t G In this manner a set of ba ry .
“
c e n tri c coo rdi nates is establis hed for Space

i y
.
Th e vector P dra wn from an indeterminate orig n t o an

poin t of th e pla ne A B C is ( page 3 5)
xA + yB + z C
x + y + z
Co mpa ring this with the e pression x
a A + bB + c C
a + b + c
it will seen that the quantities are in reality nothing

be
mo re nor less than the ba y centric co rdinates of the point
x, y , z
o P
with respect to the tri angle
r
like ma er from AB C In
e q uation
. nn
x A+ yB + z C+ wD
x + y + z + w
y
which expresses an vector P awn from an indete m nate dr ri
origin in term s of four given vectors A B C D drawn from
y y i
, , ,
the same origin it ma be seen b comparison w th

,
a A+ bB + c C+ dD
a + b + c + d
r i
tha t the fou quantit es x y z w a e pre cis el the bar , , , r y y
centri c co ordi nate s of P the terminus of P with respect to
i
, ,
the te trahedr on A B CD Thus the vector methods in wh ch

i
.
the origin is undeterm ned and the methods of the B a ry “
c e n t ric C l l are pract cally i

e xtens ve
- i
i d r i ll r
a c u u s c o .
It was m e nt one be fo e a n d t m a y b e w e to epe a t he r e

46 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
that the origin may be left wholly out of consideration and
t h e vectors replaced b y their termini Th e vector e uat ons q i
q
.
then become point e uations
x A + yB + z C + wD
This step b rings in the points themselves as the objects of

alysis and leads still nearer to the B a ry c e n tri s c he Ca lc ul ”
of M ob iu s and the A u s de h n u n gs le h re of G rassmann

“
.
The Us e Of Ve c to rs to de n o t e A re a s
De fi n i t io n An y
area l ing in one plane M N and
b ounded b y a continuous curve P QR which nowhere cuts
itself is said to appear positive from the point 0 when the
lett ers P QR follow each
other in the counterclockwise
or positive order negative
y
N ; ,
when the follow in the

nega tive or clockwise order
( g
Fi
i
.
is ev dent that an area

It
can have no dete rmined sign
Fro 1 4 . ,p e r se but o nl y in reference ,
to that directi on in which its

y
boundar is supposed to be traced and to some point 0 out
side o f its plane Fo r the area P R Q is negative relative to
.
P Q R and an area viewed from O is negative relative to the

same area viewed from a point 0 upon the side of the plane ’
y
opposite to O A circle l ing in the X Y-plane and desc ri b ed
y
.
in the positive trigonometric order appears positive from ever

point on that side of the plane on which the positive Z -ax is
lies but negative from all points on the side upon whi ch
,
ADDI TI ON AND S CALAR M P
the negative Z ax is lies Fo r this reason the point of view

- .
and the di rection of description of the bo undary must be kept

clearly in mind .
A nother method of stating the de fi nition is as follows : If

a person walking upon a plane traces out a closed curve the ,
area enclosed is said to b e positive if it lies upon his left

hand side negative if upon hi s right It is clear that if t wo
,
.
persons b e considered to trace out together the same curve b y

walking upon opposite sides of t h e plane the area enclosed
will lie upon the right hand of one and the left hand of the
other To one it will consequen t ly appear positive ; to the
.
other negative That side of the plane upon whi ch the area
,
.
seems positive is cal led the positive side ; the side upon
which it appears negative the negative side This idea is
y
.
,
familiar to students of electricit and magnetism If an .
electric current flo w around a closed plane cu rve the l ines of

magnetic force through the circ ui t pass from the negative to
the positiv e side of the plane A positive magnetic pole
il y
.
placed upon the positive side of the plane w l be repelled b

the circuit .
A plane area may b e looked upon as possessing more than

positive or negati ve magnitude It may be considered to .
possess direction namely the direction of the normal to t h e

, ,
posi t ive side of the plane in whi ch it lies Hence a plane

i
.
area is a vector quantity Th e follow ng theore m s concerning

.
areas when looked upon as vectors are important .
The o re m 1 If a plane area be denoted by a vector whose

magn itude is the numerical value of that area and whose
i
direction s the normal upon the positive side of the plane ,
then the orthogonal projection Of that area upon a plane

wi ll be represented b y the component of that vector in the
direction normal to the plane of projection (Fig
L L
.
et the area A lie in the plane M N et it be projected

r y L
.
o thogonall upon the plane M N ’

et M N and M N inter
’ ’
.
’
sect in the lin e l and let the di edra angle between these l
two planes b e x C onsider fi rst a rectangle P OR S in M N
.
whose sides P O R S a n d QR SP are respectively pa rallel

, , ,
and perpendicular to the line I This will project into a .
rectangle in M N Th e sides P Q and R S

’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
.
will b e equ al to P O and R S ; but the sides Q R and S P

’ ’ ’ ’
will be equal to OR and SP multipl ied by the cosine of x ,
the an gle between the planes C onsequently the rectangl e .
P QR S cos x.
FIG . 15 .
Hence rectangles of wh ch the sides are respect vel

,
i i y
parallel and perpendi cular to l the line of intersection of the
r
two planes project in t o e ctangles whose sides are likewise
,
r r
,
espectively pa allel and perpendicul ar to l and wh o se a re a is

e qu a l t o th e a re a
f
o t he o rigi n a l re c ta n gle s m u ltip l ie d by t he
c o s i ne f th e a n le be twe e n the p la
i
o
g n es.
From this it follows that a n y area A is projected nt o an

i
area which is equal to the g ven a ea mul tiplied b the cosine r y
of t h e angle between the planes Fo r an area A ma be di . y y
vide d up into a large number of small rectangles by drawing a
i r ll l d
series of l ines n M N pa a e an perpend c u la r to the lin e I i .
The o re m 2 Th e vector which represen t s a c lo s e d pol hedra l y
surface is z ero .
This may be proved by means of certain co n siderations of

hydrostatics Suppos e the polyhedron drawn in a b od of
. y
fluid assumed to be free from all e x ternal forces gravi t y in ,
cluded 1 Th e fluid is in equil ib rium under its own internal

.
pressures Th e portion of the fluid b ounded b y the closed

.
surface moves neither one way nor the o t her Upon each face
fl
.
of the surface the uid e x er t s a de fi n ite force p rop o r tio n a l

to the a re a of the face and normal to it Th e resultant of all .
these forces must be z ero as the fluid is in equ ilibrium Hence

, .
the sum of all t h e vector are a s in the closed surface is z ero .
Th e proof may be given in a purely geometric manner .
Consider the orthogonal projection of the closed surface upon

any plane This consists of a do u ble area Th e part of the
. .
surface farthest from the plane projects in to positive ar ea ;

the part nearest the plane into negative area Thus the ,
.
s urface projects into a certain portion of the plane which is

covered twice once with positive area and once with negative
, .
These cancel e a ch other Hence the total projection of a .
closed surface upon a plane ( if taken with regard to sign) is

z ero B u t b y theorem 1 the projection of an area upon a
.
plane is equal to the component of the vec t or representing

t hat area in the di rection pe rpendicular to tha t plane Hence .
the vec t or whi ch represents a closed surface has no component

along the l ine perpen di cular to the plane of projection This .
,
however was a n y plan e wha tsoever Hence the vector is

, .
z ero .
Th e theorem has been proved for the case in which the

closed surface consists of planes In case that surface b e .
f i rs
mg
i d t o a ll pra c t ic a l p u rp o se s in t h e c a s e o f a
m
1 Suc h t e o fa f a
a s ta is re a l z e
po lyh e dro n s us pe n d e d in t h e a t o s ph e re a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly s u bj e c te d t o a t o s
p h e ric p re s s u re .
in t h e s us pe n din st ri n g g
Th e fo rc e o f ra vi t y a c t s b ut is c o un t e rba la n c e d by t h e t e n s i o n
.
A DDI TI ON A N D S CA LA R M P
UL TI L I CA TI ON 51
curved it may be regarded as the li m it of a polyhedral surfa ce

whose number of faces increases without limit Hence the .
vector which represents any closed surface polyhedral or

curved is z ero If t h e surface b e not closed b u t be curved it
.
may be represen t ed b y a vecto r just as if it were polyhedr al .
That vector is the li mit 1 appro a ched by the vector which

represents tha t polyhedral surface of whi ch the curved surface
is the limit when the num b er of faces be comes inde fin i tel y
grea t
SUMM AR Y or CHA PTER I
A q
vector is a uantity considered as possessing magnitude
and di rection E qual vecto s possess the same magnitude
. r
and the same direction A vector is not altered by shi fting it
p
.
arallel to itsel f A null or z e ro vector is one whose mag

.
n it u de is z ero To multiply a vector by a positive scalar

l
.
multiply its length b y that sca ar and leave its direction

uncha nged To multiply a vector by a negative scalar mul
i
.
t ip l y its length b y that scalar and reverse its direct on

r
.
V ecto s add accordi ng to t h e pa rallelogram law To subtract .
a vector reverse it s direction and add A ddition s u b tra c .

,
tion and multipli cation of vec t ors by a scalar follow t h e same

,
laws as addi tion subtrac t ion and multipl ication in ordinary

, ,
algeb ra A vecto r may b e resolved into thr ee components

r
.
parallel to any three non-coplanar vectors Thi s esolution .
can be accomplis hed in only one way .
Th e components of equal vectors parallel to three given ,
non-coplanar vecto rs are equal and conversely if the com

, ,
p o n e n ts are equal the vecto rs are equal T h e three unit .
vectors i jk form a ri ght-handed rectan gular sys tem In

, ,
.
t he
1 Th i s m
li i t e xi s ts a n d is u n iqu e .
po lyh e dra l s urfa c e a ppro a c h e s t h e

It is i n d e pe n de n t
c urve d s u rfa c e .
of the m e th o d in whic h
rms of them any vector may be e xpressed
te by means of the
Cartesian co ordi nate s x y z , , .
x i + y j+ z k . 6
( )
Applications . Th e point which divides a l ine in a given
ratio m :n is given by the form ul a
n A+ m B
m + n
(D
Th e y
necessar and su ffi cient con di tion that a ve c tor equati on
represent a rel ation independent of the origin is that the sum
of the scalar c o e fli c ie n t s in the equation be z ero B etween .
any four vectors there e x ists an equation with scalar c o e fli

c ie n ts If the sum of the c o e fli c ie n t s is z ero the vectors are
.
termino-coplanar If an equation the sum of whose scalar

y
.
coeffi cients is z ero ex ists b etween three vectors the are

termino-collinear Th e center of gravity of a number of
r
.
mas ses a b c situated a t the te rmini of the vecto s

, ,
A B C, supposed to be drawn from a common o ri gin is

,
given b y t h e formul a
vecto r may be used to denote an area If the a ea s

A . r i
plane the magnit ude of the vector is equal to the magnit u de
of the area and the direction of the vector is the direction of
,
t h e normal upon the positive side of the plane Th e vector .
representing a c lo s ed surface is z ero .
EXER CI SE S on CHA PTER I
1 D emonstrate
the laws stated in Art 1 2
r l
. . .
2 A tri an gle may be constructed whose sides are pa alle

q i y
.
and e ua l to the med ans of an given tri an gle .

ADDI TI ON A ND S CA LAR M P
'
3 . po ints in which the thr ee di agonals of a com

Th e s ix
p l e t e quadr a ngle 1
meet the pairs of opp o site sid e s lie three
by three upon four straight lines .
4 If two tri angles are so situated in space that the three

.
points of intersecti on of corresponding sides lie on a line t hen ,
the li nes joining t h e corresponding vertices pass through a

common point and conve sely r .
5 . G iven a quadrilateral in space Find the mi ddle point .
of the line whi ch joins the middle points of t h e diagonals .
Find the middle poin t of the li ne whi ch joins the middle

points of two opposite sides Show that these t wo points are
y
.
the same and coincide with the center of gravit of a system

of equal masses placed at the vertices of the quadrilateral
il
.
6 . If two opposite sides of a quadr ateral in space be

di vided proportionally and if two quadri late rals b e formed by
joining the t wo poin t s of division then the centers of gra vi ty ,
of these two quadrilaterals lie on a li ne with the center of

i q
grav t y of the original uadrilateral B y the center of gravity
q
.
is meant the center of gravity of four e ual masses pl a ced at

t h e vert ices Ca n thi s theorem b e generaliz ed to the case
.
where the masses are not equal ?

7 . Th e bisecto rs of the angles of a triangle meet in a
po int
y
.
8 . If the edges of a h e x a h e dro n meet four b four in three

points the four di agonals of the he x ahedr on m eet in a point
, .
In the special case in whi ch the he x ahedron is a parallelopiped

the three points are at an in fi n ite di s tance .
9 . Prove that the three straight lines through the mi ddle

points of the sides of any face of a te t rahedron each parallel ,
to the straight lin e connecting a fi x ed point P with the mid

dl e point of the opposite edge of the tetrahedron meet in a ,
g A m pl q
f p i
t h ro u h
co
o ur
ete ua
o n ts n o
g
d ra n l e i
c o n s st s o f t h e s ix s t ra
t h re e o fwhic h a re colli n e a r
i
.
g ht
g
li n e s wh i c h m a y b e pa ss e d
Th e di a o na l s a re t h e l in e s
i j i
wh c h p i o n the i i
o n t s o f n t e rs e c t o n o fpa i rs o f s id es .
point E and that this point is such that P E passes
y
and is b isected by the center of gravit of the t e tra h
10 Show tha t wi tho u t e xc ep tio n there e x ists 0
y
.
equation with scalar coe ffi cients between an fo

vectors A B C D
, , , .
11 Discuss the condi t ions imposed upon three

q
.
,
fi ve vectors if they satisfy t wo e uatio n s the sum 0

i i r
e fli c ie n t s in each of wh ch s z e o .
C H AP TER II
DIR ECT A N D SKEW PR OD UCTS O F VE CTOR S
P ro du c ts o
f Two Ve c to rs
TH E operati ons of a ddition subtraction and scalar
, ,
mul tipli cation have been de fi ned for vec t ors in the way
y
suggested by ph sics and have been employed in a few
applications It now becomes necessar to introduce two
. y
new comb inati ons of vectors These wil l be called p r o du c ts
y
.
b ecause the obey the fundamental law of prod u c t s ; i e the . .

,
dis tri bu tive law which states that the product of A into the
q
sum of B and C is e ual to the sum of the products of A into
B and A into 0
fi
.
De n i tio n : Th e di rec t p r o du c t of t wo vectors A and B is

y
the s c a la r quantit ob tain ed b y multiplying the product of
r y
the magnitudes of the vecto s b the c o s i n e of the an gle b e
tween them
y
.
Th e di rect product is denoted b wri ting the two vectors

i
w th a dot between them as
A B .
This is read A do t B and therefore may often be called the

dot product inste ad of t h e di rect product It is al s o called
i
.
the scalar product ow ng to the fact that it s value is s o a

lar If A be the magnitude of A and B tha t of B then b
.
, y
de fi nition
A- B = A B cos
Obv iously the d rect product follows the commutative law

i
A B B A .
Ifei t her vector be multiplied by a scalar the pr duct s o i
mult iplied b y that scalar That is .
( x A) -
B) .
In case the two vectors A and B are colli near the angle b e
tween the mbecomes z ero or one hundr ed and eighty degrees
and its cosine is therefore equal to unity with the pos itive or
negat ive sign H
ence the scalar product of two parallel
.
vectors is num erically equal to the product of their lengths .
Th e sign of the product is positi ve when the di r ec t ions of the

r
vectors a e the same negative when they a re opposite Th e
y i q q r
.
,
product of a vector b it self s therefore e u al to the s ua e

of its lengt h
A A A 2
( 3)
C onse quently if produc t of a vector b itself vanish the
the y
vector is a null vector
lr
.
In case the two vectors A and B are perpendicu a the

angle between them b ecomes plus or m inus ninety degrees
and the cosine vanishes Hence the product A B vanishes
i
. .
C onversely if the scalar product A B van shes then ,
cos (A B ) 0 A B , .
Hence either A or B or cos ( A B ) is z ero and eith er the

r
, ,
vecto s are perpendic ul ar or one of them is null Thus the .
c o n di t io n fo r th e p e rp e n dic u la ri ty f two
o vec t o rs , n e ithe r o f
wh ic h va n is he s , is A B 0
d
.
Th e scalar products of the three fun amental unit

vecto s r j i, , k are evidently
If more ge n e a l r ly a and b are any two uni t vecto r s the

product
a b 008 (a , b) .
58 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
]29 scalar or
Th ed rect product foll ows the i di stri but ive
law of multi plication Tha t is .
( A + R ) -C = A -
C + R -C 6
( )
L
.
This
may be proved b y means of projections et C be equal
y
.
to its magn itude C multiplied b a u ni t vector 0 in its dire c

tion To show .
(A + B ) -( C c )
-
c + B -
c .
A c is the projection of A upon 0 ; D c tha t of B upon 0 ;

c o
,
( A B ) c that of
, A B upon 0 B u t the projection of the .
sum A B is equal to the sum of the projections Hence

li
.
the relation ( 6) is proved B y an immedi ate genera z ation .
( A + B + r + A - a +
+ B - P + B (1 +
Th e scalar product may be used j u st as the product in ord i

y
nar algebra It has no peculiar d ffi culties
. i .
If two vectors A and B are e x pressed in terms of the

three unit vecto rs i k as , j ,
B : B r i + s + B s ky
_ A B
1 1
i o i + A1 B 2
i -
j+ A1 B a
i -
k
+ A2 B l j i + A2 B
o
2 j j+ A 2 B
o
3 jk o
+ A3 B l
k o
j+ A 3 B 2
k .
j+ A 3 B n k
i
a ,
By means of ( 4) th s reduces to
A (7)
If in
particular A and B are unit vecto s the components r ,
ir
A 1 A 2 A 3 and B 1 B 2 B 3 are the dire cti on cosines of t h e
i d r rr d
, , , ,
l nes A an B efe e t o X Y Z , , .
DIRECT AND SKE W R OD UC TS OF VECTOR S P 59
AI cos (A X) , , A2 cos (A , Y) , A8 cos (A Z) , ,
B 1
cos (B X) , , B 2
cos (B ,
Y) , B 3
c os (B Z) , .
o i
Moreover A B s the cosine of the included an gle . Henc e
the equation becomes
c os ( A, B ) cos (A X ) cos, (B , X) cos ( A Y) cos ( B Y)
, ,
cos (A Z ) cos ( B Z )
, , .
In case A and B are perpendi cular this reduces to the we l l

known relation
0= cos ( A X ) cos ( B X)
, , cos ( A Y) cos ( B
, , Y)
cos ( A Z ) c o s ( B
, ,
Z)
be t ween the direct on cosines of th e i

line A and the line B .
If A and B are t wo sides O A

and O B of a tri angle 0A B the thi r , d FIG 1 7
side A B is C B A ( Fig .
. .
-
A— 2A-
B c os
0 = A + B
2 2 2 — 2 A B c os (AB ) .
That is the square of one side of a t ri angle is equal to the

r i
,
s u m of the squa es of the other t w o sides diminished b y tw c e
their product times the cosine of the angle b etween them .
O r t h e square of one side of a tri angle is equal to the sum of

,
the squares of t h e other two sides di minished by twice the

projection of either of those sides upon the other the theorem ,
sometimes known as the generaliz ed P ythagorean theorem .
If A and B are t wo sides of a parallelogram C A B ,
and D A B are the diagonals Then .
D-
D = (A — B ) o
(A — B ) =A-
A — 2 A-
B + B o
B,
-A + B -
B) .
That is the sum of the squares of the di agona s of a para e o l ll l
r
,
gram is equal to t wi ce the sum of the squa es of t wo sides .
In like mann er als o
C — D-
C- D= 4 A o
B
0 2 —
D = 4 A B
2
c os
That is the difference of t h e squares of the di agona s of a

, l
parallelogram is equal to four times the product of one of the
sides b y the projection of the other upon it
j
.
If A is any vector ex pressed in terms of i k as , ,
B if A be e xpress ed in terms of any thre e non -c oplan a r un it

ut
vecto rs a b c as, ,
A= a a + bb + c a
o h
+ 2 b c b -
c + 2 c a c o
s
2 c a cos ( c, a ) .
This formula is analogous to the one in Cartesian geometr y

whi ch gives the distance between two points referred to
oblique axes If the points he x 1 f’l v z ] a n d x 2 y 2 x2 the
i
.
, , , ,
d stance squ ared is

S
I 2
(3 2
?
1)
2
D (x2 x l l r)
I
’
(z z
)
“ “
2 1
2 ( x2 x ) (3
1 12 19 0 003 ( X Y) ,
2 (h (z z
a
l ) cos ( Y Z ) ’
2 ( z
2
— z
1 ) ( x2 x l ) cos ( Z X) , .
De fi n i tio n :of the vector A in to

Th e s ke w p ro duc t
i
the vecto r B s the vec to r quant t 0 whos e di rection is the iy
l
norm a upon that side of the p an e of A and B on which l
DIRECT AND SKE W ROD UCTS OF VECTOR S P 61
rotation from A to B through an angle of less than one

y
hun dred and eight degrees appears positive or counter
clockwi se ; a n d whose magni t ude is obtained b y multiplying
the product of the magni tudes of A and B by the s i n e of the
angle from A to B
x y l
.
Th e direction of A B ma a so be de fi ned as that in

which an ordin ar right-han ded y
screw advances as it tu ns so as C Ax B r
y
‘
:
t o carr A toward B ( Fig .
Th e skew product is denoted by

a cross as the di rect pro uct was d
y
b a dot It s written
. i Fm 1 8 . .
C= A X E
and re a d A c ro s s B Fo r this reason it is often called the c ro s s

.
product More frequently however it is called the ve c to r prod

.
, ,
uc t ,
owing to the fact that it is a vector quantity and in con
tra st with the direct or scalar product whos e value is scalar
y i
.
Th e vector product is b de fi nit on
( 9)
r
when A and B a e the magnit u des of A a n d B respec t ively and
where c is a unit vector in the di rection of C In case A and .
B are u nit vectors the skew product A x B reduces to the

unit vector 0 multi plied by the sine of the angle from A t o B
y
.
Obviously also if either vector A or B is multipl ied b a scalar

x their product is multiplied b that scalar y .
( xA ) D= A>
< ( xB ) = xC .
If A and B are p a ra lle l the angle between them is either z ero

r
or one hund ed and eighty degrees In either c a se the sine
d i ll
.
vanishes and consequently the vector pro uct A x B s a nu

vecto r An d con versely if A x B s z e ro
. i
AB s in
Hence A or B or sin ( A B) is z ero Thus the c o n di tio n fo r
x
, .
lle lis m f t wo ve c to rs n e i th e r f whic h va n is h e s is A B

y y
a ra o O
p
0 . a corollar the vector product of an vector into
As
itself vanis hes
il
.
32 ] Th e vector product of two vectors w l appear wh e r

ever the sin e o f the included an gle is of importance just as ,
the scalar product di d in the case of the cosine Th e two prod .
u c t s are in a certa i n sense complementary They have been

li
.
denoted by the two common signs of mul tip cation the dot ,
and the cross In vector an alysis they o ccupy the place held
.
by the trigonome t ric functions of scalar analys is They are .
at the same time amenable to algebraic treatment as will be

y
,
seen later A t present a few uses of the vec tor product ma

.
be cited .
IfA and B ( Fig 1 8 ) are the two adjacent sides of a parall el

.
ogram the vector product

(A B)
, c
represent s the area of that parallelogram in magnitude and

di rection ( Art This geometric representation of A B x
i
.
s of such common occurrence and importance that it might

well be taken as the de fi nition of the product From it the .
tri gonometric de fi ni tion follows at once Th e vector product .
appears in mechanics in connection with couples If A and .
A are two forces forming a couple the momen t of the

i
,
couple is A X B prov ded only that B is a vector drawn from

a n y poin t of A to an y
point of - A Th e product makes its
i
.
appearance again in considerin g the velocities of the indiv d '
ua l particles of a body which is rotating wi th an a n u l a r ve
l o c it y given in magn tude and di rection b y A i g

If R be the .
radius vecto r drawn from any point of the ax is of ro t ation A

x
the product A B will give the velocit o f the e xtremity of y
li
.
R ( Art This velocity is perpendi cular a ke to the a xis

i
.
of rotat on and to the radi us vector R .

DIRE C T KE W PR OD U
AN D S T
C S OF VECTOR S 63
Th e vector produc s x
and B x A are not the t A B
same They are in fact the negatives of each other Fo r if
. .
rotation from A to B appear positive on one side of the plane

'
of A a n d B rotation from B to A wil l appear positive on the

x
,
other Hence A B is the normal to the plane of A and B

x
.
upon that side opposite to the one upon which B A is the

normal Th e magnitudes of A B and B A are the s ame
. x x .
Hence
A x B B x A ( 1 0)
Th e fa c to rs in a ve c to r p ro du c t ca n be i n te rc h a n ge d f
i a nd o n l
y
if the s ign O f the p ro du c t be re ve rse d.
Th is is the rst i stance in w

fi the laws of operation in
n hi c h
vector analysis differ essentially from those of scalar a n a l y
i
s s It may be that at fi rst this change of sign whi ch mus t
.
accompa ny the interchange of factors in a vector product will

ive ri e to some di f
fi culty and co fusion C hanges similar to
y
g s n .
this are however ver familiar No one would think of inter

, , .
changing t h e order o fx and y in the e xpression sin ( x y )

without p re fi xin g the negative sign to the resul t Thus .
sin ( y — x) — sin ( x y ) ,
although the sign is not required for the case of the cosine .
cos ( y — x) c o s ( x — y) .
A gain if the cyclic order of the lette s A B C in the area of a r

tri angle be changed th e area will b e changed in sign ( Art
,
"
AB C — A CB
the same man ner this reversal of sign which occu s

In , r
when the order of the factors in a vector product is reversed
q
,
will appear af t er a little practice and ac uaintance just a s

natural and convenient as it is necessar y .
Th e distributive law of multiplicati o n holds in t h e

case of vecto r products just as in ordi nar algebra — e xc ep t y
64 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
u lly m a in t a in e d
th a t the orde r o f the fa c t o rs mu s t be c a re f
0
(1 1 )
A very simple proof ma y be given by making use of the ideas
developed in Art 26 Suppose that C
L
. .
is not coplanar with A and B et A .
and B be two sides of a triangle ta ken

in order Then ( A + B ) wi ll be the
.
th ird side (Fig Form the prism

.
of which thi s triangle is the ba se and

of which 0 is the slant height or edge
i
.
FIG . 19 , Th e areas of the lateral faces of th s

pri sm are
A x c, B x c,
Th e areas of the bases are

and — 3- A x B
( A x B ) 2 ( ) .
B the sum of all the faces of the prism is z ero ; for the
ut
prism is a closed surface Hence .
l
-
2
(1 1 )
relation is therefore proved in case 0 s non-coplanar
Th e i
with A and B Shou ld C be coplanar with A and B choose D
i
.
, ,
any vector out of that plane Then C D also w ll lie out of

.
that plane Hence b y ( 1 1 )

.
Since the thr ee vectors in each set A C D and B C D and , , , , , ,
A B C D will be non -c oplanar if D is properly chos en the

, , ,
products may be e xpanded .

This may be wri t ten in the form of a determi nant as
i j k
Ax B AI A, A3
Th e formul ae for the sine and cosine of the sum or dif

ference of two angles follow immedi at ely from the dot a nd
cros s produc t s L
et a and b be two unit vectors lying in the
.
ij-plane If x b e the angle that a makes with i and y the

.
,
angle b makes wit h i then ,
i + s in x j
'
a cos x ,
— x
a
) ,
cos (y — x ) c os y c os x + s in y s in x .
b = ’
cos y i — s in y j ,
Hence cos ( y + x ) c os y c os x — s in y s in x.
— x
) ,
s in x c o s y)
—
.
Hence sin (y — x) s in y c os x — s in x c o s y .
Hence sin ( y + x ) s in y c os x + s in x c o s y .
If l, m , and l m n are the direction cosines of two

n
’
,
’
,
’
unit vectors a and a referred to X Y Z then

’
, , ,
cos ( a ,
as has already been shown in A rt 2 9 Th e familiar formula

y
. .
for the square of the sine of the angle between a and a ma ’
be found .
DI RECT AN D S KE W R OD U CTS P OF VECTOR S 67
a x a
’
sin ( a a ) ,
’
e = ( m n
’
( n l ’
l ’ - l m ) k,’
( m
where e is a u ni t vector perpen di cular to a and a ’
( a x a
’
) ( a x a) ’
sin ( a a ) 2
,
’
e e sin ( a 2
,
sin 2
(m n
’
m ’
u
)
z
+ ( n l
'
n
’
l) 2
+(l m
' ’
l m) 2
This leads to an easy way of establishing the useful identity

’ ’
(m n
’
m ’
u )
z
( n l n l) 2
( l m ’ ’
l m )2
m 2
n
?
) (l
’2
m ’2
n
’2
) ( W mm ’
n n
’
)
2
.
P ro du c ts f
O M o re th a n Two Vec t o rs
]36 to this point

Upnothing has been said concerning
products in which the num b er of vecto rs is greater than
t wo If three vectors are com b ined in t o a product the result
.
is called a t rip le product N e x t to the simple products .
A B and A>
o
<B the triple products are the most important .
All higher products may b e reduced to them .
Th e simplest triple product is formed b y multiplying the

scalar product of two vectors A and B into a thi rd C a s
A-
( B)c .
This in reality does not di ffer essentially from scalar m ul ti

pli cat ion (A rt Th e scalar in t hi s case merely happens to
.
b e the scalar product of the two vectors A and B M oreover .
inasmuch as t wo vectors cannot stand side by side in the

form of a product as B C wit hout either a dot or a cross to
uni t e them the parenthesis in ( AB ) C is superfluous Th e
, .
e x pression A R0 0
cannot be interpreted in any o t her way than as the product 1
of the vector 0 b y the scalar A B .
1 La t e r ( Ch a p V )
p ro du c t B C wh e re n o s i n e i t h e r do t o r c ro s s o c c u rs
. . th e ,
g ,
will b e d e fi n e d
a n d c o n se qu e n t l y n o a
.
mg
B u t it wi l l b e s e e n t h e re t h a t (A B ) C a n d A ( B C) a re id e n t i c a l
bi u i t y c a n a ris e fro t h e o is s i o n o f t h e pa re n t h e s is m m o o
.
second triple product is the scalar product of
Th e
two vec t ors of which one is itself a vector product as
, ,
A- ( B X C ) or ( AX B )-C .
Thi s sort of product h as a scalar value and consequently is

oft en called t h e scalar triple prod
uc t It s properties are perhaps most
.
easily deduced from its commonest

geometri cal inte rpretation et A B . L , ,
and C be any three vectors drawn

A from t h e same origin ( Fig .
FI G 2 0
Then B x C is t he a re a __o f the par
. .
__
a ll e l o ra m of which B and C are two adjacent sides T h e

g .
A-
8 03 1“
( B x C) v
( 1 4)
r
will therefo e be the volume of t h e parallelopiped of whi ch
B><C is the base and A the slant height or edge Se e A rt 2 8 . . .
This volume v is positive if A and D x C lie upon the same

side of t h e B C plane ; but negative if they lie on opposite
-
sides In other words if A B 0 form a right-handed or

.
, ,
positive system of three vectors the scalar A ( B x C) is posi o
tive ; but if they form a left-handed or negative system it ,
is negative .
In case A B and C are coplanar this volume will be

, ,
neit her posit ive nor negative b u t z ero A n d conversely if .
the volume is z ero the three edges A B C of t h e parallelo , ,

‘
piped must lie in one plane Hence th e n e c e s s a ry a n d s uffi .
c ie n t c o n di tio n
f th e c o p la n a ri ty O f th re e ve c to rs A, B , 0
y
or n one
of wh ic h va n is h e s a corollar the scalar

is 0 . As
triple product of t hree vecto rs of which two are equal or
i
collinear must van sh ; for any two vecto rs a re coplanar .
Th e two products A- ( B X C) and ( Ax B -

) C are equal to the
same volume v of the parallelopi p ed whose concurrent edges
are A B C Th e sign of the volume is the same in b oth
, , .
DIRECT AND SKE W R ODUCTS Of VE C TOR S P ”
69
y
Thi s equalit may b e state d as a rule of Operation Th e . do t
a nd th e c r o ss in a sca la r trip le p ro du c t m a y be i n t e rc h a n
ge d
wi tho u t a l te ri n g the va lu e f th e
O p ro du c t .
It m a y als o be seen that the vecto rs A B , , C may be per

muted cyc licly without altering the product .
A-
( B x C) B -
( Cx A ) C ( )
1 5
Fo r each of the e xpressions gi ves the volume of the same

pa rallelopiped and that volume will have in each case the
same sign b ecause if A is upon the pos itive side of the B C
,
plan e B will b e on the p o sitive side of the C A-plane and 0

,
upon the pos itive side of the A B —plane Th e triple product .
may therefore have any one of s ix equivalent forms

A-
( B x C) B - ( Cx A)
( A x B -
)C ( B x C -
) A ( Cx A -
)B
r
.
If however the cyclic order of the lette s is changed the

product will change sign .
A-
( B x C) 1
( )6
Th is may be seen from the fi gure or from the fact that

B xc CxB
H ence
.
: A sc a la r l t e re d by i n te rc h a n gi n g
trip le p r o duc t is n ot a
th e do t o r the c ro s s o r by p e rm u ti ng c y c li c ly t h e o rde r of th e
ve c to rs , bu t i t is re ve rs e d in s ign if t he c y c lic o r der be c h a n ge d
y
.
word is necessar upon the sub ject of parentheses

A
in this triple product Ca n they b e omitted without a m
.
b igu ity ? They can Th e e x pression .
Ao C
y
can have onl the one interpretation
A
Fo r the e xpression ( A-
B ) x C s meaningless It is im p o s i .
sible to form the skew product of a scalar AB and a vector

C .
Hence as there is only one way in whi ch A-B xC ma y
b e interpreted no confusion can arise from omitt ing the
,
parentheses Furthermore owing to the fa ct that there are

.
s ix scalar triple products of A B and C which have the same , ,
value and are consequently generally not worth distinguish

ing the one from another it is often convenient to use the ,
symbol
[A B C]
to denote an one of the y s ix equal products .
[ A B C] A-
B xc B-
Cx A C AxBo
AxB -
C B x C-
A CxA-
B
[ A B C] [A C B ] .
scalar triple products of the three unit vectors i k

Th e , j ,
a l l vanish e x cept the two which contain the three different
vectors .
[i k
j ] = 1 7
( )
Hence if three vectors A, B , C be ex pressed in terms of i, j , k
as
B = a i + a j+ a n
then [ A B C] = A I
B ,
C3 + B 1
C, A 3 + 01 A , B 3
— A1 B ,
C, — B 1 C, A , — CI A 3 B ,
.
Thi s may b e ob tained b y actually performing the mul t iplica

tions which are indicated in the triple product Th e result .
may be wri tten in the form of a determinant 1 .
Al A 2 A3
[A B C] B ,
B ,
B ,
01 02 03
1 Th i s is t h e
t e t ra h e d ro n o n e of
fo r m l gi i
u a
wh o s e
ve n
ve rt c e s
in
is
so
at
lid
the
a na
o ri i ng g
ly t i c m m g
y
.
eo
Fo r
e tr
a
fo r t h e
o re
l e
vo u
e n e ra l f o r
mm l o fa
u a
see e x e rc i se s
.
DIRECT AN D S KE W PR OD UCT S OF VECTOR S 71
Ifmore generally A, B , C are e x pressed in terms of any three

non-coplanar vectors 3, b, c which are not necessarily unit
vectors ,
A= a
I
a + a
2
b + a
3
0
C= C
I
a + C
2
b + C
3
0
where a
l , a
,,
a
s ; b l , b, , b, ; and c
l , c
,,
c
3
a re certain con
s ta n t s , then
[ A B C] c
,
a
3 + c
1
“
a
bs
— a
1
ba c
,
— b1 0
3
a
,
— c
l
a
3
b ,) [ a b c
] .
“ “ “ 3
I 2
[A B C] b 1 b, b8 [a b c
]
c 0 o
y
1 2 s
third t pe of tri ple product is the vector product

Th e
vectors of which one is itself a vector product Such .
and
Th e vector is pe rpendi cular to A and to (B x C) .
B u t ( B x C) is perpendicular to the plane of B and 0 Hence .
being perpendicular to ( Dx C) must lie in the

plane of B and C and thus take the form
a s y c,
where x and y are two scalars In like manner also the

i
.
vec tor being pe rpend cular to must li e

in the plane of A and B Hence it will b e of the form .
=mA n B
where m and v are two scalars . From i

this it s evident that
in general
is n o t e qu a l to
Th e parentheses therefore cannot be removed or inter

changed It is essential to know which cross product is
.
formed fi rst and which second This product is termed the.
vector triple product in contrast to the scalar triple product .
Th e vector triple product may be used to e xpress that c o m

o n e n t of a vector B which is perpendicular to a given vector
p
A . This geome t ric use of the product is valuable not only in
itself but for the light it sheds
upon the properties of the product
AX B
L
.
et A ( Fig 2 1 ) be a give n ve c t o r .
~
and B another vector whose com

n t s parallel and perpendic u lar
p
L
o n e
A to A are to be found et the .
components of B parallel and per

n dic u l a r to A be B and ’ ”
p e B re
s p e c t ive l y Draw A and B from a .
common origin Th e product AxB .
is perpendi cular to the plane of A and B Th e product .
Ax ( AxB ) lies in the plane of A and B It is furthermore .
perpendi cular to A Hence it is collinear with B An ”
i
. .
e xamination of the fi gure will show that the direct on of

AX ( AxB ) is opposite to that of B Hence ”
.
”
c B ,
where c is some scalar constant .
Now sin (A B ) b
‘
= 34 B 2
,
”
but — c B ” — c in (A, B) b ”
,
”
i
if b be a un t vector in the direction of B ”
Hence c A2 A-
A .
Hence
A-
A
Th e component of B perpendicular to A has be en e x pressed

in terms of the vector triple product of A A and B Th e , , .
component B parallel to A was found in Art 2 8 to be

’
.
Substituting these values in
<(Ex C)
A> A-
C B A-
B C .
( 24 )
Th e relation is therefore proved for any three vectors A B 0 , ,
.
A nother method of giving the demonstration is as foll ows .
It wa s sho wn that the vector triple produc t Ax ( B XC) was

of t h e form
Ax ( B XC) x B y C .
Since Ax is perpendi cular to A, t h e direct produc t of

it b y A is z ero . Hence
A o B y A-C 0
and w y A-
C A-
B .
Hence Ax ( B x C) n A-
( CB AB C),
where n is a scalar constant . It remains to show 71. 1 .
Mult iply by B .
n (A c B B o
AB 0o
Th e scalar triple product allows an interchange of dot and
cross Hence
.
A-
( B x C)xB — A
if the order of the factors ( B x C) and B be inverte d .
A-
[B x ( Dx C) ] A-
[ B -
C B BB 0]
— B C Ao B
o B-
B AC o
.
Hence n 1 and A-
C B J
ADC ( 24 )
y
.
From t h e
three letters A B C b difi e re n t arrangements
, , ,
four allied products in each of whi ch B and C a re included in

parentheses may b e formed These are .
As a vec t or product changes its sign whenever the order of

two factors is intercha nged the above products evidently
,
satisfy the equations

A>
<( B xC )
D IRECT AN D S KE W P R OD U C T S OF VECTOR S 75
Th e e xpan sion for a vector triple product in which the

paren t hesis comes fi rst may therefore be o b tained directly
from t hat already found when the parenthesis comes last .
C-
B A C-
A B .
Th e form u l ae then be come

= A-
C B AB C
and A-
C B 0-
3 A
These
reduction formul ae are of such constant occurrence and
y
great import ance that the should b e com m i t ted to memory .
Their content may be stated in the followi ng rule To e xp a n d

fi
.
a vec tor t rip le

p r o du c t rs t mu l t ip ly th e
e xte rio r fa c to r i n t o th e
re m o te r t e rm in t h e p a r e n th e s is to fo rm a s c a l a r c o efii c ie n t fo r
the n e a re r on e th e n m u l t ip ly th e e xte ri o r fa c tor i n to th e n e a re r

,
t e rm i n t he th e s is fo rm la fi c ie n t f t he
fi
pa re n to a sc a r c oe or
re mo te r o n e , a n d s u btr a c t th is res u l t f ro m th e rs t .
far as t h e prac t ical applicati ons of vector analysis

As
are concern ed one can generall get along without any
, y
formul ae more complicate d than that for the vector t riple
product B u t it is frequently more convenient to have at
.
hand other reduction formul ae of which all may b e derived

simply b y making use of the e xpansion for the t riple product
and of the rul es of operation with t h e triple pro
duc t A- B xC .
To reduce a scalar product of two vectors each of which

is itself a vector product of two vectors as ,
(AxB )
L et this be regarded as a scalar t ri ple product of the th ee r
vecto rs and
A, B , thus <D
C> -
AxB 4 Cx D)
Inte rc ha nge the dot and the cross .

AxB -
( CxD) A-
B x ( CxD)
B B 0 B-
C D .
Hence ( Ax B -
) ( Cx D) A-
C B-
D A-
D B C 2
( 5)
y
.
This ma be written in determin antal form .
A-
D
( AxB )( OX D
3 4)
If A and D b e call ed the e xtremes B and C the means A

and C the antecedents ; B and D the consequents in this
product according to t h e familiar usage in proportions then
y
,
the e xpansion ma be stated in words Th e scalar product .
of two vector products is equal to the ( scalar) p fo du c t of the

antecedents times the ( scalar ) product of the conse uents q
di minished b y the ( scalar) product of the means times the
( scalar ) product of the e tremes

r
x .
To reduce a vector product of two vecto s each of whi ch

is i tself a vector product of two vecto s as r ,
Let <D
C> E . Th e product becomes
A-
E B B EA .
Substituting the value of E back into the equati on

( CxD) B
A o
( B Cx D) A o
( 2 6)
L et F AxB . Th e produ ct then becomes
ED 0 F-
C D
( Ax B -
D)C ( AxB -
C) D .
By q
equating these two e ui valent results and transposing
all the terms to one side of the e uation q ,
[B C D] A ( 7)
2
Th isis an equation with scalar coe ffi cients between the four

vectors A B C D There is in general o nl y one such equa
, , , .
DIRECT AND SKE W R OD UCTS OF VECTOR S P 77
tion because any one of the vectors can be e xpressed in onl

,
y
one way in terms of t h e o t her three : thus the scalar c o e ffi
c ie n t s of that equation which e xists between four vectors are
found to be nothing b u t the four scalar tri ple products of

th o s e vectors ta ken three at a time Th e equation ma a so . yl
b e written in the form
c .
M ore e x amples of reduction formul a of whi ch some are ,
import ant are given among t h e e xercises at the end of the

,
chapter In view of these it becomes fairly obvious th at

y
.
the com binat ion of an numbe r of vecto rs conn ected in

y
any legitimate wa b y dots and crosses or the prod uct of an y
numb er of such combinations can b e ultimately reduced to
a sum of terms each of which conta in s onl y one cross at most .
Th e proof of this theorem depends solely upon analyz ing the

possible combinations of vectors and sho wing that they all
fall under the reduction formul a in such a way that t h e
crosses m a y be removed two at a time until not more than
one remains .
Th e formul a developed in the foregoing article have

interesting geometri c interpreta tions They also a fi o rd a .
simple means of deducing the formul a of Spherical Trigo

n o me tr T hese do not occur in the vect r a al sis proper y
i
y . o n .
The ir place s taken by the two quadruple products ,
( AxB ) A0 B-
D B e An ( 2 5)
[A CD] B [B e n] A
[AB D] c [ AB C] 2
( 6)
i
wh ch are now to be inte rpr eted
L i L
.
et a unit sphere ( Fig 2 2) be g ven et th e vectors

. .
A B C D be unit vectors dr awn from a common origin the

, , , ,
centre of t h e Sphere and terminating in the surface of the

,
Sphere at the points A B C D Th e great circular arcs

, , , .
78 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
AB , A etc give the angles between the vecto s A a n d B
.
,
r ,
A and C ,
etc Th e points A B C D determine a quadrilateral
. , , ,
upon the sphere A C and B D are one .
pair of opposite sides ; A D and B C the ,
other A B and CD are the diagonals . .
A-
C B D o
AB B C
sin ( A B ) CxD sin ( 0 D) AxB , , , .
Th e angle b e t ween A> <B and CXD is the
Fu r 22
angle
.
b e t ween the normals to the AB
.
and CD planes This is the same as

L
- .
the angle between the planes thems elves et it be denoted .
by x Then .
(Ax B ) sin (A B ) sin ( C D) cos x

, , .
Th e angles ( A , B ) (
, C , D) y
ma b e replaced by the great
circular arcs A B , CD which measure them Then .
sin A B sin C D cos cc ,
A-
C B D — A-
D B-
C o
cos A C cos B D cos A D cos B O .
Hence
s in AB s in CD c o s cc c os A C o os B D — cos AD cos B C .
In words : Th e product of the cosines of t wo opposite sides

of a spherical quadr ilateral less the product of the cosin es of
the o t her two Opposite sides is equal to the product of t h e
sines of t h e diagonals m ul tiplied b y the
cosine of the angle b etween them This .
theorem is credited to G auss

L
.
et A B C ( Fig 2 3 ) b e a spherical tri , , .
an gle the sides o f which are arcs of great

L
,
circles et the sides be denoted by a b c

L
.
, ,
F G 23 I . .
respectively et A B C b e the unit vectors .

, ,
drawn from the center of the sphere to the points A B 0 , , .
Furt hermore let p p p be the great circular arcs dr opped

, , ,, ,
DIRECT A ND SKE W R OD UCTS OF VECTOR S P 79
perpendicularly from the vertices A , B , C to the sides a , b, c .
Interpret t h e formula
AC B A
o o
C A-
B- A .
sin ( A B )
, s in c ,
( Cx A)sin (0 A) , sin b .
Then sin 0 sin b cos x ,
where xis the angle b et ween A><A This .
an gle is equal to the angle b etween the plane of A B and t h e ,
plane of C A It is ho wever not t h e interior angle A which

, .
, ,
is one of the angles of the triangle b u t it is t h e e x terior

il
:
angle 1 8 0 A as an e x amination of the fi gure w l show

°
, .
Hence
sin 0 sin b cos ( 1 80 A ) °
sin c sin b cos A

A-C B- A B-C AA cos b cos c cos a 1 .
B y equating the results and transposing ,
cos a c o s b c o s c — s in b s in c c o s A
cos b cos c cos a sin e sin a cos B
cos c cos a cos b s rn a s i n b cos 0 .
Th e last t wo may b e obtained by cyclic permutation of t h e

letters or from t h e iden t i t ies
B-
A CB o
C-
A,
C-
B A-
C B-
C
y
.
N ex tinte rpret the identit in the special

cases in which one of the vecto rs is repeated .
[ A B C] A
L et the three vectors a ion of

.
, be unit vectors in the

b, c di rec t
<A, Ax B
B x C, C> respec t ively Then .
Ax B = c s in c , Ax C — b s in b
c sin 0 sin b A sin 0 sin b sin A
xb
[ A B C] -
C c C sin 0 cos ( 9 0 -p ) sin c
~
°
[ A B C] A = Sin c s in p;
By q
e uatin g the results and cancelling the common factor ,
siu p e
sin b sin A
sin p a
sin 0 sin B
sin p , sin a sin
Th e last two may b e obtained b y c clic permutation y
le t t ers Th e formul a give t h e sines of the altitudes of the
.
tri angle in terms of the sines of the angle and sides .
wri te
[ A B C] A
[ B C A] B
[0A B ] 0
.
Hence sin c sin b sin A .
[ A B C]
sin a s in c s in B :
[ C A]
B
sin b sin a sin 0 :
[C A B ] .
Th e i
express ons [ A B C] [ B CA] [ C AB ] are e ua
, , q l .
the results in pairs and the formul a

s in b s in A = s in a s in B
s m c s rn s in b s in C
sin a sin Cz s in c s in A
as
vectors is z ero for the triangle is a clos ed polygon .
From this equation

82 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
where a b , , c are thre e scalar constants to be determined .
M ultiply b y b xc .
t)
-
b xc
r a a o
b xc b b-
b xc c c -
b xc
[ r h o ] a
[a b c ] .
In like manner b y multiplying the equation by a and

x
c x
a b the coeffi cients b and c may be found .
[ ] = b b
re a
[ c a
]
[r a b ] = c
[ c a b]
Hence [r b c ] a
c
[ a b c
] [ b c a] a
[ b] c
.
Th e denominators are all equal . Hence this

equation
[a b c ]r
which must e xist b etween the four vectors r a b, c
, ,
.
Th e equation may also be written
r ~ b >
< c r
'
-
c >
< a r o a x b
b c
[a b c ] [ a b c
] [a b c ]
b x c c >
< a x b
r .
a
[a b c
] [ a b c
] [ a b c
]
DIRECT A ND SKE PV PR OD UCT S OF VECTOR S 83
which are found b y di vidi ng the three vector products b x c ,
c x a a x b of t hree n o n -
,
c op la n a r vectors a b c b
y the scalar , ,
product [ a b c ] is called t h e re c ip ro c a l s y s te m to a b c , , .
Th e word n o n -c op la n a r is impor t ant If a b 0 were c o .

, ,
plan ar the scalar triple product [ a b 0] would va ni sh and

consequently the frac t ions
b x c c x a a b x
[ a b c
] [ a b c
] [ a b c
]
would all b ecome meaningless Thr ee coplanar vectors have .
no reciprocal system This mus t b e carefully rememb ered. .
Hereafte r When the term re c ip ro c a l s y s te m is used it will b e ,
understood that the t hree ve c to rs a b c are not coplanar

y
.
, ,
Th e system of three vectors reciprocal to s stem a b 0 , ,
wil l be denote d b y primes as a b c ’

,
’
,
'
b x c c x a a x b
[ a b c ] [ a b c
] [ a b c ]
Th e e xp re s s io n fo r r reduces then to the very simple form
r r b b ( )
3 0 -
r a
’
a o
’ - ’
r c c .
The vector r may be e x pressed in terms of the re ciprocal

system a b 0 ins t ead of in terms of a b c In the fi rst
’
,
’
,
’
, ,
.
place it is necessary to note that if a b c are non-coplanar , , ,
a b c which are the norm als to the planes of b and c

’
,
’
,
’
,
c and a a and b must also b e non-coplanar

, Hence r may .
be e xpressed in terms of them by means of proper scalar

coefficients a y z , , .
or [ a b c
] r
y
Multipl successively b y o
a ,
o b, o
c . This gives
a
[ 0] N i
b x [ b c a] , 33 r a. -
[ a
] b c r
y = ro b
[a b c ] z [a b c ]
H ence
ro c , 2 re c
r -
r a a
’
r o b b ’
-
r c c
,
’
.
84 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
]
44 If a the s ’
y stem
,
reciprocal
b ’
to,
a b c the
c
’
be , ,
scalar product of any vector of the reciprocal system in to the

correspon ding vec t or of t h e given system is unity ; b u t
the product of two n o n -corresponding vectors is z ero .
’ ’
a
’o
a b b o c o
c 1
’o ’o ’ ’o
a
’
o b a
’
o
c b a b c c o a c b 0 .
This may b e seen most easily by e xpressing a in

' ’ ’
, b , c
terms of themselves according to the formul a ( 3 1 )

r ro a a
’
ro b b ’ -
r c c
’
.
Hence a ’
'
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
a a o
a a o b b a o
c c
b ’
b
’
o aa ’
b ’
o
bb ’
b
’
o
c c
’
o
’
c
’
o a a
’
c
’
o
b b
'
c
’
-
c c
’
.
Since a
’
,are non-coplanar the corresponding c o e ffi
b
’
, c
’
c ie n ts on the two sides of each of these three equations mus t
b e equal Hence from the fi rst

.
’o ’ ’
1 a a O a o b O a 0 .
From the second 0 Na 1 b ’o

b O b ’
o c .
Fro m the t hird 0 c

’o
a 0 c
’
o b 1 c
’o
c .
This proves the relati ons They may also . be proved

directly from the de fi n i tions of a b c ’
,
’
,
’
b >
< c c -a [ b o a ]
[ a b c
] [ a b c ] [ a b c]
b >
< c b x c o h 0
[ a b c
] [ a b c ] [a b c ]
and so fort h .
Conversely if two sets of three vectors each say A , ,

B ,
C,
and a b c satisfy the relations
, , ,
Aa o =B h o
“
2 C-
c 1
A 0 3 A 0
0 B o
a B 0
0 z 03 0
Cb = Oo
86 VEC TOR A NA L YSIS
Th eo re m Ifa ’
, b ’
, c
’
and a ,
b, c reciprocal s stems
be y
the scalar triple products [ a ’
b ’
c
’
] an d [ a b c ] are numeric a l
reciprocals That is
.
’
b ’
] [
’
b ] 1
[
x
a c a 0
b x c c a a x b
[ a b c ] [ a b c ] [a b c
]
[b x c c xa a x b ] .
3
[ a b c ]
xb ]
[ b xc c>
<a a
[ a b c
]c .
2
[b xc c >
<a a xb ] [ a b c
] c o a xb [ a b c
] .
1 1
2
Hence 3 [ a b c
] _
[
a b c ] [ a b c
]
means of t his relation b etween [a b c ] and [ a
By
’ ’ ’
b c ] it
is possible to prove an i m portant reduc t ion formul a ,
P-
A P B o
P-
C
Q-
A Q B o
Q-
C
BA B B B -
C
whi ch replaces the two scalar triple produc t s by a sum of

nine terms each of which is the product of three direct pro
ducts Thus the t wo crosses which occur in the two scalar
Q
.
products are removed To give the proof l e t P . R be , ,
e xpressed as
=P A A ’
P- ' ’
P ~ B B P C C
o
Q = Q-A A + Q-B B
’ ’
61-
0 0
'
B = B A A
’
B B B
.
o o
’
c
'
.
P-
A P B o
P-
C
[P e n ] :
Q-
A a s we
R-
A B -
B R-
C
J[A M T
I
1
[A
I I
B C
DIRECT AN D S KE W R OD UCTS P OF VE C TOR S 87
PA P-
B
Hence [P Q R ] [ A B C] Q-
A Q B o
B A B B
s y s te m o f t hre e u n it r e c t o r s i , j , k is r e c ip ro c a l
jx k i i xj k . 35
[ 1 1 ]
k 1 [1 1 k]
Fo r thi sreas on the primes i j k are not needed to denote ’ ’
j
,
a syste m of vectors reciprocal to i k Th e primes will , , .
therefore b e us ed in the fut ure to denote anot her set of rect

, j
angular ax es i k jus t as X Y Z are used to denote a
,
’
,
’
,
’
set of a xes difi e re n t from X Y Z , , .
Th e onl
y sy s te m s o fth re e ve c t o rs whi c h a re t h e ir o wn re c i
p ro c a ls
.
t he ri h t -h a de d a nd l eft -h a n de d ms f th r ee u n it
j j
a re n s y s te O
g
That is the system i k and the system i — k
Let
r e c to rs . , , , , .
A, B , C b e a set of vecto rs which is its own reciprocal .
Then b y ( )
32
AA B Bo
0-
0 1 .
Hence the vectors are all unit vectors .
AB o Ac e 0 .
Hence A is perpendicular to B and C .
B-
A B-
C 0 .
Hence B is perpendicular to A a nd C .
C-
A C-
B 0 .
Hence C is perpendicul ar to A and B

j j
.
Hence A B C must be a system like i k or like i

, , k , , , , .
A scalar equation of the fi rst degree in a vector r is

an equa t ion in each term of which r occurs not more than
once Th e value of each term must be scalar As an e xam
. .
ple of such an equation the following may be given .
a a -
b xr c fr o
cl O,
88 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
where a b c d e f are known vec t ors ; and a b c d known
y
, , , ,
, , , , ,
scalars O bviously an scalar e q uation of the fi rst degre e in

y
.
an unknown vector r ma b e reduced to the form

r -
A= a
where A is a known vector ; and a a known scalar To a c

d
.
,
compl ish th is result in the case of the given equation p rocee

a s follows
-
.
a a xb r b c fr o
d 0
{ a a xb b c f} -
r d
.
In more complicate d forms it may be ne c essary to make use .
of various reduction formul a before the equati on can be mad e

to take the desired form ,
-
A
r a .
As a vector has th ree degrees of freedom it is clear that one

scalar equation is in s u fii c ie n t to determine a vector Three .
scalar equa t ions are necessary .
Th e geometric in terpretation of the equa

ti on
r -
A a ( 36 )
is interesting et r be a variable vecto r L
L
.
( Fig 24 ) drawn from a fi x ed origin

. et .
FIG 24
A b e a fi xed vector drawn fr om the same
. .
origin . Th e q
e uation then becomes
‘
7 A COS a ,
r cos ( r A) ,
3 ,
if r be the magnitude of r ; and A that of A . Th e e xp ession r

r cos ( r , A)
is the projection of r upon A Th e equation therefore states .
that the projection of r u pon a cer t ain fi x ed vector A must

90 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
From four scalar e uations q

ro A = a
ro B = b
r -
C= c
I 'D =d
the vector r may be entirely eliminated To accomp sh this . li

solve three of t h e e q u a t io n s and su b s t itute the value in the
’
fourt h .
r
' ’ ’o
a A D o
bB o
D c C Dz d
a
[ B O D] b [ C A D] c
[ A B D] = d [ A B C] .
( 4 0)
vector equati on of the fi rst degree in an unknown
A
vector is an equat ion each term of which is a vector quantity
con t aining the unk n own vector not more than once Such .
an equation is
D E-
r n r F 0,
where A, B , C, D, E, F are known vectors n a known scalar , ,
and r the u nknown vector O n e such equation may in gen .
eral b e solved for r That is to say one vector equation is in

.
,
general suffi cient t o determine the unknown vector which is

con ta ined in it t o the fi rst degree .
Th e me t hod of solving a vector equation is to multiply it

wi th a dot successively b y three arb itrary kno wn non-00planar
vectors Thus three scalar equations are Obtained These
.
.
may be sol ved b y the methods of the foregoing article In the .
fi rst place let the equation b e
Aa o
r + B b-
r + C c ~ r
-
D,
where A, B , C, D, a b c are known vectors No scalar c o e ffi

, , .
c ie n ts are wri t t en in the ter m s for th ey may be incorporated in

,
t h e vectors .
Multiply the equation successively b y A B C ’ ’ ’
, ,
It is understood of course that A B C are non- 00planar , , .

DIRECT A ND SKE IV PR ODU C S T OF VECTOR S 91
a r
o -
DA ’
b- - ’
r DB
'
c r
o
DC o
B ut r a a-
r
’
b ’
b-r c
’
c or .
Hence r -
DA a D- D-
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
B b C c .
Th e solution is therefore accomplished in case A B C are non , ,
C oplanar and a ,b 0 also

, non coplanar Th e special cases in
- .
which either of t hese sets of three vectors is coplanar will not

b e discussed here
r
.
Th e mos t general vector equation of the fi st degree in an

unknown vec t or r contains terms of the t pes y
A -
a r, n r, E xr, I) .
That is it will contain terms which consist of a known

vector multiplied b y t h e scalar product of ano t her known vec
tor and the unknown vector ; t erms which are scalar multi
ples of t h e unknown vector ; terms which are t h e vector
product of a known and the unknown vector ; and constan t
t erms . Th e terms of the type A a -r may al ways b e reduced
to thr ee in numb er Fo r the vectors a b c -which are

.
’
, , ,
multiplied into r may all be e x pressed in terms of t hree non

coplanar vec t ors Hence all the products a -
. r b- r c r , ,
o
,
may be ex pressed in terms of three Th e sum of all terms o f .
t h e t ype A a -r therefore reduces to an e x pression of thr ee
terms as ,
Aa-
r B b-
r Cc o r.
Th e terms of the t pes y n r and E>

<r may also be e xpressed
in thi s form.
b-
’ ’ ’
n r n a a r o
+ n b r + n c c or
’ ’
E xr Ex a a r
o
Exb b c or
q
.
A dding all these terms together the whole e uation reduces

to the form
r KL o
’
a
’ -
Km b
’ ’
K
Th e solution is in terms Oft hree non coplanar vecto s a b c - r '

,
’
,
’
.
These form the system reciprocal t o a b c in terms of which , ,
t h e prod u cts con t ai n ing the unknown vector r were e x pressed .
SUN DRY APPLICA TIO N S OF P R OD U CTS
Ap p lic a tio n s to Me c h a n ic s
48 ] In the mechanics of a ri gid b o dy a force is n o t a

vector in the sense understood in this book Se e Art 3 . . .
A force has magnitude and direction ; b u t it has also a line

of application Two forces whi ch are alike in magnitude
y
.
and direction but which lie upon different lines in the bod
,
do not produce the same e fi e c t N evertheless vectors are .
su ffi ciently like forces to be useful in treating them .
If a number of forces f 1 £ 2 £ 3 -a c t on a body a t the
r
, , ,
same point 0 the sum of the forces adde d as vecto s is called

,
the re su lta n t R .
In the same way if f 1 £ 2 f s do n o t act at the same point

, ,
t h e term resul t ant is still applied to t h e sum of these forces
added just as if they were vectors .
( 41 )
a force does not differ from a vector

fi
.
De n i tio n : Th e m o me n t of a force f about the poi n t 0 is

equal to t h e product of the force b y the perpendic u lar dis
tance from O to the line of action of t h e force Th e moment .
however is b est looked upon as a vector quantity Its m a g .
n it u de
is as de fi n ed above Its direction is usually taken to
.
94 VECTOR ANALYSIS
T his is the magnitude of the moment M o f
{} Th e direction .
of dx f is t h e same as the direc t ion of the momen t Hence .
t h e relation is proved .
M O {f} d .
sum of t h e moments ab out 0 of a number of forces

Th e
f1 f2
,
ac t ing at t h e s a m e p o in t P is equal t o the moment
,
of t h e resul t ant B of the forces ac t ing at that point Fo r let .
d b e t h e vector from O to P Then .
total moment ab out 0 of any numb er of forces f 1 f2

Th e ’
, ,
ac t ing on a rigid bo dy is equal to the to tal momen t of those

forc es ab out 0 increased b y the moment ab out 0 of the ’
result ant B o considered as acting at 0 .
M o {fl ’ £ 2 , M O {fv f2 9 M O {3 '

0 2 4
( )4
Let be vectors dra wn from O to any point in

d v dz ,
f1 f2 respectively et (I d z L
b e the vectors drawn ’
L
, , .
,
fro m O to the same points in f 1 £ 2

’
respecti vely et 0 , , .
b e t h e vector from O to O Then ’

.
Mo {f1 , f2 , d1 >
<f1 d z x f2
M O {f1 , f2 ,
'
(l
l x
’
fl
(d1 ( d2
- n
B ut is the vec or drawn from O to 0 Hence — C x f

c t ’
.
,
is the moment ab out 0 of a force equal in magnitude and’
parallel in direction to f1 b u t situate d at 0 Hence .

DIRECT AND SKE W PR OD UCT S OF VE C TOR S 95
c Ma {R0 }
H ence
o r .
M 01 {f1 , f2 , MO { p 2
f £ , Mo i
{ o
R i ( 44 )
Th e theorem is therefore proved .
Th e resul tant R is Of course the same at a ll points Th e

y
.
subs cript O is a t t ached merel t o sho w at wha t poin t it is

s up p o s e d to act when the moment about 0 is taken Fo r ’
.
the point of applicat ion of B affects the value of that moment .
Th e scalar product of the total moment and the resultant

is the same no matter ab out what point the moment be taken .
In other words the product of the total moment the result ,
ant and the cosine of the angle b etween them is invariant

,
for all points of space .
£2 ,
where O and O are any two points in space This important

’
.
relation foll ows immediately from the equation

MO ’
{ l
f a f2 9
Z MO M O {R 0 } '
Fo r R -
Mo r
§ f1 , f2 ,
=B -
M o {f1 , f2 , + R -M O {B 0 } , .
B the moment of B is perpendicular to

ut . B . no matt er what
the point 0 of application b e Hence .
R Moo '
{R 0 } 0
and the relation is proved Th e variation in the total .
moment due to a variation of the point ab out which the

moment is tak en is always perpendi cular t o the resulta nt .
A poin t 0 may b e found such that the t otal moment

’
ab out it is parall el to the resultant Th e condi tion for .
parallelism is
B XM 0 { 1
f £2 , 0
x
' 0
,
E t ra ,
if“ £ 2 , = R>
<M o ( fl , £2 ,
+ R X MO '
zRo =
g O
96 VE C TOR ANA L YSI S
where O is any point chos en at random Replace . BI O {B
/
0 }
by its value and for b revity omit to wri t e the f 1
f 2 , , in the
b races Then
B xM o f B xM o 0 .
Th e problem is to solve thi s equa t ion for c .
B xM o B B 0 B -
c R 0
.
Ne w B is a known quantity M O is also supp osed to b e

L
.
kno wn et c b e chosen in the plane through 0 p e rp e n

q
.
dicular to R Then R- C O and the e uation reduces to

.
RXM O RB
O 0
B XM O
R-
R
IfC b e chosen equal to th is vector the tota moment abo ut l

the point O which is at a vector distance from 0 equal to c
’
, ,
will b e parallel to R M oreover since the scalar product of

.
,
the total moment and t h e resultan t is constant and since the

res ul t ant i t self is cons tant it is clear that in the case where
they are parallel the numerical value of the total moment
will b e a mini mum .
Th e to ta l moment is unchanged by di splacing the point

ab ou t which it is taken in the direction of the res ul tan t .
FOI ‘
M O § f1 , f2 ,
'
M 0 {f1 , £ 2 , OXR o
Ifc is parallel to B c
0O ’
vanishes and the moment
,
ab out 0 is equal to that about 0 Hence it is possible to

’
.
fi n d n o t merely o n e poi nt 0 a b out which the total moment

’
is parallel to the resulta nt ; but the total moment about any

poin t in t h e line drawn through 0 parallel to R is parallel ’
to B Furtherm ore t h e solution found in equation for C is

.
t h e o n ly one which e xists in the plane perpendicular t o B .
unl ess t h e result ant B vanishes Th e results that have been

. .
ob tained may b e summed up as follows :

98 VECTOR A N AL YSIS
y
the ax is Th e velocit of a n y po int in its c rc e is e ual il q
y i
.
to the product of the angular velocit and the ra d us of the

r q
circle It is therefo e e ual to the product of the angular
.
velocit a n d the perpend c ul ar d s y i i

tance from the point to the axis
yi
.
Th e direction of the velocit s

rp e n dic u Ia r to t h e ax is and to
l
p e
the radi u s of the circ e described

b the point y
L
.
et a ( Fig 2 5) be a vector dra wn .
along the axis o f rotation in that

direct on in which a right-handed i
screw woul d a d vance f turned in i
the direction in wh i ch the bo y is d
F o 25 r .
rotating
.
et the magnitude of a . L
be a the angular velocity Th e vecto r a m a y be taken to
L i
.
,
represent the rotation of t h e body et r be a rad us vector .
drawn from any point of the ax is of rotation to a point in th e

b ody Th e vector product
.
a >
<r a r s in
( a, r )
is equal in magnitude and direction to the velocit v of t h e y
terminus of r Fo r its directi on is perpen di cular to a and r
.
and its magnitude is the product of a and the perpendicular

distance r sin ( a r) from the point to the line a That is
, .
v a >
<r .
( 4 5)
If the body be rotating simul taneous l about several ax es y
which pass through the same point as in t h e
y i
a 3 a
] , 2 3 ,
cas e of the g roscope the velocities due to the var ou s

r o t ati ons are v a > <r
,
1 l 1
v2
v8 a xr
s 3
DIRECT A ND KE W PR OD UCT
S S OF VECTOR S 99
where r 1 r 2 t a , , , r
a e the radi i vectores drawn from points
on the ax is a l ea , to the same point of the body Le t
, .
the vecto rs r l r 2 t a be drawn from the common point of

i
, , ,
intersect on of th e ax es Then .
o o
'
=r
This shows that the bo d moves as if rotating with the y

angular velocity which is the vector sum of the angular
velociti es a l 8 2 a 3
, Th is theorem is sometimes known
, ,
a s the parallelogram law of an g ul ar velocities .
It will be shown later ( Art ) 6 0 that the motion of any

rigid body one point of which is fi xed is at each ins tant of
time a rotation ab out some axis drawn through that point
i
.
Th s ax is is called the instantaneous a x is of rotation Th e .
ax is is not the same for all time but constantly changes its ,
pos ition Th e motion of a rigid body one point of whi ch is

r
.
fi x ed is th ere fore epresente d by
v a xr 4
( )5
where a is the instantaneous angular velocity ; and r the ,
radi u s vector drawn from the fi xed point to any point of the
body .
Th e most general motion of a rigid body no point of which

is fi x ed may b e treated as follows Choose an arb itrar y
y
.
poin t 0 At any instant this point will have a velocit v

.
0
.
Re l a ti ve t o th e p o in t 0 the b ody will have a motion of rota tion

ab out some axis drawn through 0 Hence the velocit v of . y
any point of the body may b e represente d b y the s um of
V the velocit
0
y
of O and e xr t h e velocity of that po int
relative to 0 .
v v a xr ( 46)
0 .
1 00 VECTOR A NALYSI S
Incase V is p arallel to a t h e b ody moves around a and
0 ,
along a simultaneou sly This is precisely t h e motion of a

.
scre w advancing along a In case V is perpendicular to a it

. 0 ,
is possib le to fi n d a point given b y the vector r such that

, ,
its veloci t y is z ero That is .
a xr
Thi s y
ma be done as follows . M ul tipl y by xa .
vo x a
-
a a r At a vo x a .
Le t r be chosen perpendicular to a . Then a r -is z ero and

vo x
xa
aoa r a
v0
a a -
Th e point r thus determined has the propert that its ve l o c
, , y
ity is z ero If a line b e drawn through t hi s point parallel to
.
a the mot ion of the b ody is one of instan taneous rotati on

,
ab out t his n e w ax is .
In case v is neither parallel nor perpendicular to a it m a y

0
b e resolved into two components

'
V0 V0 V0
whi ch are respectively parallel and perpend cular to a i

v v v a ><r o
’
0
”
A point may now be found such that
v a xr
”
L
.
,
et the different points of the b ody referred to thi s point be

denot ed b y r Then the equat ion b ecomes
’
.
’ ’
v vo a xr .
Th e motion here e xpressed consists of rotation about an a xis

a and t ranslation along that a x is It is therefore seen that .
t h e most general motion of a rigid b ody is at any instant

1 02 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
As ’
l
f is paral el to a the scalar product [ a df van shesi .
a-
”
dxi a o dxf .
On the other hand the work done by f is equal to the work

done by f during the displacement Fo r f being parallel to .
’
a is perpendic ul ar to its line of action If h be the common .
vecto r perpendicular from the line a to the force f the work

done by f during a rotation of angular veloci t a for time y
t is appro ximatel y
W : hf "
a t A nxf t "
.
Th e vector (1 drawn from an point of a to any p oint of f ma y y

be broken up into three components of which one is h another ,
is parallel to a and the third is parallel to f In the scalar

i
,
triple product [ a d f o nl y that component of d which s

perpendic ular ali ke to a and f has an e fi e c t Hence y .
W a h xf
- ”
: t - ’
a dxf t
’
a -
dx ft .
If a rigid body upon whi ch the forces f 1 f2 act be dis , ,
placed b y an angular velocity 9 for an infi ni tesimal time t .
and if d l d2, ,be the vectors drawn from any point 0 of

a to any points of f f respectively then the work done
1 2 , , ,
by the forces fl f2 will be a pp ro xim Me ly

, ,
W= ( a -d1 >
<f1 a d >
2 <f2 t o
a -
( l
d 1 (l
g xf2 t
a o
M o {fl , £ 2 , t
i q
.
If the body be n e u ilibrium thi s work must be z ero .
Hence a-M o if] £2 t 0 , , : .
Th e scalar product of the angular ve oc t 9 and the tota l l iy

y
.
moment of t h e forces fl f, about an point 0 must be

l
o
, ,
z ero .A s a may be any vector whatsoever the moment itse f

must vanish .
M o { f1 , f2 , O
DIRE C T AN D S KE W PR OD U C S T OF VE C TOR S 1 03
y
necessar conditions that a rigid bod he in e q u ili b
Th e y
riu m under the action of a system of for ces is that the resul t
ant o f t hose forces and the total moment about any point in
spa ce sha ll vani sh
r y
.
Conve sely if the resultant of a s s tem of forces and the

moment of those forces about any one particular point in s ace p
vanish simultaneously the bod will be in e q uilib rium y
y
.
,
If R 0 then for an di splacement of tra ns lation D

,
DR=O o .
W= I) -
f1 D-
f, +
and the tota l work done is z ero when the bod suffe s any y r
i
,
d s placement of tran slation

L i
.
et M O { i n £ 2 be z ero for a g ven point 0 Then for

y
, .
an other point 0 ’
M O { i n fa
’
,
‘
h MO £29 MO ’
{ B O}
B ut y
by h p othes is R is also z ero . Hence
Henc e a o
MO :
{ p 2,
f £ 4t 0
y
where a is an vector whats oever B u t this e xpression is .
equal to the work done by the forces when the body is rotated
for a time t with an angular velocit a about the line a y
passing through the po in t O Th s work is z ero ’
i
y
. .
An y displacement of a rigid bod may be regarded as a

t ranslation through a d stance D combined with a rotation i
for a time t wi t h angu lar velocity a about a s u itable line a in
space It has been proved that the total work done by the
.
forces during thi s di splacement is z ero Hence the forces

q r i
.
mus t be in e uilibrium Th e theo e m s proved . .

Ap p lic a t io n s t o G e o m e try
Relation s b e t ween
two right-handed systems of th ree
mutually perpen di cular uni t vectors Le t i k and i k .
,
j ,
’
, j ’
,
’
b e t wo such syste ms They form t heir own reciprocal systems

. .
Hence
Th e scalars a l a 2 “3 5 bl bz , b are respectively the

j j
, , ; c 0 , 0
, 3 l , 2 3
direc t ion cosines of i ; ; ’ ’

k ’
wi t h respec t to i k , , .
Tha t is
cos (i
’
i) cos (i ) ’
j cos ( i k ) ’
j
a a a
1 , 2 , 3 ,
b1 cos (j i )’
b2 cos (j ) ’
cos (j k ) ( 4 8 ) ’
j
, , b3 ,
c
1 cos ( k i)’
, 0
2
cos ( k ) ’
, 0
3
cos (k k) ’
, .
In t h e same manner
+ i-
jj - ’
i k k ’ ’
j j+
’
+ a
1
i + bl c k ’
l
’ ’
k k i ’ ’
s
’
o
a
, 0
2
k
- ’
k jj
’
k k k
o
’ ’
a i ’
ba j
’
o k
’
3 s
’ '
i i o
1 a
,
2
a
z
z
“ 2
3
l ,
jj '
1 61 2 “
i b2
“ 2
O3 2
u
k kl 1 r; 0
2
0
2
C
2
1 2 3
1 06 VE CTOR ANAL YSIS
the d rection but to lie wholly in the la an from j
kp
- d
j
i n e
i
it s form upon the left it is seen to lie in the k -plan e ’ ’
.
Hence it must be the l ine of intersec t ion of those two planes

i
.
Its magnit u de is m or 1 /
m T h s gives the
scalar relation s
— a
Th e magni t ude 1 a l is the square of the sine of

z th e angle
b etween t h e vectors i and i Hence the vector
’
.
— “ k 53
2 ( )
is the line of inte rsection of the k and jk-plan e s and j ’ ’
,
its magni tude is the sine of the angle be t ween the planes .
Eight other s imilar vecto rs may b e foun d each of whic h gives ,
one of the n ine lines of inte rsection Of the t wo sets of m u

t u a ll y ort hogonal planes Th e magn i tude of the vector s in
. i
each case the sine of the angle b etween the pla nes
y y
.
Various ex amples in Plane and Solid G eometr ma

be solved by means of products .
Exa mp le 1 Th e perpendicul ars from the vertices of a tri a n

gle to the opposite sides meet in a point et A B C b e the L
L
.
t rian gle .et the perpendiculars from A to B C and from B

to CA meet in the point 0 To Show 0 0 is perpen di cular
.
to A B Choose 0 as ori gin and let OA

.
A O B = B and , ,
00 C Then
.
B C= C— B, C A = A — C, AB z B — A
y
.
By h po thesis
A (C B) O
and B-
(A C) 0 .
Subtra ct ; C-
(B A) 0,
which proves the theorem .
Exa mp le 2 : To fin d the vector equation of a drawn

through the point B parallel to a given vecto r A .
DIRECT AND K W PR O
S E D UC TS OF VE C TOR S 1 07
Let 0 be
the origin and B the vector O B et B be the ra L
y
.
di ns vecto r from O to an point of the required line Then .
B. B is parallel to A Hence the vector p ro du c t va n is h e s

. .
AX ( R — B =0
q q
.
A
Thi s is the desired e uation It is a vector e uati on in the
q
.
unkn own vector B Th e e uati on of a plan e wa s seen ( page

q
.
8 8) to be a scalar e uation such as

3 0 0 c
in the unkno wn vecto r R

d
.
Th e point of intersection of a line an a plan e ma y be

found at once Th e equations are
.
B ) 0
R C c
A>
<R A>

A-
CB C-
RA
A-
CB c A
c A
Hence
Th e solution evidently fails when A - C O In th s cas e h o w . i

ever t h e line is parallel t o the plane and there is no solution ;
or if it lie s in the plane there are an in fi nite number of solu
, ,
ti ons .
E xa mp le 3 Th e introduction of vectors to represent planes .
Heretofore vectors have b e en used to denote plane a re a S o f '
de fi nite ex tent Th e direction of the vector was normal to

.
the plane and the magnitude was equal to the area to be re

presented B u t it is possible to use vectors to denote not a
.
plane area but the entire plane itself just as a vector represents
i
,
a point Th e result is analogous to th e p la n e co ord nates of

y L L
.
analytic geometr et 0 be an assumed origin et M N be

i y
. .
a plane in space Th e plan e M N s to be denoted b a vector

.
1 08 VECTOR A NAL YSIS
whos e di rection is the direction of the perpendicular drop ed p
upon t h e plane from the origin 0 and whose magni t u de is the
r e c ip ro c a l of t h e length of t hat perpendicular Thus the nearer .
a plane is to t h e origin the longer will be the vecto r whi ch

represent s it.
If r b e any radius vector dr awn from the o ri gin to a point

in t h e plane and if p be the vector whi ch denot e s the plane ,
t hen
t o
p 1
is the equation of the plane . Fo r
cos ( r p ) p
t o
p r , .
N o w p t h e lengt h of p is t h e reciprocal of the perpendicular

,
distance from O to t h e plane O n the other hand r cos ( r p )

y ,
.
is t hat perpendi cul ar dis t ance Hence r- p mus t be unit

j
. .
Ifr and p b e e x pressed in terms of i k , ,
r = x i + y j+ z k
p = u i + v
f
j+ w k
Hence ro p = xu + y c + z w z l
Th e quantities u r w are the reciprocals of the intercepts of

, ,
the plane p upon the ax es .
Th e relation bet ween r and p is symmetrical It is a rela .
tion of duality If in the equat ion

.
ro p = 1
r be regarded as variable t h e equation represents a plane p

,
which is t h e loc us of all points given b y r If however p be .
regarded as variab le and r as constant t h e equation re p re ,
sents a point r through which all the planes p pass Th e .
development of the idea of duality will not be carried out .
It is familiar to all students of geometry Th e use of vec .
to rs to denote planes will scarcely be alluded to again until

Chapter VII .
vanishes is t hat their vector product van shes i . Th e com
mutative laws do not hold .
AXB = B XA
i>
<j k xk 0
i xj jx i k
j
xk <j= i
k>
k>
<i i Xk = j
AXB ( A2 B S As 8 2)
i A
( s B l A1 B 3 )j
( A1 B A2 3 1)
k
j
a
i k
AXB AI A2 A
B ] 3 2
B
Th e scalar triple product of three vecto rs [ A B C] is e ua q l

to t h e volume of the parallelopiped of wh ch A B C are three i , ,
edges whi ch meet in a point .
[ A B C] A-
B xC B Cx A
o
C-
AxB
AxB -
C B xC-
A CxA-
B
[ A B C] [A CB ] .
DIRECT AN D S KE W PR ODU T
C S OF VE C TOR S 111
If the component of B perpendicular to A be B ”

,
A-
A
A-
CB AB C
A-
CB C-
B A
A-
CB D o
A-
DB-
C
[A C D] B [B C D] A
[ A D D] 0 [ A B C] D .
( 26 )
Th e q
e uation which subs ists between four vectors A, B , C, D
is
[B C D] A [ D A] B
C [D A B ] 0 [ A B C] 1) = 0 .
( 27)
A ppl ication of formul of vector analysis to obt i the for a a n
mul a of Plane and pherical rigonometry S T

system of vectors
.
Th e is said to be reciprocal to a
’
, b ’
, c
’
the
sys t em of three non-coplanar vectors a, b, c
b x c c x a a x b
when , ( )
2 9
[ a b c ] [a b C ] [a b
A vector r may be expressed in te ms of a set of vectors and r

its reciprocal in two similar ways
( 0)
’
r r a .
’
a r
. b b ’
r c . c 3
r ro a , a ,
’
r -
bb ’
r e ( 31 )
Th e y
necessar and su ffi cient conditions that the two s stems of y
r
non-c oplanar vecto s a b c and a b c be reciprocals is that , ,
’
,
’
,
’
l ’
a . a b b o 1
( )
3 2
a
’o
b a
’
o
c b ’o
c 2
“
Ma c
’
o b 0 .
Ifa ’
, b
form a s stem eciprocal to
’ ’
y r b, C ; then b, c w l il
y
, 0 a, a,
form a s stem reciprocal to a b c ’

,
’
,
’
.
[
t l ’
a b c ]
P A o P-
B P-
C
Q-
A AB a c
BA AB B C
Th e ,
j
system i k is its own reciprocal and if conversely a
,
syste m b e its own reciprocal it mus t b e a ri ght or left han ded

syst em of thr ee mutuall y perpendi cular unit vecto rs App l i .
cat ion o f t h e theory of reciprocal syst ems to the solution of

scalar and vecto r equati ons of t h e fi rst degree in an un kn own
vector Th e vector equat ion of a plane is
.
r -
A a .
( 36 )
Applications of the methods developed in Chapter IL to the ,
t reat men t O f a system of forces acting on a rigid body and in

part icular t o the reduction of any system of forces to a single
force and a couple of which the plane is perpendicular to that
force Application of the methods to the treatment of
.
ins t antaneous motion of a rigid b ody o b taining

(46)
where v is the velocity of any point v a translational ve l o c
, 0
ity in the direction a and a the vector angular velocity of ro

,
t a t io n Further application of t h e methods to Ob tain the

.
condi t ions for equilib rium b y making use of t h e principle of

virt ual velocities A pplications of the method to ob tain
.
t h e rela t ions which e x ist b etween the nine di rection cosines
of the angles b e t ween two systems of mutua lly orthogon a l

axes A pplicat ion to special prob lems in geome t r including
.
y
t h e form under whi ch plane co o rdinates make their appear
ance in vector analysis and the method by which planes ( a s

1 14 v
'
VE C TOR AIVA L YSIS
12 . Show y
b vecto r methods that the formu l a for the
ume of a tetrahedron whose four vertices are
( “
v y rs
2
1 ) ( x2 , 312 : z
z) ( x
3 , 75
3 ) ( “p 90 z
l )
“
I
’
I
ll z
,
1
H
2
8
N 3
5
z
2
1
6 a
s y3 z
8
1
“4 z
,
1
use of formula ( 34 ) of the te xt Show that
[ a b c ] = a bc n 1 l
m l 1
where a , b, c are the lengths of a , b, c respect vel i y an d where

t cos ( b c ) m cos ( c a ) n cos ( a b )
:
q y
.
, , , , ,
I4 Determ ine the perpendi cul ar ( as a vector uantit )

y
A
which is dropped from the origin upon a plane determined b

the termini of the vecto s a b c Us e the method of solutionr , , .
given in Art 4 6
q
. .
1 5 Show that the volum e of a tetrahe dr on is e ual to one

.
sixth of the product of two opposite edges by the p e rp e n di c u

lar distance between them and the sine of the included angle
y
.
1 6 If a line is drawn in each f a ce plane of an t ri e dra l angl e

d
.
through the verte x and perpen di cular to the thi rd e ge t h e

i
,
t hree lines thus obtained lie n a plane .

C H AP TER III
TH E DIFFER E N TIA L CA LCULU S OF VE CTOR S
Dife r e n ti a tio n f
o Fun c tio ns f
O On e Sc a la r Va ri a ble
a vecto r varies and changes from r to r the in cre

IF ’
i
ment of r will be the d fference between r and r and will be ’
denoted as us u al b A r y .
Ar = r
r
where A must be a vector quantit If the variable T b e y .
unrestri cted the increment A r is of course also unrestri cted

y
it may have an magnitude and an direction If however y .
, ,
the ve c t o r r be rega rded as a function ( a vector function) of

a Single scalar variable t the value of A r will be completely
determined when the two values t and t of t which give the ’
,
two values r and r are known ’

,
.
To o b tain a clearer conception of the quantiti es involved

it will be advantageous to thi nk of the vector r as drawn
from a fi x ed origin 0 ( Fig When .
the independent variable t changes its

value the vector r will change and as t ,
possesses one degree of freedom r will

y
var in such a way that its te rminus
r
describes a cu ve in space r wil l be
i
.
the rad us vector of one point P of

the curve ; r of a neighboring point P A
’
be the ’
r
r
,
cho d P P of the curve Th e ratio

’
.
Ar
A t
116 VECTOR ANAL YSIS
will b e a vector collinear with the chord P P b u t magnifi ed ’
in t h e ra ti o 1 : A t When A t approaches z ero P will a p

.
’
proach P t h e chord P P will approach t h e tan gent at P and

,
’
,
the vector
03r
will approach
dt
which is a vec t or tangent to the curve at P di rected in that

s ense in which t h e varia b le t increases along the curve
j
.
Ifr b e e xpressed in terms of i k as , ,
r = r
1
i + r
2 j r k
3
the components r
1 , r
2,
r
3 will be functions of the scalar t .
( r
1
A r1 ) i + ( r2 A r2 ) j ( r3 A r3 ) k
Ar = r
’ —
r = A r i + Ar
1 2 j+ A r3 k
Ar A rl A r
2
A r
3
,
k
At A t A t A t
dr d rl d rg d r
3
, ,
k ( 2)
d t
'
d t d t
Hence the components of the fi rst derivative of r with re

spect t o t are the fi rst derivatives with respect to t of the
components of r Th e same is true for the secon d and hi gher
.
derivati ves .
d z
r
‘
i
d r
1
2
dt d t 2
d "
r d “
r
1
d t” d t "
In a s rmrla r
manner if r
non-coplanar vecto rs a b
be e xpressed in terms y
an three
, , c as
+ bb +
'
1 a a c c
A(a o b) Ab Aa Aa -
Ab
+
At 3 7 At At
Hence in the limit when At 0,
d db da
( a X b)= 8 X
( a o b x c ) a -b x
o b x c .
( a x
x[ x b c ] .
( 6)
Th e last three of these formul a may be emonstra ted exactl d y

as the fi rst was
y
.
Th e formal process of di fferentiation in vector anal s is

differs in no way from that in scalar analysis e x cept in this
one point in whi ch vector analysis always di ffe s from scalar r
y
anal sis namely : Th e order of the factors in a vector product
,
THE DIFFERENTIAL CAL CUL US OF ECTOR S
V 119
cannot be cha nged wi thout changing the sign Of the product .
Hence of the two formul a

d
r ly
the fi st is evident incorrect but the second correct In
i
, .
other words scalar di fferentiat ion must take place w thout

,
altering the order of the factors of a vector product Th e

di r
.
factors must be fferentiated in s i tu Thi s of cou se was to .
be e xpected .
In case the vectors depend upon more than one variable

th e results are practicall the same y
In place of tota l deriva
r
.
t ive s with espect to the scalar vari ables partial derivatives ,
occur Suppose a and b are two vectors which depend on

.
three scalar variables x y z Th e scalar product a h will

r
o
, , .
depend upon these three variables and it will have th ee

pri i
,
a t al der vati ves of the fi rst order .
o b + a o
o b + a o
( a o h) o b + a .
ri
second pa t al de ri vatives are formed in the same
2
9 as
a wa y 9x
O ft en it is more convenient to use not the derivatives but
t h e di f
feren t ials Thi s is part icularly true when dea ng wi th li
fi
.
rs t differentials Th e form u l a
.
(4 ) b ecome
d ( a o b) = da -b + a o db ,
and so forth As an illus tration consider the following

.
e xample If r be a un i t vector
.
r o r z l .
Th e locus of the te rminus of r is a spherical surface of uni t

radius described about the origin r depends upon two vari
i
.
ab les Different ate t h e equation

.
.
( d r) o
r + r = 0 .
Hence r o dr z 0 .
Hence the incremen t d r of a u n i t vecto r is perpendicular t o

t h e vecto r Thi s can b e seen geometrically
.
If r traces a .
sphere t h e variation d r must b e at each point in the tangent

plane and hence perpendi cular to r .
V ector methods may b e employed advantageously

d
in the iscuss ion of curvature and torsion of curves et r .
L
deno t e the radi us vector of a curve
where f is some vector function of the scalar t In most a p p li

L
.
ca t ions in physics and mechanics t represents the time et .
s be t h e
lengt h of a re measured from some de fi nite point of
the curve as origin Th e incremen t A r is the chord of t h e
.
curve Hence A r A s is appro ximately

.
equal in magnitude
t o unity and
approaches unity as its limi t when A 3 becomes
in fi nites imal .
1 22 VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
t o t = e -c = n o n =1
and t o o C o n =n o t =0 .
ii
Different at ng the fi rst set
t dt =c - dc =n - dn =0
o ,
and the second

t d +c d t c c -d n + dc
ll l i r
o o
B u t d t is para e to c and consequentl y pe rpend cula to n .
n .
dt = o .
Hence dn - t = 0
i i
.
Th e increment of n s pe rpendicular to t B u t the ncrement

i r
.
of n is also perpendi cular to n It s therefo e parallel to e

y r ll
.
.
As the tortuosit is T d u /d s it is pa a el t o d n and hence ,
to c
y
.
Th e tortu osit T is
3 r
d d dr d 1
( t X " ) x
z
dc ds ds d s
d z
r d z
r 1 dr d 3 r 1
x + x
a s
?
a s h / m d s ds 3
Vc . c
2 r
dr d d 1
+ x
z
d s d s d s x/ c
Th e fi rstte rm of thi s expression v a n ishes T moreover ha s

q y
.
b een seen to be para llel to C 2

d r/d Conse uentl the
magnitude of T is the scalar product of T b the un it vec y
tor c in the direction of C It is desirable however to have
y r
.
the to rtuosit positive when the normal 11 appea s to turn in

the posit ive or counte rclockwise direction if viewed from
that side of the n o-plane upon w h ich t or the positive part
of the curve lies With this convention d 11 appears to move
y
.
in the direction — c when the tortuosit is positi ve that is 11

r l y ill
, ,
turns away from C Th e scala va ue Of the tortuosit w

.
therefore be given by — c T .
THE DIFFERENTIAL C AL C UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 23
3 r
dr d 1 dr d z
d
— c -
T x x
r
ds d s
3
m ds d s
z
ds
B ut c is parallel to the vector al

z
r /d 3
2
. Henc e
z
d r d r
>
< —
da T
( s
2
An d c is a u it vector in the direction H e c

n C . n e
2
C d r 1
Hence T
d
d8
2
r
2
dr
d s
x d3 r
d 3
3
C C
1
dr d 2
r
2
ds d 3
d 2
r d z r
2 2
d 3 d 3
r iy y i
to tuos t ma be obta n ed b another metho wh ch
Th e y d i
i r q
s somewhat sho ter if not uite so st aightforward r .
t - C = c u n t = 0
H
o o
.
ence dt c — d c - t o
dc u — dn - c o
dn - t — dt n o
l H
.
NO W d t is parallel to c ; hence perpendicu ar to 11 ence

i
.
dt n 0 Hence d n t 0 B u t d n s perpendi cular to 11

y
. . .
Hence d 11 must be parallel to c Th e to rtuosit is the mag

i
.
n it u de of d n d 3 taken however w th the negative sign

r
because d n appea s clockwise from the positive d rect on of i i
the cu ve r . H
ence the scalar tortuosit T ma be g ven by y y i
dn dc
( )
1 4
T=t >
< 0
1 24 VECTOR A NA L YSIS
d C
t x c C-C— t x c -C x/ C -C
.
d s
t x c -C = 0
d C
t x c
C -C
2 3
dr dr d r
2 3
d s d s d s
2 2
d r d r
2 2
ds d s
Cartesian coordi nates this b ecomes

d x dy d z
ds ds ds
m a
2 2 2
d s ol s d s
3 3 3
d x d y d e
3 3 3
d s ds d s
Th os e who would pursue the study of twiste d

surfaces in Space further from the s t andpoint of vecto rs w l il
fi n d t h e boo k Ap p lic a tio n de l a M éth o de Ve c to rie lle ole G ra ss
“
‘
m a n n a l a G eo metri c In n ités i m a l e 1 b
fi y F E H B e xtreme
”
ly
1
Pa ri s , Ca rr-
é e t Na u d ,
1 89 9 .
i
introduced b y N ewton It w ll als o be conve n ien t to enote d
q i
.
the unit tangent to the curve b y t Th e e uat ons become .
Th e is the rate of change

a cc e le ra ti o n
is a vector uantit q y L
et it be denoted .
defi ni tion
LIM Av dv
M G At
"
i
dt
dv d dr
_ — — r
dt dt ll t
Dfi
ferentiate the expression v
dv
—
d ( v t) d
z
dt dt dt
dv d
i s
2
dt dt
dt dt d s
dt ds d t
where C is the (vector) curvat u e of the cu ve and v is the r r

speed in the curve Substituting these values in t h e e uat on
. q i
the result is d
b “
“
a
7
a
.
A= t + v C 2
“ t”
é
s .
“
i
i
f
? i
Th e acceleration of a particle mov ng in a curve has there
fore been broken up into two components of which one is p a ra l
le l to the tan gent t and of which the other is pa allel to the r
curvat ure C that is p e rp e n dic u la r to th e tangent That thi s
, , .
resoluti on h a s been accomplished would be unimportant were

TH E DIFFERENTIA L CAL C UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 27
it not for the remarkable fact which it brings to light Th e

q
.
component of the acceleration parallel to the tan gent is e ual

in magni tude to the rate Of change of sp e e d It is entirel y
i
.
indep e n de n t p f w
V ,
ha t sort t ll rve the p a rti cle s describing
“ q . . [
.
It would b e the same if t h e particle described a right line

with the same speed as it describes th e curve On the other .
hand the component of the a cceleration normal to th e tan gent

is equal in magnitude to the product of the s uare of the q
Speed of the particle and the curvatu re of the curve Th e
r
.
sharper the curve the g eater this component Th e greater

, .
the Speed of the particle the greater the component B u t the

, .
rate of change of sp e e d in path ha s no e ffect at all on this

normal component of the accelera ti on
j
.
If r be e xpres sed in te r m s of i k as , ,
x i + y j+ z k,
A = v= r 515 1 + y j+ z k,
x x + y y + z z
A = v= s
From th ese formul a the difi e re n c e between 3 the rate of ,
change of spe ed and A i the rate of change of velocity

,
i
, ,
is apparent J ust when this difi e re n c e fi rst b ecame clearly

.
recogniz ed woul d be hard to say B u t certa in it is that

d
.
N ewton must have h a d it in mi nd when he stated his secon

law of moti on Th e rate of change of velocit is proporti ona
. y l
to the impressed force ; but rate of change of speed is not .
Th e h o do gra p h was introduced by Hamil ton as an

i
aid to the s t udy of the curv li near motion of a particle
y
.
With any a s sumed origin t h e vector velocit i is laid o ff .
Th e locus of its term inus is the hodograph In other words

i
.
,
the ra d us vector in the hodograph gives the velocity of the

particle in magnitude and dir ection at an instant It is y .
pos s ib le to proceed one step further and co n struct the hodo ‘
graph o f the hodograph This is done by la ing OR the y

vector acceleration A r from an assumed origin Th e
radius vecto r in the hodograph of the hodograph therefore
gives t h e accelerat ion at each instant
L
.
E x a m p le 1 et a particle revolve in a circle F

( g
i 2 9 ) .
of radi us r with a un iform

V
a n g u l a r v e l o c i t a Th e y
i
.
speed of the particle w ll then

b e equal to
v a r.
F G 29
I
L et
the radi us vector r he
drawn to the particle Th e
. .
velocity v is perpendi cular to r and to a It is .
i v a >< r .
Th e vector v is always perpen di cul ar and of cons tant magni

t ude Th e hodograph is t herefore a circle of radius v
. a r .
Th e radi us ve c t o r i in this circle is just nine t y degrees in

'
advance of the radius vector r in its circle and it c o n s e ,
quen t ly desc ri bes t h e circle with the same angular velocity

Th e acceleration A whi ch is the rate of change of v is
i
a
always perpend cular t o v and equal in mag n itude to

o ff
A = a v a
z
r .
Th e accelera tion A may b e given by the formula

T : A a xv a ct a a oa r .
B as
ut a is perpendicular to the plane in whi ch r lies a r , 0
.
Hence -
i z A — a a r —a 2 r .
Th e accelerat ion due to the uniform moti on of a particle in

a circ le is directed toward the centre and is equal in magni
tude to t h e square of the angular velocity multiplied b y the
radi us of the circle .
l
Perhaps it wou d be well to go a li ttle more ca refu into lly
i
th s question If r be the ra di us vecto r of the pa rticle in
r i
.
its pat h at one instant the ad u s vector at the ne x t ins ta nt

d r
,
is r Ar Th e area of the vector of which r an r A a re

yq
.
t h e b ounding ra di i is appro ximatel e ual to the are a of t h e

triangle enc osed b l A yr r
a n d th e chord A r This
, r , .
a rea is
1 1 1
r x A r.
Th e rate of description of are by a the ra di us vecto r is

consequently
r) L
‘
t v r
"
£ 3:
'
LE I l l LIM
1
At r 02
’
- At Ac e s o z A , 4 5
L et Tand T be two values of the velocity at poin

acce l e rati on at
o t wo ts
P and whichPo near together
the limit of
a re . Th e i
io P0
is
A
B re ak up the vector l r r°
into t wo components one
r l
E i A t
pa alle and the other per end cu a to the p i lr a c c e l e ra t ro n ro
Af
_ x
A t l/ n?
y Th e q antity
qu tity
u 2: a
o.
p
r
p oac unit when A t approaches z ero
he s
Th e an
.
y
approaches z ero when A t approaches z ero .
TH E DIFFEREN TIAL C A L C UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 31
Hence
A
r x r — rO X ro
B ut e ach of the thr ee te ms upon the ri ght-hand s de s an r i i

in fi ni tesimal of the s e c o n d order Hence the rates of de s c rip
r y
.
ti on of a ea at P and P difi e r b an in fi nitesimal of the

i i y
o
s econd order w th respect to the ti me Th s is true for an

H y q l
.
point of th e curve ence the rates mu st b e e xactl e ua

.
at all points This proves the theorem

y i
. .
Th e mo t ion of a rigid bod one po nt of wh ich is

y
fi x ed is at an instant a rotation about a n i n sta ntaneous a x is
passing through the fi x ed po int
L j y i
.
et i k be three axes fi x ed in the bod but mov ng in

L r d
, ,
spa c e et the ra di us vector r b e drawn f om the fi x e point

y y
.
to an point of the bod Then .
x i + y j+ z k,
d r x d i + y d j+ z dh
d r = (d r
Substit uting the values of d r i, d rj r d k obtaine d

th e s econd e u ation q ,
d r z w
( i o di + y i o d j+ z i o d k) i
+ ( j x o d i + yj o d j+ z j o d k) j
+ (x k
B ut i - =
j j
H en ce i o d j+ j o di =0 or j-d i
j -d k + k -d j= 0 or k -d j
k -di + i -dk = 0 or i d k o
r di =
o
i -
d j= k -
dh =o .
u
S b st tu i i
t ng th e s e values in the e x pression for d r .
-
d r = (z i d k —
yj
- d i — z k ~ d i) i
— x i - k
+ (y k d j d )k o .
Th is is a vector product .
-
d k j+ j
dj di
=k
,
a o
" 3 k .
d t d t d t
d r
a >
<r .
d t
Thi s shows that the instantaneous motion of the b o s one dy i

Of rotation with the an gu lar velocit about t h e ne a y li
y i
a .
Thi s angular velocit chan ges from n s tant to instant Th e

l
.
proof of this theorem fi ls the lacuna in the work in Art 5 1

l r
. .
Two in fi nitesimal rotati ons may be added ike vecto s

L i
.
et a , and n a be t wo angular velocities Th e d spl ac e ments .
due t o them are

d1 r
d2 r
Ifr be d splaced by
i a, it becomes
r + d1 r = r + a
l x r d t .
If it then be displaced b y a
z , it becomes
Hence
If the in fi n ite s im a ls ( d t ) of or er h ghe tha n the
2
d i r fi rt s be
neglected ,
d r = a
l <r d t +
> a 2 x r d t,
i
wh ch proves the theo em r . Ifboth sides be d v e b i id d y dt
1 2) x
a ' ‘
3 r.
1
r
whe e C is some co nstant vector To a ccomp is h th e nte g a l i r
y i y
.
tion in a n y pa rticular cas e ma be a m att er of some d ffi cult

just a s it is in the case of ordi nar integration of sca ars y l
q i i
.
Exa mp le 1 Integrate the e u at on of mot on of a

p rojectil e
i py
.
Th e equat on of motion is s im l
r g,
r
which exp e s ses th e fact that the acce erat on s l i i l ys wa
y y
a ve r
ticall do wnward and due to gravi t .
f= g t + b ,
whe re b is a constant of integration It is evi dently th e

y
.
velocit at the time t 0 .
is a nother cons tant of integrati on It s the posit on vecto r i i

i y i
c .
of the point at time t = 0 Th e path wh ch is given b th s

l q y y
.
as t e uation is a parabola That th is is so ma be seen b .
e xpress ing it in terms of x a n d y and eliminating t
pr
.
Exa mp le 2 Th e rate of description of areas whe n a a

i
t o le moves under a central a ccelerati on s cons t ant i
f ( r)
l i r di
.
Since the acce erat on is parallel to the a us ,
d
r >
< r _ -
—
ci
d
H ence — 0
a nd r x T : C,
which proves th e t tement
s a .
TH E DIFFERENTIA L CA C L UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 35
Exa mp le 3 Integrate
the e u ati on of motion for a pa t cle q ri
moving with an accelerati on to ward the cent e and e ual to r q
a constant multiple of the in ve se s ua e Of the stan ce r q r di
from the centre .
G iven
Then 1
'
X r 0 .
Henc e rx i C .
e q u tio s together with x

a n .
rx( x ) r { r
- r
1
3
r r -}
r r r .
r
7
r o
H ence
Ea c h s id
e i q ality is a perfect
of th s e u difi e re n tia l .
In te grate . Then
r i
whe e e I s the vector constant of inte grati on e s its ma gni i
di iy q
.
tude and I a unit vector in its rection Mul t pl the e ua

i yr
.
t on b
r x i
2
C r r + e r o I .
0
1 36 VE C TOR A NA L YSIS
and cos it c os ( r
, I) .
p = r + e r c os u .
P
r :
1 + e c os u
This q i
is the e uat on of the ellips e of wh ch e IS the e c c e n tri i
cit y Th e vector I is drawn in the ect on of the major dir i
i
.
Th e length of th s ax is is
P
a
2
1 e
is p o ssible to carry the integrat on further

It i and obt ain
. y
the time So far merel the path has been found .
Sc a la r Fu n c tio n s o f P o s i t io n i n Sp a ce . Th e Op e ra tor V
fun ction V (x y z ) which takes on a de fi nite sca a

A lr
i
, ,
value for e a ch set of coordinates x y z in space s called a

i
, ,
scalar function of position in space Such a funct on for e x .

,
a m p l e , is
x 2
+ y
2
+ z
2 = r
Th is function gives the s quare of the d st nce of the point i a
(x , y, 2
) from the origin
function V will be supposed to
. Th e
be in general continuous and single -valued In physics scalar .
fun ctions of position are of constant occurrence In the

y
.
theor of heat the te mperature T at any poin t of a body is a

scalar function of the position of that point In mechani cs
i
.
and theories of attraction the potential s the all-importan t

function This too is a scalar function of position
q
.
, , .
If a scalar fu nction V b e set equal to a constan t t h e e ua ,
tion
V ( x, y , z ) c .
( 2 0)
de fi nes a surface in space such that at every point of it the
function V ha s the same value 0 In case V b e the tem era . p
vector sum which is the re s u l t a irt
Th e r t i cre s
a e of n a e
o f V is denoted b V V y .
9V 9V 9V
— 21
VV i "
o
9 x 9 g 9 z
dir cted rate of cha ge of

d re cted V i
i
V V re p re s e n ts a e n a
or vector derivat ive of V so to speak Fo r th s reason V V , .
will be c a lled the de riva tive of V; and V the p ri m i tive of

r l
,
V V Th e te ms gr a die n t and s lop e of V are a so us ed for

y r i
.
V V It is custo mar to egard V as an operator which obta ns

r i
.
a vecto V V f ro m a scala r functi on V of posit on in space .
_
-
9 i
9 x 9 31
V=i
a 9
i .
( 22 )
9 x 9g 9 z
Th is symbolic perator
was introduced b Sir W R V y
H y
O . .
amilton and is now in uni versal emplo ment There .
seems however to be no uni versally recogniz ed name for it

1
y
, , ,
although owing to t h e frequent occurrence of the s mbol

some name is a pra ctical necessit It has been found by y
y y
.
experience that the monos ll able de l is so short and eas to

pronounce tha t even in complicated formul a in which V occurs
a num ber of times no inconveni ence to th e speaker or hearer
arises from the repetition V V is read Simpl as del V y ”
i
.
Although th s operator V h a s been de fi ned as
9 9
V i —
-
Ij
TE
C ay
1 Som e us e m Nd liki g f i i d mbl
th e te r a blai o wn t o its a nc e re s e a nc e to a n Ass yr a n
ha r
co ne i
p
.
d
Ot h e rs h a ve
the p i
no ne m by i i g
n o te
t o o e u h o n o us n ad l
q l
it s e n e ss
e A tle d
to an n ve rt e
n ve rt n
d Aand
t h e o r e r o ft h e
h a ve c o ns e ue n t
e t t e rs in
y
p i l ig i ymb l
t h e wo r dD e lta . T E
Flip p l in h is E infi h rung in die M a xwe ll ’s c h e h e o rie de r le o
i gd pi i g p i l
tric itcit a vo
‘
i ds a ny s f ec a O de s na t o n a n d re e rs t o the s o as
“
die p e ra t ion
i g m i g
V .
”
i
H o w th sd is t o b ed d re a is no t d vul e . In ee , fo r r nt n no a rt c u a r
na
q i d
u re
m e is
o ft e n re
—
p d
mso
ea
i g
te
l
n e c e s sa r
.
d
e th n
y p p
f
,
p k
i
b ut fo r i
to o t h a t
e c tu r n
oe s no t
a nd ur os e s o
c o n us e th e s e a
f n s t ru c t o n
er or
so
b e a re r
e th n
e ve n
rs re
wh e n
TH E DIFFERENTIA L C AL C UL US OF VECTOR S 1 39
so that it appears to depend upon the choice of the axes it

y
,
is in reali t independent of them This would be surmised .
from the interpretation of V as the magnitude and direction

of the most rapid increase of V To demons t rate the inde
j
.
n c e tak e another set of a x es i and a new set of

’ ’ ’
d k
r i
p e n e , , ,
variables x y z eferred to them Then V referred to th s

’ ’ ’
y
.
, ,
s stem is
9 9 9
v
V I — ‘ + k ( 2 2)
r
e x
'
9g ’
9 z
’
i
B y mak ng use of the formul ae and Art 53 , page
from i j to j
1 04, for transformation of a x es k i ’ ’
k and b
’
y
ctually carr ing out the y y
, , , ,
erentiat ons and di f

f i fi nall b
identities ( ) an d y
a y
taking into account the 49 V ma
’
act ally be transformed into

u V .
V ’
V
r r
.
Th e deta ils of the proof are omitte d he e be caus e othe

i
, an
s horter method of demonstration is to be g ven .
Consider t wo surfaces ( Fig 3 0) .
V ( x, y , z ) = c
and
upon whi ch V is constant and which are more over nfi n tel i i y

near together L
et x y z be a given point upon the surface
L
.
, ,
V 0: et r denote the ra
.
di n s vector drawn to thi s

poin t from an fi x ed origin y VW
V(f iJ .
‘T d ’
Then any point near by in

‘
g
the neighbo ring s u rface V
c d c may b e represente d c
by t h e radius vector r d r .
Th e a c tua l increase of V fro m

t h e fi rst surface to the second
is a fi x ed uan ti t d oq y
Th e ra te of in c eas e is a va r a bl e
. r i
quantity depends upon the direction wh ch is fol
and dr i
lowed when pa sing from one surface to the other
s .
di rection d r L et be a u it normal to the

. n n
surfaces and d rt the segment of that normal intercepted

between the surfaces , 11 wi ll then be the least value for
d ri
dr Th e quotient
.
d 0
will therefore be a maximum when d r s p a a e to i r ll l an d

q i i
n
e ual in magn tude of d n Th e e xpress on .
n ( )
23
is therefore a vector of whi ch the rection is the i ection of di dr

most rapid increase of V and of whi ch the m a gn it u de i s t h e
rate of that increase This vector is entirel independent of y
L
.
the axes X Y Z , et d c be replaced b y its equal d V which

, .
is the increment of V in passing from the fi rst surfa ce to t h e

second Then let V Vb e de n e d again as
. fi
dV
k VV n 24
( )
a
1 w». .
From
this de fi nition V V is certai nl y the vector whi ch
,
give s the di rection of most rapid increase of V and the rate

in t hat direc t ion Moreover V V is independent of the axes
.
.
V V-dr
dI
— fn o dr .
( 5)
2
d n
n is a un it normal Hence n d r is the projection of d r o n

i
.
n and mus t b e equal to the perpend cular distance

d 77 be t ween .
t h e s urfa ces .
1 42 VECTOR ANAL YSIS A?
q
Moreover thi s e uati on de fi nes dv dz In a s milar m anner . i
it is possib le to lay down the following defi nition
r
.
Defin itio n : Th e derivative V V of a scal a function of

ll
po sition in space s h a satis fy the e uation q
d r VV dV
for all values of d r
y di
.
This de fi n iti on is cert ainl the most natural an mpo rta n t

from theoretical considerations B u t for practical purposes .
either of the defi ni ti ons before given seems to b e bett er

i
.
They are more tangible Th e real sign ifi canc e of th s last

r r
.
de fi ni t ion c a nnot be app e ciate d until the subject of linea

vector functions has been treated Se e Chapte r VII . .
Th e computation of t h e derivative V of a fun ction is most

d
frequently carrie on b means of t h e or d nary i y
differentiation .
Let
9 x 9 3/ Oz
x y
Vr =i
V W H
V W
z
Hen ce
1
(1 x + jy kz )
Vr
Th e derivative of r is a unit vecto r in t h e e ction of r dir

y
.
This is e videntl the di rection o f m o s t ra pid in c re a s e of r

a n d the r
ate of tha t in c ease r .
TH E D IFFEREN TIAL C A L C UL US OF VECTOR S 1 43
V ( x, y, z )
1
( 23
2
y
a:
2
z
2
) i
j y
y
Z
z
k
2 ”
( 90
v
1
He n c e V — l w— Jy
— k z )
1
V
r
derivative of a vector whos e di recti on s tha t

l /r is i
of - r and who se magn i tude is e ua to the recipro c a of th e q l l
q
,
c ‘ 1n
of th e length r
.
s ua re .
VT “
n r r
Th e r
p oof is left to the ea der r .
Exa mp le A: Let V( co, y, z ) log m

y
+ J2 +
33
”
0k
y
1
2 2
x + y
If r denote the vector dra wn

from the origin t o th e pit
i
o n
( cc , y, z
) of spa c e the fun cti on V m a y be wr t te n
, as
i x + =
jy r
r — kk o r
H e n 00
-
r o r— -
(k )
r 3
r — k kd
( r— k k-
r) -( r — k k r) o
1 44 VE C TOR A N AL YSIS
There is another method of computing V wh ch i

upon the identit
Ci r -
VV= dV
y .
—
dr . dr VV o
Hence
v
L et V: r a, where a is a consta n t ve c to r
.
d V= dr o
a = dr V V o .
Hence V V= a .
Exa mp le 3 L et V: ( ) ( r xb ) , W here an d b
r
: rx s a
constant vecto s
-
.
V= ro r a o h — r a ro'b
(
.
A
r “
Ar m a da . -
r Ar a de a PN’ v w A
; fi "
dV 2 dr o
r a o h dr o
a ro b dr b a r a - dr V V
Henc e V V= 2 r a h o a ro b b r a -
V V= ( ra o
h a ro h ) ( ra o h b r a -)
a x ( rxb
) .
Which of these two methods for computing shal b e V l

applied in a particular case depends enti rely upon their
relative ease of execution in that case Th e latter method is
y
.
independent of t h e co ordinate ax es and ma therefore be

preferred It is als o shorter in case th e funct on V e an be i
r
.
expressed easily in te rms of B u t when V can not be s o .
e xpressed the former method has to be resorted to .
Th e great importance of the ope rator V in mathe

y
me ti cal physics ma be seen from a few illustrations Su p
r
.
P08 9 T ( w 31 z ) be the tempe atur e at the point a y z of a

, , , ,
il y
Pote nt a in el e c tricit or magnetism is the pote nti a energ l y
per un it charge or pole ; and pote ntial in attracti on problems
y
is potent ia l energ per unit m ass ta ken however w th t h e , , i
negative sign
r
.
It is ofte n convenient to t eat a n op era to r a s a

q y y
uan tit provided it obe s t h e same formal laws a s tha t
q ua n tit y
Cons ider for e x ample the a t a
. ffe e n t a to s p r i l di r i r
9 9 9
9 x 9 3/ 9 z
As far a s combinati ons of these a re c oncern e t h e fo mal a ws d r l

y d i d di r
,
a re precisely what the woul b e f in s tea of ffe entiators

three true scalars
a b, c
r i
,
we e g ven Fo r insta nce .
t h e commutativ e l a w
9 9 9
a b =ba,
9 x 9v 9g
th e as s i
oc ati ve la w
9
—
92 9 9
a (b c )
3: 9y
i
z
a nd the d s tributive law

9 9 9 9 9 9
+ +
9 x 9y 9 x 9 y 9 x 9 z
hold for the differentia to s just as for sca ars r l Of cou rs such
formu a a s l . e
TH E DIFFERENTIA L CALC UL us OF VECTOR S 1 47
In the same wa y a great advantage ma be obta n e b y i d y

l i oo k ng upon
V _ i
a
a a
9 cc 9y 9 z
as a v e c tor . It is not a true vector fo the c o e ffi c e n ts , r i
9 3: 9 3/ 9z
l
are not true sca ars It is a vector d fferentiator and of i
r y i
.
cou se an operand is alwa s implied w th it As far as form a l .
opera t ions a re concerned it be haves like a vector Fo r

i
.
ns tan c e
V (n v =
) V n + V v,
V ( a v ) ( V ie ) v n ( V v) ,
e V n V ( e n ) ,
if and are any scalar f nctions of the scalar variables

n v t wo u
and if a scalar independent of the var ables with

be i
regard to which the i erentiations p rformed
x, y , z e
df
f
rep resent any vector the formal comb nati o
a re e .
If A i n
A V is
o
9 9
A V ° — Al + A2
am 9 3/
r i
p o v ded A = Al i + Ag j Aa k .
T his operator is a scalar di fferentiator When

A V .
to a scala r function V ( a y z ) it gives a scalar , ,

.
9 V 9 V 9 V
(A V.
) V = A1 + Az +4 ,
.
9 x ay 9 z
Suppos e for convenience that A is a unit vector a .
9 17 9 V 9 V
a-
( V) V= - ——
+ a
da 1
ag ; 3
az
1 48 VE C TOR A N ALYSIS
where l the di rection c sine of t h ne referred li
y
a o
“ r a s a re s e a
,
to the axes X Y Z Cons equentl ( a V) V appe a rs as the

i
.
, ,
well -known direc tio n a l derivative of V in the d rection a

i
.
Th s is ofte n written
WM
Z
9 17
9V
S
e xpresses the magnitude of the rate of increase of V in

i
It
the direction a In the particular case where this direct on 1 8
.
the normal 11 to a surface of constant value of V thi s relation ,
becomes the normal derivative .
9 17
9V
(”
W V—
197 :
”
my
if n , , a
be
” the di
2a
rection cosines of the normal
n .
Th e operator a - V a p p lie d to a scalar function of position

V yields the same res ul t as the direct pr o duct of a and t h e
vecto r V V .
( a o V) V = a ( V V) .
( 3 0)
Fo r i
th s re a son either operation may be denoted simpl b yy
a VV
wi t hout parentheses and no amb igui ty can result from the

o m ission Th e two different forms ( a V ) V and a ( V V)
.
may however b e interpreted in an important theorem .
t h e dire c tio n a Ld e riva t i va e f V in t h e di rect io n

-
~
a.
-0 n th a o t h e r ha nd a ( V V) is t ha n o mp o ne nt a f V V_in . .
t h e di re c t io n a Hence : Th e directional derivative of V in

.
any direction is equal to the component of the derivative

V V in that direction If V de n o t e gravitational potential the.
t h e orem b ecomes : Th e directional derivative of t h e po t ential
in any direc ti on gives the component of the force p e r uni t

mass in that direction In case V b e electri c or magnet ic
p
.
o tentia l a difi e re n c e of si n must b e observed

g .
1 50 VE CTOR NAL YSIS
A
This m a y be writt e n in the form

17
9 1 972 9 17 3 ’
k ( 31 )
.
V) V
.
( a .
9 3 9 s 9 s
.
Hence ( a V) V is the directional derivative of the vector

d
o
function V in the irection a It is possib le to write .
( V) V V V
y
a a
wi thout parentheses . Fo r
a .
the mean ing of -the vector s mbol vs
de fi n ed Hence from the present sta ndpoint the e xpression

a
;
V V can have but the one in terpretation given to it b y

(a V) V .
Although
the operation V V has not been de fi n ed and
cannot be at present two formal combin ations of the vector
1
y
,
O perator V and a vector functi on V ma be treated These

r
.
are the ( formal) scalar product and the ( formal ) vecto r p od

u c t of V in to V The a re . y
9 9
V-
9
V
9 x 9 3/ 9 z
v i 3 i
9
9 56 9y 9 z
V o
V is re a d de l do t V; a nd V x V, de l c ro ss V .
9 9 9
Th e di fferenti a to m , b e m g s c a l a r o p e ra t o ra p a ss
9 x 9 3/ a z
by the dot and the cros s . That is

3 2
9m 9 y 9 z
9V 9V 9V
V XV= I X + k x
a: 9 y 9 z
DIFFERENTIA L CA C L UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 51
9 73
k,
9 x 9 x 9 x 9 x , y
av 9 17
a n W
J+
1 . .
,
k’
ar 9a ae 9v
9V 9 VI 9 V2 17
9 3
k‘
9 2 a z 9 z 9 z
H e nc e
More o ve r
H en ce VxV 1
9 z 9 x
9 V2 9 Vl
9 x 9 3;
Th is m a y be ri i
w tte n n the form of a determ nan t i
It r
is to be unde stood that the operators are to be applied to
t h e func t ions V1 V2 V8 when e xpanding the determin ant
, , .
From some standpoints o b jections may b e brought fo rward

a gains t treating V as a sym b olic vector and intr oducing V
v
and V x V respectively as t h e symbolic s ga g r a n d ve gtg;
Q LQQM OL M L These objections ma be avoided by y
simply laying down the de fi nition that the s mbols V and y
V x whi ch may be looked upon as entirel new operators y
i
,
quite d s tinct from V shall be ,
V-
V— x e 9V
gx
V x V= i >
< + k >
<
B for practical purposes and for remembe ring fo

ut r ul i t
m a
seems by all means advisable to regard
e z i a a
9 96 9g
as
a symbolic vector differentiator Th s symbo obeys the . i l
same laws as a vector just in so far as the difi e re n t ia t o rs
7
3
9
,
w
97
9
obe ,the
9
same y
laws as ordinar scalar uantities y q
x y
.
That the two functions V V and V

V ha ve ver
important physical meanings in connection with the vector
fun ction V may be easily recogni z ed B the straight
y .
forward proof indicated in Art 6 3 it wa s seen that the

.
1 54 VE C TOR A NA L Y IS S
9V
dx d y dz
m
to tal flu x outward from the cube through thes e

i
Th e
faces is therefore t h e algebraic sum of these quan t ties
y
.
is simpl
9 V 9 VI
d a: d g d z .
9 a:
In like man ner the flux es through t h e other pa rs of i fa c e s of
the cube are

v gV
o
g
d x d g d z and k — d cc d g d z
3!
e
9 z
.
Th e to tal flu x out from the cube s therefore i

9V 9V
d cc d g dz .
9 cc 9 g
This q
is the net uantit of uid whi ch leaves the cube per y fl
unit time Th e quotient of t his by the volume d x dg d z of
i y
.
the cub e g ves the rate of di minution of de n sit This is .
V v= i
° o
av
o
av s
_
__
v 17
9 1 W , e V,
'
9 3: 9 g 9 z 9 x 9g 9 z
Becau se V V thus represents t h e di minut on of densit i y

or the rate at which matter is leav ng a point per u n it volume i
per unit time it is called the dive rge n c e M ax well emplo ed y
fl
, .
t h e term c o n ve rge n c e t o denote the rate at which uid a p

p ro a c h e s a point per unit volume per unit time This is the
i fl i
.
negative of the d vergence In case the uid s in c o mp res s it le

.
,
as much matter must leave the cube as enters it Th e total .
change of contents must therefore be z ero Fo r this reason

i y
.
the characte ristic differential equation wh ch an in c o m p re s

l
s ib e fluid must sat sf is iy V V 0
0
TH E DIFFERENTIAL C AL CUL US OF VE C TOR S 1 55
i
where V s the flu x of the uid This equation is often fl
y
.
kn own as the h ydro dyn a m ic e qu a tio n It is satis fi ed b any

fl y
.
ow of wate r since water is practical l incompressible Th e

, .
great importance of the equation for work in e l e c t ric ity is due

to the fact that according to Max well s h pothesis electric d s ’
y i
y
placement obe s the same laws as an incompressible ui If fl d
i
.
then D be the electric d splacement ,
To the operator V x Max well gave t h e na me c u rl .
Thi s nomenclat ure has be come widel accepted y .
V x V= cu e .
Th e curl of a vector fu nct ion V s t self a vecto r funct on i i i

of pos ition in spa ce As the nam e in diga tgs it is closel y
y
.
L g
connecte d with the an gular velocit or spin of the flu x at

each point B u t the interpretat on of the curl is neither s o
. i
easily obtained nor so simple as that of the di vergence
fli
.
Consider as before that V represents the flu x of a u d

y
.
Take at a de fi ni te insta nt an in fi nitesimal sphere about an

point ( a g z ) At the ne xt instant what has b ecome of the
, , .
Sphere ? In the fi rst place i t may have moved o f f as a whole

y
in a certain di rection b an amount d r In other words it
y
.
ma have a translational veloc ity of d r/d t In addi tion to

y
.
this it ma have un dergone such a deformation that it is n o

longer a sphere It may have been subjected to a s tra in b
. y
virtue of which it becomes slightly ellipsoidal in shape
y
.
Finally it ma have been rotated as a whole about some

ax is through an angle d w That is to say it ma ha ve an y
y
. ,
angular velocit the magni tude of whi ch is d w/d t An

y y
.
infi nitesimal sphere therefore ma have an one of three

y
di sti nct t pes of moti on or all of them combined Er}r a
d y i
.
,
Se c o ri i a strai n w th thr e e i
translation with efi nite velocit ij
l l p
.
,
de fi nite rates of e ongation a ong the ax es of an elli s oid .

Tha d, an angular velocity about a de fi nite axis It s th s i i
y y
.
third t p e of motion whi ch is given b the c u rl In fac t .

,
t h e c u rl o f the flu x V is a vector whi ch has at each point of

space the direction of the instantaneous ax is of rotation at
t ha t point and a magni tude equal to twice the instantaneous
y
angu lar velocit about that ax is
fl
.
Th e analytic discussion of the motion of a uid presents

more diffi culties than it is necessar to introduce in treating y
the curl Th e motion of a rigid body is su ffi cientl complex
. y
to give an adequate idea of the operation It wa s seen ( Art
r r dy y
. .
”
5 1 ) that the velocity of the pa ticles of a igid bo at an

i
instant s given by the formula
v v(, a x r .
vo + V >
< ( a x r ) .
2 j+
a a
1
i + a a
8
k
+ z k
x x
e xpand V ( a r ) formally as if it were the vector tri ple
product of V a and r Then ,
x
, .
V v V ( V r a —
) ( V -a) r o
x i
.
v0 is a con stant vector . Hence the term V v0 van shes .
9m 9y 9z
V ' r + +
55 é7l 5
As a is a constant vector it may be place d upon th e other side
of the differential operator , V a a V .
"
-
lV r “
9
+ a
9
1
9 75 2
7j
9
Hmm v =3 a — a = 2a
Therefo re in case of the motion -o f a igid body the curl
th e r
y
of the line a r vel o c it at an point is e ua to tw ce the y q l i
Ia n gu la r velocity in magn tude and n di ec t io n i i r .
a ( V ie ) v
Vu -
v
Vu x v = ( V n) x v
.
IfV is to be applied to more th an the one te rm whi ch fo ows ll

it the terms to which it is appli ed are enclosed in a paren
,
thesis as upon the left-ha nd side of the above e uat ons q i

y r y
.
Th e pr o ofs of the formul a ma be given most natu all

p
by e x an di n g the expressions in terms of three assumed unit
r j
vecto s 1 k Th e sign 2 of summation will be found con
x
.
, ,
ve n ie n t B y mean s of it the opera t ors V v A tak e th e

r
.
.
, ,
fo m
Th e summation e xten s over cc d , g, z .
To demonst rate V x
V x ( u v ) =
z i x
a
v + u
v + 2 1 x it
9 11. 9v
9;
Xv +
2 u 1 < —
>
9w
Hence
To demonstrate
V (n v) v -
Vu + u V
( X )
o
V .
THE DIFFERENTIAL CA C L UL US VE C TOR S
o v + u
1 = v >
<
In k ke m a n n e r
E u -
—
9
a
v
z
z
.
r u x (V x v) + r v
.
Henc e V (u-
v) = v -
Vn + u -
Vv
+ v x( V x u ) + u >
< ( V X V) .
Th e r
other formul a a e demonstrated in a simi ar manne l r.
7 ]
4 Th e nota tion 1
V 0 1 V ) n ( 44)
ill
w be us ed to denote that in appl ng th e Op e ra t o r V to the yi
product (11 v) the quantity u is to b e egarded as c on s ta n t
,
r .
That is the operation V is car

, ri ed out o nl y
p a rtia l ly upon
the product ( u - v) In general if V is to be carried out
y
.
pa rtially upon an numbe r of functi ons which occur afte r

pr
it in a a enthesis those functions which are con stant for the
i
,
different ati ons are writte n a fter the parenthes is as subscripts .
1 Th is
m
ide a a n d n o ta
m km
p a rt ia l V s o t o s pe a m a y be a vo ide d by e a n s
ti o n o fa
m m
o f t h e fo r u la 4 1
v X (V X
.
u )
.
.
m m
B u t a c e rt a i n a o u n t o f c o p a c t n e s s a n d s i pli c i t y is
lo s t t h e re by Th e id e a o fV (n v) is s ure ly n o o re c o pli c a te d t h a n u V v o r
,
V (u -
v) v. 4
( )5
This
tion of difle re n t ia l s
i
formula correspon ds to the follow n g one in the nota
Th e form ul a ( 35) given above ( Art 7 3 ) ma be y

y
.
written in the following manner as is obvious from analog

,
with the correspondin g formula in di fferential s
V V
V >
<
( 11 4
1 62 VE C TOR ANAL YSIS
l
form a l y a s if V , n, r
v we e all rea vecto s l r . Then
11 x ( x v)
V = r V — u
: V
- v z .
Th e second term is capable of interpretation as it sta n s d

i
.
Th e fi rst term however is not Th e operator V ha s noth ng

r
.
, ,
upon which to operate It the efo re must be trans posed so

.
that it shall have n v as an operand B u t u being ou t side

x i
o .
of the parenthesis in u x ( V v) is cons tant for the d fferen

ti a t io ns . Hence
u o vV =V ( u o
v ) u
and — u -
V v .
Ifu be a unit vector say a the formul a

, ,
/ v . a v
a o =V ( a ( 7)
4
expresses the fact that the directional derivative a - V v of a

vector f u nction v in the direction a is equal to the derivative
of the projection of the vector v in that d ection p us th e ir l
vector product of the curl of v int o the direction a .
Consider the values of v at two neighboring po ints .
v = v
1
i + v2 j+ v3 k
d v = d v1 i + d v2 j+ d v3 k
y
.
B ut b d v1 = d r o 1
d v2 = d r o 2
d v8 = d r o 3
.
Hence dv=dr
Hence dv = dro .
By dv=V (dr
THE DIFFERENTIAL CAL C UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 63
Or if v denote the value of v at the point ( a

o , g, z ) a nd v the
value at a neighboring point
v = vo + V ( d r
( 49)
Th is e pression of v in ter
x ms
of its value v at a given po int 0 ,
t h e de ls and the di splacement d r is analogous t o the e xp a n
y
,
sion of a scalar functor of one variable by Ta lor s theorem ’

,
”
f CC) +1 ( 500
) dx
Th e i
derivat ve of ( r v) when v is cons tant is e q ual to v .
Th a t is V ( r
Fo r V (r -
v) v v -
Vr
9 9
0
7
2
5 1,
r = 5c i + y j+ z k,
v~ Vr v
1
i + v
2 j+
v
3
k = v,
V x r = 0
Henc e
.
e V ( r v) v v .
In likemanner if in stead of the fi nite vector r an infi nitesimal ,
vector d r be substi t ute d the result s t ill is

,
V (d r
By ( 47) v = vo + V (d r
V (d r
-
v) - v .
1 1 1
Th is gives another form of ( which is sometime s

4 9) m ore
c onvenien t It is also sl ightly more s mmetric a l y .
Cons ider
a mo ving fluid L et ( t ) be the
fl
. v x, g
, z ,
velocity of the uid a t the point (x ) at t h e time t Su r

ll
, g, z .
round a poin t (T g z ) with a sma

o, o, o
Sphere .
d r r d c
2
.
At p i
each oint of th s sphere the velocit y is
v v, d r V v .
In r
the inc ement of t me i 8t the points of t h s s he e wi i p r ll
moved the distance
( vo + d r o ) St .
Th e point at the center w ll ha ve move i d dista ce

th e n
v,
8t .
Th e distance between the center and the points th at were

upon the sphere of radius d r at the comm encement of the
interval 8 t has become at the end of that interval 8 t
d r = d r + d r-
’
Vv8t .
locus of the e xtremity of

To fi n d t h e dr ’
i
it s necessar y to
li i
e m nate d r from the e uati ons q
c
2 = dr dr o .
Th e fi rst y
equation ma be solved for d r b t h e method of y
Art 4 7 page 9 0 a n d the solution substitute d into t h e second
ill r
.
, , .
Th e result w show that the infi nitesimal sphe e

d r-
dr 2
has been transformed into an ellipsoid b the motion of the y

fluid during the time 8 t .
A more de fi nite account of the change that has taken plac e

y
m a y be obta in ed b making use of equation 50
( )
s e c tive l y parallel to them Then the e xpress on i a bo ve
p
y
.
b ecomes sim m
Th e i
point whose coord nates referred to the c ente r of the
l
infi n itesima sphere are
d oc , d g, dz
is therefore endowed with thi s velocity ,

. In t h e t mei 8 t it
will have moved to a new position
9 71
2
dz — 8t dy + 8t , dz 1 +
5 9y
Th e li y
tota t of the points upon the sphere
2 2
dr dg dz
li y
goes over into the tota t of points upon the e llipsoi d of
which the equation is
3 z
to z
9 v3
8
55
"
e x
Th e statements made before ( Art 7 2) concerning the three

y
.
types of motion which an in fi n itesimal sphere of fluid ma

possess have therefore now b een demonstrated .
Th e symbolic operator V may be applied several times

in succession This will correspond in a general wa y to
.
forming derivatives of an order higher than the fi rst Th e

i
.
e xpressions found b y thus repeating V w ll all be in de p e n d

e n t of t h e a x es because V itself is There are s ix of these .
dels of the second order .
Le t V ( re z ) be a scalar f u nction of position in space
r
, .
Th e derivative V V is a vector f u nction and hence h a s a cu l

and a divergence Therefore .
V °
V V, V x VV
THE DIFFERENTIA L C AL CUL US OF VE C TOR S 1 67
are the two derivatives of the second order whi ch ma be y

obtained from V .
V x V V= cu e V . 5
( )2
Th e second e xpression V x V Vva n is h e s ide n tic a lly . That is ,

the de ri va tive fa ny la f tio n V p o ss e ss e s n o c u rl This
x j
o sc a r unc .
may be seen by e x pandin g V V V in terms of i k All

L
, , .
the terms cancel out ater ( Art 8 3) it will be shown con

r y rl i
. .
ve sel that if a vector functi on W poss esses no cu i e f , . .
W is the derivative of some scalar functi on V

d r
.
Th e fi rst e x pression V V V when e xpande o in te ms of

i, j
,
k be c o m e s
9 V 2
9 V 2
9 V 2
V o
VV 2
+ 2
+ 2
.
9 x 9y 9 z
2 2 2
9 9 9
Sym b o h c a lly , V V o
2
+ 2
+ 2
9 x 9 y 9 z
Th e operator V V is therefore the well-known o p rator of

L l L q
e
ap ac e . aplace s E uation ’
9 V 2
9 V 2
9 V 2
2
+ 2
+ 2
9 x 9 y 9 z
i
bec omes n the notat on here emplo ed i y
V VV 0
i y d
.
When applied to a scalar funct on operator V V iel s V th e

a scalar function which is more over the divergence of t h e , ,
derivative
L r y L
.
et T be the te mperat u e in a bod et c be t h e con

y p i
.
du c t ivity p the densit

, a n d k the s e c fi c heat Th e , .
flo w f is
f= — c VT .
Th e i
rate at which heat is leav n g a point per un t volume i
i p e r
unit time is V f Th e increment of temperature s

.
V fdto .
d T c
-V -
VT .
dt p k
This is Four ier s e quation for the rate

’
of ch a nge of tempera
Let V be a vector function and VI V2 V3 its three com

L y
, , ,
ponente . Th e operato r V V of aplace ma be applied to V .
If a L
vector functi on V satis fi es aplace s Equati on each of ’
,
its three scalar comp onents does O ther de ls of the second

.
order may be obtained by considering the divergence a n d curl

of V. Th e di vergence V V has a derivative
V V-
V = V div V .
Th e cur l x
V V ha s in i
turn a d vergence and a cur l ,
V -
v , V x V x V .
V -
V x V = di v cu e 5
( )6
V x V x V curl cu rl V . 5
( 7)
O f these expressions V V x V va n is h e s ide n tic a lly That is ,
y
.
the diverge n c e of th e c u rl of a n y ve c to r is z e ro Thi s ma b e

x j L
.
seen b y e xpanding V V V in terms of i k ate r ( Art

i i
.
, , .
8 3 ) it will b e shown conversely that f the d vergence of a

vec tor function W vanishes identicall y i e f ,
i . .
W is the curl of some vecto r function V .

Th e geometric interpreta tion of V -
V u is nte re st ng i i .
It depends upon a geometric interpretation of the second

derivative of a scala r function u of the one scalar variable cc
L L
.
et u , be the value of u at the point as , et it be required .
to fi n d the second derivative of u with respect to x at the

point L
et re , and a , be two points e uid s tant from :c q i o
.
Th at is let ,
= a o
“1 “2
“a
2
?
I
“
is the ratio of t h e difference between the ave age of u at the r

point s x, and and the value of u at d to the s u a e of t h e o
q r
distance of the points xl a , from ec Th at , o
.
i d oc 2 —O
y
is e as il proved by Taylor s theorem ’
L
.
et u be a scalar function of positi on i n space Choose

j l
.
three mutually orthogonal lines 1 k and eva uate the , ,
e xpression s
2 2 z
9 u 9 a a u
, ,
2
9 x
Let and be two points on the li ne 1 at a stance from di

j
a a a
, ,
x and a
s two points on at the same di stance a from
mo ;
(c o ; cc
4
, d ,
, p
an a s two oints on k at the same d stance a from w i e
.
“1 + u
2 _ u o
TH E DIFFERENTIAL CA C L UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 71
2
1 9 7“
Lm
2 2
9 2 a i O
2 2
9 9
V-
u a
2
+ 2
+ Vu
9 x 9y
6
s
a
As V r p
and V a e inde endent of the pa t c ul ar ax es chosen ri
this expression m a y be evaluate for a different set of ax es d ,
ill
then for st a difle re n t one etc B y add ng together all , . i ,
thes e results
u
1 + u
2 + o u
6 n t e rm s
u o
V -V u
L et become infi nite and at the same time let the difle re n t
y i
n
sets of axes point in ever direction ss uing from $0. Th e

frac tion
u + u 6 n te rms
1 2
then approaches the a ve ra ge va lue of it upon the surfa ce of a

i
sphere o frad us a s u ound ng the point rr iD enote th s i
by n a .
LIM
v Vu .
-0 2
a . a
V Vu is equ a l to s ix ti mes the limit approached b the ratio y

of the e xc es s of u on the surface of a sphere above t h e value
at the cente r to the square of the ra di us of the sphere Th e .
same reas oning held in case n is a ve c to r function

dy
.
If u be the tempe rature of a bo V- V u ( e x cep t for a

co n stant factor which depends upon the mate ri al of t h e
q al to the rate of increase of t mperature (
body ) is e u e Art .
- is p sitive the average temperature upon a

If V Vu
tem perat re at the center
o
small sphere greater than is th e

center of the sphere is growi g warmer
u .
Th e the case n . In
of a flow the temperatu e at the center m st remain
vi dently therefore the condi tion for a steady
s te a dy r u
constant . E
flo w is
V O V ‘
tt z o .
That is t h e temperature is a solut ion of ap a ce s E uat on

,
L l q i ’
.
M axwell gave the name c on c e n t ra tio n to V V it whether

u b e a scalar or vector function Conse uentl V V u ma q y y
lr
.
be called the disp e rs io n of the function i t whether it b e sca a

or vector Th e dis persion is proportional to the excess Of
l
.
the average value of the function on an in fi nite sima surface

l
above the va ue at the center In case it is a vecto r f u nction
r ddi i i
.
the average is a vector ave age Th e a t ons n it a re

i
.
vector add tions .
SUMM ARY OF CHAPTE R III
If a i
vector r s a function of a scalar t the der vat ve of i i
i
r w th respect to t is a vector uantity who se direction is q
that of the tangent to the cu rve described b y the terminus
r
of and whose magnit ude is e ual to the rate of advance of q
that terminus along the curve p e r un it change of t Th e
p r
.
derivatives of the com onents of a vecto are the components

of the derivat ve s i .
A r
combination of vecto s or of vecto s and sca a s ma b e r lr y
differentiated just as in ordinar scalar anal s s e xcept tha t y yi
th e difle re n tia t io n s must be performed i n si tu
'
.
1 74 VE CTOR A NAL YSIS
If r denote the position of a mov n g i p a rtic l e t the tim e
y
, ,
v the velocit A the acceleration

, ,
whi ch one is parallel t o the ta ngent and depen ds u on the p

rate of change of the scalar velocit v of the parti cle in its y
path and of which the other is perpendi cular to the tan gent
,
y
and depends upon the velocit of the a t c e a n d the cur va p ri l
t ure of the path .
A= s t + v 2
0 .
Applicat ions to the hodograph in part cu ar motion in a , i l

circle parabola or under a central acceleration Application
i
, , .
to the proof of the theorem that the moti on of a rig d body

i
one point of which is fi xed s an ins tantaneous rotation abo ut
axis through the fi x ed point
y r
.
Inte gration with respect to a scalar is merel the inve se

of difle re n tia t io n Application to fi n di ng the paths due to
.
given accelerati ons

r ii
.
Th e ope ator V applied to a scalar fun ction of pos t on in

Space gives a vector whose di
rection s that of m o st rapid i
in crease of that function and whose magni tude is e ual to q
r i
the rate of tha t inc eas e per un t chan ge of po sit on in tha t i
direction
5
’
9 90 9 g
v=i
a
A 1 ,
9 a: 9 3/ 9 z
THE DIFFERENTIA L C AL C UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 75
Th e ope rator V is invari ant of the ax es i, j k It ma y be

y q
.
,
de fi ned b the e uation

( 24 )
VV d o r d .
( 2 5y
Computat ion of the derivative by two me ho ds depend VV t
ing upon e q uat ons ( ) and
i llu tration of the
21 I
currence of in mathe at cal physics
s oc
V m i .
Vmay be looked upon as a ctitious vect r a vector fi

obe y s the formal laws of vect rs just in
o ,
di erentiator
f
f It
so far the scalar erentiato rs of /
. o
di f
f bey 9 9 9 9 y, 9 9
the fo rmal la s of scalar q uantities
as cc , z O
9V 9V 9V
Ifa be a un it vector a VV i
is the d re ctional deri va t ve of i V
i di i
n the rect on a .
a c V V= ( a o V) V = a ( V V) .
If V is i
a vector funct on a V V is the di rectiona l
i
o f th a t vector f u nct on in the d rection a i .
av
o
9 0: 9 g
9v
+ k >
<
9 2: 9 g
9 Vl 9 V2 9 V3
’
9 x 9 y 9 z
9 9 9 V3
v =i
P roof tha t V V is the dive rge n c e of V an d x V V,
o fV.
V V = d1 V V,
°
V xV= cu e .
V ( u + )
v
V -u +V o v,
V o
( u v ) =V u -v + u V o v,
V ( n o v) v (q )
+ 11 x( v ) , 4
( )1
V -( u x v) v - q — u -
v ,
4
( )2
V x (u x v) =v -
Vu — v V o
u — u Vv + uV -
- v ( 43 ) .
Introducti on of the partia de l V (u l

in wh ch the dif i
r d yp
,
fe re n t ia tio ns a e performe upon the h othesis that u is

constan t .
u x( v ) = V ( u v ) u
-u o .
If a be i r
a un t vecto the direct onal derivative i
a -
V v = V (a 4
( )7
Th eexpan sion of any vector funct on v in the neighborho o i d

p
of a oint ( x y z ) at wh ch it takes on the va ue of v s
0, o, o
i l 0 i
49
( )
x dr . 50
( )
Appl ication to hydrod n mics

r
y a .
Th e de ls of the second order are s ix in numbe .

1 78 VECTO R ANAL YSIS
3 . Obtain
the accelerations of a moving pa ti cle ara llel r p
and perpendicular to the tangent to t h e path and re duce the
resul t s to the usual form .
4 . If r, y
a s stem of polar coor inates in Spac e
0 be d ,
where r is the di sta nce of a point from the origin (1) the ,
m e ridia n a l angle and 0the polar angle obtain the e x pressions

,
for the components of the velocity and acceleration along the

radius vector a meridi an and a parallel of latitude Reduce
y
, , .
these e xpressions to the ordinar form in terms of x y z , , .
5 . Show the direct method suggested in Art 63 . that the

operator V is independent of the axes .
6 the second method g ven for computing V fi n d

By i
r
.
the derivative V of a triple product [a b 0] each te m of which

is a function of x y z in case , ,
a = (r r) r b = (r -
o
a) e c = r x f
, , ,
where d e f are constant vectors

,
‘
, .
1 1
7 . Compute V V t en Vis r
z
,
2
r 7
8 Compute V V V, V Vand V x V w h e n V is
o
V,
q l i
. o
cases the formula ( 58) holds

£
equal to r and when V is e ua to 5 and show that n these ,
9 . Expand V x V V a nd V o V x V in te rm s of i, j
, k and
show that they van ish ( Art .
1 0 Show by e xpandin g in terms of i

.
,
j ,
k th at
V> <V = V V
<V > o
V— V -
VV .
11 .
Prove A V (V
o -
W) = V A V W+ o
WA -V V .
and
(W W) — V (v -
W) ,
H
C A P TER IV
TH E IN TEG R AL CALCULU S OF VECTORS
L et W( ) be a vector function of position in

L et be any curve in space and the rad us Vector
z
ac, y ,
space . C r i ,
dra wn from some fi xed origin to the points of the curve .
Divide the curve into in fi nitesimal elemen t s d r From t h e .
sum of the scalar product of these elements d r and the value

o fthe function W at some point of the element
thus 2 W dr .
Th e i
limit of th s sum when the elemen t s d be come n fi nite r i
in number each approac hi ng z ero is called the lin e in tegra l of
i
, ,
W along the curve C and s wri tte n
i d x + jd y + k d z ,
f e
w . 1
( )
Th e de nition of the line integral therefore coincides ith

fi w
the de nition usual y given
fi is however necessary
l It to
spec fy which direction the radius vector r is supposed to
.
i in
describe the curve during the integration the elements Fo r
ave opposite igns when the curve is described in opp
.
dr h s o
1 80 VE C TOR A NAL Y I SS
r
site di ection s If one method of descripti on be denote b d y
y
.
C and t h e other b 0 ,
W -d r .
In case the curve C is a closed curve bo undi ng a po t i on of r

surface the curve will alwa s be regarded as described in y
i
such a direct on that the enclosed area appears pos i t ive
( Art
y y
.
If f denote t h e
force which ma be supposed to var from
point to point along the curve 0 the work done b the force y
i
,
when its point of application is moved from the initial po nt

r of the curve 0 to it s fi nal point
,
is the line inte g a r rl
J
f
r
f-dr : f-d r
.
xo
'
Th e o re m line integral of the de ivative V V of a

: Th e r
scalar function V (z y z ) along any curve from the point
, ,
r to the point r is equal to the di f

0 ference between the values
of the function V ( w y z ) at the point r and at the point t
, , o
.
That is ,
VV dr V (r) V ( ro z V ( r y, z )
, V ( 900, yo , z o ) .
By de fi niti on dr -
V V= d V
V = V G) V Oo ) '
17 0 y )
6 . z V( xo r yo , z o ) ‘
( 2)
The o re m : line integral of the derivative V V of a

Th e
single valued scalar function of position V taken around a
r
c lo s e d cu ve vanishes .
1 82 VE C TOR ANA L YSIS
Th e value of the integral is therefore a scalar fun ction of
th e positi on of t h e point r whos e coordinates are x y z , , .
o dr
Let the integr l be taken between two points

a it ly near
in fi n e
together .
W dr d V ( x, y , z ) .
B ut by defi n ition V V dr = dV
o
Hence W VV.
Th e theorem is therefore demonstrated

L
.
et f b e the force whi ch ac t s upon a unit mass near

the surface of the earth under th e influence of gravity et L
j i
.
a system of axes i k be chosen so that k s vertical Then

, , .
f — k
g .
Th ework done by the force when its point of app cat on li i

moves from the position r to the position r is o
r r
r 1?
H enc e w=
Th e i
force f s said to be derivable from a fo rc e -flen e tio n V
when there e xists a scalar func t ion of posit on V such that i
the force is equal at each point of the derivative V V .
Evidently if V is one force -function another may be obtained

by addi ng to V any arbitrar constant In the abov e e x y ,
ample the force -function is
Or more simply V
r
gz .
Th e fo c e is f VV
TH E INTEGRAL C AL CUL US OF VECTOR S 1 83
y
necessar and suffi cient cond ti on that a force-fun cti on
Th e i
V ( T y z ) e xist is that the work done by the force when its
i
, , ,
point of applicat on moves around a closed circuit be z ero .
Th e work done by the force is
20 :
If i i l i
th s ntegra van shes when taken a ound ever clos e r y d
contour f= V V = V w
r y
.
An d conve sel if f VV
th e inten vanishes Th e force-functi on and the work done

er o y by a consta t
.
di f
f nl n .
V= w const .
In case there is fric tio n no force-function can e xist Fo r t h e .
work done by fri ction when a particle is moved around in a

i
closed c rcuit is never z ero .
Th e force of attraction e x erted by a fi xed mass M upon

a uni t mass is di rected to ward the fi x ed mass and is propor
t i o n a l to t h e i r
nve se square of the distance between the
mass es .
Th s i
is the law of universal gravita t on as stated b y N ewt o n i
y
.
It is eas to see that this force is derivable from a force

function V Cho ose the orig n of co ordinate s at the center i
i
.
of the attractin g mass M Then the work done s .
w: r -
dr .
r o dr z r d r,
w=— oM — 0 M
r
a p oper choice of units the constant 0 ma be ma e y d
y r r
By
equal to unity Th e force -function V ma the efo e be
.
chosen as
If there h a d been several attracti ng bo es di M 1 , M 2, M 3 ,

the force -fun ction would have been
where r 1 r 2 r 3
, , , are the distances of the attra cte un t d i
mass from the attracting masses M 1 M2 M 3
y
, ,
Th e law of the conservat ion of mechanical energ requires

that t h e work done b y the forces when a point is moved
around a cl o sed cu rve shall be z ero This is on the a s s u m p
y
.
tion that none of the mechanical energ has been converted

into other forms of energy during the motion Th e law of
r
.
conservation of energy therefore requires the fo ces to be

derivable from a force-function Conversely if a force
.
function e x ists the work done by the forces when a point is

carried around a closed curve is z ero and conse uently there q
is no loss of energy A mechanical system for which a force
.
function e xists is called a c o n s e rva tive system From the

i
.
e xample just cited ab ove it is clear that bodies mov ng under

the la w of universal gravitation form a conservative s stem y
at leas t so long as they do n o t collide
L
.
et W ( as y z ) be any vec t or function of position in

L
, ,
sp ace .
et S b e any surface Divide this surface into in
.
fi n it e s im a l elements These elements may be regarded as

r
.
plane and may be represented b y in fi n itesimal vecto s of

whi ch t h e di rection is at each point the direction of the
normal to the surface at that point and of which the magn i
tude is equal to the magnitude of the area of the in fi nitesimal
gives the amount of that substance which is passing through
the surface per unit t ime It was seen before ( Art 7 1 ) that
. .
the rate at wh ich matter was leaving a point p e r unit

volume per unit time was V f Th e total amount of mat
y p
.
ter which leaves a closed space bounded b a surfac e S er

i y
unit time is the ord nar triple inte gra l
V o fd v f
.
y
Hence the ver important relation conn ecting a surfac e in
tegral o f a flu x taken over a c lo s e d surface and the volum e
l
integra of the divergence of the flu x taken over the spa c e '
y
encl osed b the surface
V -
fd v 7
a
f
.
a r
i
Wr tten out in the notation of the ord nar c a c ul u s this i y l
becomes
[ X d y d z d dx d dy ]
or 9 17 + o z
dx d y d z ( 8)
e x . 9 3, oz
where X Y Z are the three components of the flu x f Th e

r
, ,
.
theorem is perhaps still more familiar when each of the th e e

i
components s treated separatel y .
ff d dy =
fff d x d y dz .
This is known as G a us s s Th e o re m It states that the surfac e

’
.
integral ( taken over a closed surface ) of the product of a

f u nction X and the cosine of the angle wh ch the e x te rior i
normal to that surface makes with the X-axis is e u a l to q
r l
the volume integral of the pa tia derivative of that funct on i
THE INTEGRAL CA L C UL US OF VE C TOR S 1 87
'
with respect to x taken throughout the volume enclosed b y

that surface
i i l
.
If the surfa ce S be the surface boun di ng an nfi n tesima

sphere or cube
f da = V
o o fd v
W here d o is l
the vo ume of that sphere or cube . H ence
1
f-da .
do
Th is e quation may be taken as a fi of the vergence

de n i tio n di
V f Th edivergence of a vector function is equal to the f
limit approached by the surface integral of f taken over a sur
.
face boun ding a n in fi nitesimal body divided by that volum e

when the volume approaches z er o as its limit That is .
0
f a a .
( 1 0)
From y
thi s de fi nition which is evidentl indepe ndent of the
a x es a ll the properties of the divergence may be deduced In .
order to make use of this de fi nition it is necessary to develop

at least the elements of the integral calculus of vecto s before r
r
the differentiati ng operato s can be tr eated This de fi nition .
of V - f consequently is interesting more from a theoretical

than from a practical standpoint .
Th e o re m Th e surface integral of the curl of a vector

f u nct ion is equal to the line integral of that vector function
taken around the closed curve b oundi ng that surface .
x W-d a W e a r.
( 1)
1
Th is is the celebrated theorem of account of

Sto ke s On it s
great importance in all branches of mathematical phys ics
.
n mber of di erent pr ofs will be given

9.
u f
f o .
1 88 VECTOR A N ALYSIS
First Proof : Considera small tri angle 1 2 3 upon the su rface
S ( g
Fi Let the value of W at the verte x 1 be W
y y
.
0.
Then b Chap III the value at an neighboring point is

. .
,
w Sr
whe re the s y m bol 8

r has been introduced for the sake of s di
t i n guis hin g it from at r which is t o be used as the element of
inte gration Th e inte gral of W taken aroun d the
.
1 9 3 is
FIG 32
. .
l 1
x 8 r -
dr .
Th e fi rs t t e rm
f
A
w -d r o
i
van s hes be cause the integral of d r around a c osed fi gu e n l r i
i
th s case a small tri angle is z ero Th e second te rm
, .
,
L m v . 8 r) . dr
i y
va n sh e s b virtue of ( 3 ) p a ge 1 80 . Hen ce
1 90
Th e second member 2
8
\
VE C TOR A NAL YSIS
x
7 W da
r
is the su fa ce inte n of the cu of W rl .
E V x W-
da V x W o da .
In addi ng together the line integrals wh ch occur in the fi s t i r

member it is necessary to notice that all the sides of the ele
mentary triangles e xcept those which lie along the boun di ng
curve of the surface are traced twice in Op p o s ite di rect ons i .
Hence all the terms in the sum
which arise from th ose sides of the triangles l in g wi thin the y

surface S cancel out leaving in the sum onl y the terms
,
whi ch arise fr om those sides whi ch make up the boundi ng

curve of the surface Hence the sum reduces to the lin e in
.
t e gra l of W along the curve whi ch bounds the surface S .
Henc e W . da
Second Proof : et C be an closed L y

contour drawn upon the surface S
F
( ig . It wil be assumed that C l
is continuous and does not cut itself
L
.
et C be another such contour near

’
to 0 Consider the variation 8 which

.
takes place in the line integral of W

Fro . 33 .
in passing from the contour C to th e
contour C ’
.
TH E I NTEGRAL C A L C UL US OF VECTOR S 1 91
s
f w . dr = W
01
o dr
f e w e r) fW- Sd r +
f
8 W-
dr .
d ( W -
8 r) = d W-8r + W-
d 8r
8dr = d 8r .
H ence o 8 dr
f W-d 8 r =
f d( W-
8 r) d W-
Sr .
Th e r
expression at ( W 8 ) is by its form a perfect di fferential .
Th e value of t h e integral of that ex press ion wi ll therefore be

the difference be tween t h e values of W d r at the end and at
the beginning of the path of integration In this case t h e
l H
.
integra is taken around the closed contour C ence .
W-8 r
Hence
f W -Sd r d ,
1 92 VE CTOR A NAL YSIS
Subs tituting these va lues
a w -
o dr i Br 8r io d
il r
sim a terms in y and z .
B ut y
b ( 25) page 111
CW
dr i-
9r a r i o dr .
3 x
9 ‘
Henc e
f
S W-d r = f a Z o
e dt
s imilar terms in y an d z
S
f W o dr =
f W
In Fig i
it w ll b e seen that d s the element of a c
. 33 ri r
along the curve C and 8 r is the distance from the curve C to
x
the curve C Hence 8 r d r is equal to the area of an ele
’
y
.
mentar parallelogram included between C and C upon the ’
surface S That is .
B r x dr = da,
S
f W -d r
s x W-
da .
Let the curve starting at a point 0 in S ex pan d unt it

C il
coincides with the contour boundin g S Th e line integra . l
f w-d r
will var from y 0 at the point valu e
f O
W-
ol r
1 94 VE C TOR AN AL YSIS
A defi nition of V >< W which is independent of the axe s

i
,
j k may be o b t ained b y applying St okes s theorem to an in
,
’
fi n ite s im a l plane area C onsider a point P Pass a plane

r l
. .
t hrough P and draw in it concent ic with P a small circ e of

, ,
area d a .
V x W da W dr o
( 1 3) o .
When d a has the same direction as

W the value of the V x
i
line integral w ll be a max imum for the cosine of the angle
q y
,
between V x W and d a will be e ual to unit Fo r th is .
value of d a ,
w d r
Hence the curl of a vector function W has at each
<W
V >
point of space the direction of t h e normal to that plane in
which the line integral of W t aken about a small circle con
centric wit h t he point in ques t ion is a max imum Th e mag .
n it u de of the curl a t the point is equa l to the magnitude of
that line integral of max imum value di vided by the area of

the c ircle about whi ch it is taken This de fi nition lik e the .
one given in Art 8 1 for the divergence is interesti n g more

.
from theoretical than from practical cons ideration s

y
.
Stokes s theorem or rather its converse ma be used to de

’
d uce Maxwell s e quations of the electro-magnetic fi eld in a

’
simple manner L
et E be the electric force B the magnetic
y
.
,
induction H the magnetic force and C t h e flu x of electri cit

r y
, ,
p e r unit a ea p e r unit time ( i e the current densit )

l
. . .
It is a fact lea rned fro m e xperiment that the tota el e ctro

r r
mot ive fo ce a ound a closed c ircuit is e ual to the negati ve q
r
of t h e ate of chan ge of to tal magnetic induction through
th e ci cuitr l
Th e tota electromot ve force is the l ne ntegra i i i l
l i r d
.
of the e ectr c fo c e ta ken aroun the circuit That is .
E-
dr .
TH E I NTEGRAL C AL CUL US OF VE C TOR S 1 95
Th e i
total magnetic induct on through the circuit is the sur
face inte gral o f the magnetic induction B taken over a surfa c e
y
bounded b the circuit That is .
B -d a
Ex pe m entri r
the efore shows that
Eu h
t fiL
B da
ro
m
a
H ence by t h e r
conve se of Stokes s theorem ’
V x E —
a w flE
It l
is a so a fact of e xperiment that t h e work done in carr y
ing a unit positive magneti c pole aroun d a closed circuit is
l
equal to 4 7: times th e to ta elec t ric flu x through the cir cuit
y
.
Th e work done in carr ing a unit pole around a circuit is

l
the lin e integra of H aroun d the circuit That is .
H o dn
Th e l
to ta flu x of elec tri cit through th e c rcui t s they i i
l
surfa ce in tegra of 0 taken over a s u face bo u n e d b t h e r d y
circ ui t That s
. i C da'
Ex p rim nt the efore tea hes th t

e e r c a
H o
dr = 4 7r Co da .
1 96 V ECTOR A NAL YSIS
B y th e con ve r
se of Stokes s theorem ’
V X H =4 7r C
.
p
With a pro er inte rpretation of c u rent 0 a s t h e dis th e r
placement current in addit on to the conduction current i ,
an interpretation dependi ng upo n one of Maxwe s pri mar ll ’

y
,
y r
h pothes e s this elation and the preced ng one are the fun da i
y y
,
mental equati ons of Maxwell s theor in the form u sed b ’

,
Heaviside a n d H e rtz
d y d
.
Th e theorems of Stokes an G a uss ma be use to

strate the ide n tities
V-
V x W= 0 , di v cu e =O .
V x V V = O,
- cu rl V V= 0 .
Accord ing to G auss

’
s theorem
V-
V d v V x W-
da
’
A ccord n gi to Sto kes s theo em ’

r
V x W -d a W-
dr .
Hence V-
V d '
o W o dr .
Apply i '
th s to an in fi n ite s im a l s p h e re Th e su rfa c e bounding

i H r rd
.
the sphere s cl o sed ence its boun di ng cu ve e uces to a

pi l i r
.
o nt ; a n d t h e integra around t to z e o , .
V V X Wd v
O '
W o
d r = 0,
V V X
O
W= 9 .
those connected w th integra t ion b partsi n o rdinar
“
y i y
y
calculus The are obtained b y inte grating both s des of the
.
i
formul a page 1 61 for di fi e re n tia t in g
, ,
.
V ( u v
'
) -
d r u V v
' -
dr v u -
dr.
Hence I u V o -
dr :
[ u u
]
r
v u o dr .
( )
1 4
p res ion
r
Th e ex s [ u n
]
represent s the difle re n c e between the value of ( u v) at r the

'
end of the path and the va lue at t the beginning of the path
, o, .
Ifthe path be closed
u V vo
'
dr v V u o dr .
Second
- - -
v x ( u v ) d a =
ff 8
u V Xv da + Vu xv da .
- - X v-
V u xv da
f O
n v dr—
fq S
da, 1
( 5)
THE INTEGRAL CAL C UL US OF VECTOR S 1 99
V x (q v ) -
d a V u X V u -
da .
Hence
V u x V v
' o d a u V v-
dr'
vV u -
d r ( 1 6)
,
Fourth -
v .
V o
( u v) d o u -
V vd v + '
V u -
vd v .
Hence
V- - -
vd v =
ff fff
da — vdv
u u v V u ,
S
- -d a
vdv
s fff v vdo,
—
V u '
u v u o
-
v
—
V u
v- -v
ff (V x v) d
fff
— dv
u v
f
V u f
.
-
ff fff
H —
ence v u x v da V u ( 1 8)
s
In these formul a which contain a triple integral the

ll
y
a
surface S is the closed surface b oun di ng the bod thr oughout

whi ch the integration is performed .
Ex amples of integra tion b y parts like those ab ove can be

m ul tiplied almost without limit O nly one more will b e .
given here It is known as G re e n s The or e m and is perhaps

.
’
the most importa nt of all If u and r; are any t wo scalar .
func t ions of position ,

v (u V o)
. =Vu -
Vv+ '
u V-
Vv '
,
V ( v )
v = V u -
Vv+ «JV -
V
'
°u a .
- u V-
V v= -
V ( vV u ) — c -
v vu ,
ff -
V V e dv
u —
ffq o d v; f
V-(v u ) dv f
V-
va d o
Henc
.
V u o
v vd v
' '
:
q O -
da u V V v d o,
o ' '
fv u -
da —
ffv o V u d v
.
( 1 9)
By ,
s ubtractin g these e ualit es the formula q i ( 20)
-
( V V
u v — v
v o
v ) u dv
ff ( V u r— v v ) da
u o .
is i
obta ined B y expand ng the e xpression in terms of i i k
y y
.
, ,
t h e ordi nar form of G reen s theorem ma be obta ined A ’
r L
.
further gene aliz ati on due to Thoms on ( ord Kelvin) is the

following
V u -
V v dv=
ff q vo da u V
jf v u -
fff
d V a — v
'
( )
2 1
where w is i
a th rd scalar function of po sition
i lr
.
Th e element of volume d v has nothin g to do w th the s ca a

fu nction e in these equations or in those th at go before Th e
r y i ri
.
us e of o in these two di f ferent senses can ha dl g ve se t o

y misunderstanding
d
an .
In the precedi ng articles the scalar an vector fun c

ti ons which h ave been subject to treatment h ave been su p
the value along one path being the negative of the value
along t h e other Th e integral around the circle whi ch is a
q
.
closed curve does not vanish but is e ual to i 2 , z z 7 r.
It might seem therefore the results of Ar t 7 9 were false .
and that consequently the enti re bottom of the work whi ch

i i
follo ws fell out Th s however s not so Th e di fii c u lt y is
. .
that the function

V : ta n
is not single-valued At the point i tan ce

i y l
.
fo r ns , th e
funct on V takes on not o nl the va ue
1
V : tan 1
but a whole series of values

I + k 7r,
where la is any positive or negative integer Furthermore at .
the origin which was included bet ween the t wo semicircul ar

,
paths of integrat ion the function V becomes wholly inde

,
terminate and fails to possess a derivative It will b e seen .
therefore that the origin is a peculiar or s i n gu la r point of the

function V If t h e two paths of integration f om
1 O) to
.
r ,
had not included the origin the values of the integral

would not have di ffered In other words the value of the
.
integral around a closed curve which do es n o t n

i c lu de th e
o ri i n
g vanishes as it sho ul d .
vitiates the results obtained let it be considered as marked

,
by an impassable barri er An closed curve

y
.
C which does
TH E I NTEGRAL CALCUL US OF VE CTOR S 2 03
y
ma shrink up to no t hin g without a break in its continui t y ;
b u t C can only shri nk do wn and fi t closer and closer ab out
the origin It canno t b e shrunk down to not hing It mus t
.
.
always remain encircling the origin Th e c urve C is said to

.
be re du c i ble C i rre du c i ble In case of the func t ion V then

, .
, ,
it is true that the integral taken around any re du c i ble circuit

y
C vanishes ; b u t the integ ra l around an i rre du c i ble circuit C
does n o t vanish
L
.
Suppose ne x t that V is any function whatsoever et all .
the points at whi ch V fa ils t o b e con t inuous or to have con

t in u o u s fi rst partial derivatives be marked as impassab le
b arriers . y
Then an circuit C whi ch contains within it no
such point may be shrunk up to nothing and is said to b e
re du c i ble ; but a circ ui t whi ch contains one or more such
points cannot be so shrunk up wi t hout b reaking it s continuity
and it is said to b e i rre du c i ble Th e theorem may then b e
.
stated : Th e li n e in tegra l of th e de riva t ive V V Of a n y fu n c tio n

V va n is h e s a r o u n d a n y re du c i ble c i rc u i t C
. It may or ma not y
vanish around an irreducib le circuit In case one irreducible
.
circuit C may b e dis tort ed so as to coincide with another

irreducible circuit C without passing throug h an of the y
singular points of V and wi t hout break in g its continuity ,
the two circuits are said to b e re c o n c ila ble and t h e values of

t h e line in t egral of V V about them are the same .
A region such that a n y closed curve C within it may b e

shrunk up to nothing without passing through any sin gu ar l
p oint of V and without b reaki ng its cont inuity that is a , ,
region every closed curve in which is reducib le is said to be ,
a c y c lic
. Al l other regions are c yc lic .
B y means of a simple device any cyclic region may b e ren

dered acyclic Consider for instance t h e region ( Fig 3 4 ) e u
.
, , .
closed between the surface o f a cylinder and the surface of a

cube which contains the cylinder and whose bases coincide
with those of the cylinder Such a region is reali z ed in a room
.
in i
wh ch a column reaches from the oor to the ceili ng It fl .
is evident that this region is cyclic A circuit which pass es

r
.
a ound the column is irreduci b le It cannot be contra cted to

y
.
nothing without breaking its continuit If .
now a diaphragm be inserted reachin g from

the surface of t h e cylinder or column to the
surface of the cube the region thus forme d
bounded b y the surface of the c linder the y ,
s urface of the cube and the t wo side s of the

y
,
dia p h ra gm is ac clic O wing to the ins a r

i
.
F G 84
I
ti on of the di aphragm it s no longer poss ible
. .
to draw a circ ui t which shall pass completel around the cyl y

p
inder — the diaphragm revents it Hence ever cl o sed cir . y
cuit which may be drawn in the region is reducible a n d t h e
region is acyclic
y y
.
In like manner a n y region ma be rendered acyclic b

r
inse ting a suffi cient number of di aphragms Th e bounding .
surfaces of the new region consist of t h e b ounding surfaces of

the given cyclic region a n d the two faces of each di aph ragm
r
.
In acyclic regions or regions rendered acyclic by the fo e

going device all the res ults contained in A rts 7 9 e t se g
’
y y d
. .
hold tru e Fo r cyclic regions they ma or ma not hol

.
true To enter further into these questions at this point is

.
unnecessary Indeed even as much di scussion as has b een

fl y
.
,
given them already may b e super uou s Fo r the are ques

y
.
tions which do not concern vector methods an more th an the

correspondi ng Cartesian ones They belong properly to the
.
subject of integration itself rather tha n to the particular

,
notation which may be employed in connec t ion with it and

y
which is the primar o b ject of e x position here In th s i
q i i l q ri
.
respect thes e uest ons are s mi ar to uestions of gor .

Th e length of r1 2 is then r
12 and wi ll be assumed to be
positive .
’
7 Vr r
( x2 “3
0
2
( 31 2 90
2
(2 2 z
1)
2 '
Consider the triple integral

V05 2 , z
2 )
1 05
1,
z )
r
d x z d l/s d z r
Th e integra t ion is performed w th respect to the variables i

that is with respect to the b ody of wh i ch V
y
x y ,z
2
2 2 , ,
represents the densit ( Fig D uring .
t h e integration the point ( x 1 I l v z l ) re

‘ ,
main s fi x ed Th e integral I has a defi ni te .
value at each de fi nite point (x 1 y 1 z l ) , , .
It is a function of that point Th e in

rl i y
.
F G 35 r . .
t e rp re t a t io n of this integ a I s eas if

i
,
the fu nction V be regarded as the density of matte r n space .
Th e element of m a ss d m at ( x 2 y2 z z ) is , ,
dm V ( n a , y2 , z
2)
d wa d yz d z 2 Vdv .
Th e integra l I is therefo e the sum of the elements of m a ss r

in a body each di vided b it s s tance from a fi xed point
, y di
( 33
1, $
1 1,
z
1 ) °
This is what is term e d the p o te n tia l at th e po i t ( )

y d y
n x1, yl , z
l
due to the bod whos e ens it is
17 02 5 , z
a )
limit of i t grat on in the inte ral
Th e l oked at i I ma y b e
ways the st place the y may be
s n e o
g
in either of t wo In fir
reg ded coincident with the li its of the body of w ch
.
m hi
the densi y hi i deed ight seem the most nat ral
ar as
V is t T m
limit other h d the integral
. s n u
set of s . be
On t h e an I ma y
THE INTEGRAL CAL C UL US OF VECTOR S 2 07
regar ed as taken over

d p value
a of
ll the sint e gral
a ce . Th e
is t h e same in both cases Fo r when t h e limits are in fi n i te
.
the fun ction V vanishes identi call y at every point ( x 2 y2 z z ) , ,
situated outside of the body and hence does not augment

the value of the integral a t all It is found most convenient .
to consider the limits as in fi nite and the inte gra l as e x tended

over all space Thi s saves the trouble of writing in special
.
limits for each particular case Th e function V o f i ts elf then

.
practically determ ines the limits owing t o its vanis hing iden
ti cally at all points unoccupied b matter y .
Th e O peration of fi nding the pote ntial is of such

q
fre uent oc currence that a s p ecial symb ol P o t s used for it , , i .
Pot V
y” z ? ) e x d y, d z
,
.
z
Th e y r
s mbol is e ad the otential of V Th e otential
“
p .
”
p ,
P o t V is a functi on not of the variab les x 2 y2 z 2 with

, , ,
re gard t o which the inte grati on is performed but of the point
( 1 yl l )
22, z,
which is fi x ed during the inte grati on T hese .
variables enter in the e xpression for Th e function V

and P o t V t herefore have di fferent sets of variab les .
It may be necessary t o note that although V h a s hitherto

be en regarded as the densit of matte r in space such an y
r y
,
interp etation for V is entirel to o restri cted for convenience .
Whenever it becomes necessary to form the inte gral
” x
” if” Z
2 ) dz ,
cry
,
dz ,
5 se ,
.
my
l
of any sca a r function V no matter what V represents that
, ,
inte gral is call ed the potential of V Th e reas on for c a lling

i
.
such an inte gral the pote ntial even in cases in wh ch it h a s

y
no connection with ph s ical potent a is that it is formed il
i
a ccord ng to the same form a l
la was the true po tent al and i
2 08 VECTOR ANA L YSIS
y
b vi rtue of tha t formation ha s certa in simple rul es of Ope r
y
a
tion which other t pes of in t egrals do not possess

i i
.
Pursu a nt to th s idea the potential of a ve c to r f un ct o n

W ( 372 , 9 2,
z
a )
In this case the i ntegral is the sum of vector uantiti es q

and is consequently itself a vecto r Thus the potential of a
i
.
vector function W is a vector function just as the po tent al ,
of a Scalar function V wa s seen to be a scalar func tion of posi

tion in space IfW be reso ve into its thr ee com
. l d
ponent s
W ( x2 , 9 3”
Z
2)
i X ( 002 , z
a) + jY ( wa r 92, z
z)
kZ ( x2 , l ,
I
la z )
z
Pot W = i P o t X + jPot Y + k Pot Z

. .
( 2 4)
Th e potential of a vector function W is equal to t h e vecto r
l
s u m of the potentia s of its three components X Y Z
i i pi
.
, ,
Th e potent al of a scalar function V e x sts a t a o nt

y i l
.
( l Il v 1 ) when a n d o nl when the nte gra

re , ‘ z ,
Pot V
taken over all spa c e converges to a de fi nite va ue If l ‘
y
.
,
for instance V were ever where constan t in Space t h e in

i li i
,
t e gra l would become greater and greater w t hout m t as

the limits of integration were ex tended farther and farther
y
out into spa ce Evidentl therefore if the pote nt a is to e x s t il i
r li i
.
V mus t approach z e o as its m t a s t h e po int (212 y, z g) '
r l i i i
, .
ecede s inde fi ni te y A fe w mportant s u ffi c ent condi t ons

i y i d
.
fo r t h e converge nce of the potent al ma b e o bt a n e by

r
t an s forming t o pola c o b rdin a t e s r
Le t .
If the f u nc tio n V re m a in fin ite or i f i t be c o me infin ite so
we a kly th a t the p ro du c t
Vr
re ma in s fi n i te wh e n r a pp ro a c h e s z e ro , th e n the in tegra l c o n ve r es
g
a s f a r a s regio n s n e a r to th e o rigin a re c o n c e rn e d. Fo r let
Vr < K
r =R r :
Vr s rn ddr a s a s <
jfd
r =0
r a s a s
r =R
Kdr a s a s : n KR .
r =0
Hence the t iple ntegral taken over all space inside a spher
i
of ra us ( where is now supposed to be a small quant ty )
r e
di R R i
is less than K and consequently converges as far as
4 7r R
regions near to the origin which is the poin t ( sol , yl , z
l ) are
concerned .
If y p o in t ( x 2 , y 2 , 2 2 ) n o t c o in c i de n t wi th th e o rigin
fi
a t a n ,
i e
. . t he p o in t ( x 1 , y l , z l ) , th e f u n c tio n V be c o m e s i n n i te so
we a kly th a t th e p ro du c t of t h e va lue o fV a t a
p o in t nea r to
( 2 , y2 , Z 2 ) by th e s q u a
x re f th e
O dis ta nce Of th a t p o in t fro m
(x2 y , 2 ) r e
2,
m a in s
Z
f in i t e a s th a t dis t a n c e a
pp ro a c h e s z e r o t h e n ,
th e in te gr a l c o n ve rge s a s fa r a s re gio n s n e a r to th e p o in t ( x 2 y 2 Z 2 ) , ,
a re c o n c e rn e d proof of this statement is like those given

. Th e
before These three con di t ions for the convergence of the
.
integral P o t V are suffi cient They are b y no means n e c e s .
sary Th e integral may converge when they do not hold

l
. .
It is however indispensable to know whether or not an integra

under discussion converges Unless the tests given ab ove .
show the conver gence more stringent ones must b e resorted ,
to Such however wi ll not be discussed here They b elong

.
, , .
t o t h e theory of integration in gene ral rather than to the

THE INTEGRAL CAL CUL US OF VECTOR S 21 1
y
theor of the in t egrating operator P o t Th e dis cussion of .
the convergence of the potential of a vector function W re

duces at once to that of its th re e components whi ch a re sca ar l
functions and may be treated as above .
Th e potential is a function of the variables x1 y l a 1

L
, ,
which a re con stant with respect to the integration et the .
value of the potential at the point ( x1 y 1 z l ) b e denoted by , ,
[ P Ot m
i l
a . 311 , a
Th e fi rst partial derivat ve of the potentia with respect to a

,
is therefore
a P Ot V LIM [ P O t V]z A 21 y r, 3 1 [ P O t Vl yl ’ 21
( 2 5)
1 , ’
9 33 A x
1
i O A 93 1
1
value of this li mit ma

Th e y be determ ined by a simple
device ( Fig C onsider.
the potential at the point

A 901 , z )
y i
r
due to a certain bod T Th s

il
.
is the same as the potent a at

the po int : M
( x
1 , y1 , z
l ) Fro . 36 .
due to the same body T di splaced in the negative di rection b y

the amount A ee l Fo r in fi nding the potential at a point P
y y
.
due to a bod T the absolute positions in space of the bod

T and the point P are immaterial It is only their positions .
re l a ti ve to e a c h o th e r which determines the value of the poten
tial If both bod and point be tra nslated by the same y

i i
.
amount in the same d rection the value of the potent al is un

changed B u t now if T be displaced in the negative di rect on i
p i
.
b y the amount A ac the v a l ue of V at each point of s a c e s

,
chan ged from

7 05 2 yr z z ) to V s
7 A 502 9 2
, , , ,
where A x 2 A re ] .
Henc e
P 015 V( x A x 2 ’ ga
[ P ot V A ‘n S
in 31 [ 2
z
e ” 21 . h o 31
H e nc e
[ P O t V J ”: A 3 1 9 Vi a 3; [ P O L Vs , y” 31
A 33 1
Aa l i O
Itwill be found convenient to intro uce th e li mits o f d

inte gra t ion L
et the portion of space originall fi ll ed by t h e y
y
.
body T be denote d by M ; and let the portion fil led b t h e

body after its translation in the negative d rection through i
the dista nce A re ] b e denote d by M ’
Th e regions M and M ’
L r i
.
overlap et the eg on common to both be M ; and let t h e

r i
.
em a nder of M be m ; the remainder of M m ’ ’

Then , .
M=M + m ,
V( a s
A x 29 y 2 9 2
2 )
Pot A 29 2 , d v2
r
12
17
6 73 1 ”
2
Axe , Se i z e )
"
12
V ac y” 2 )
Pot
:
2
V ( x2 , y a , e
a)
d v2
12
V ( 932 ya 2
2 ) V 03 2 9 2 2
2 )
do g
de g
Hence ( 25) be comes when A x , s replaced b y

, i it s q
e ual A a n,
i As
in di c e s
a ll t h e
ha ve be e n dro ppe d
g
fo llo wi n po t e n t ia ls
.
a re fo r t h e po in t x1 , y 1, z i the bra c k e t a nd
Then if it be ssumed that the region

a T is fi n it e and th a t V
vanishe s upon the surface b oun di ng T
LIM
d v2 = 0
é l)
A xe — r
12 s
V( x 2 y2 ’ ’
z
? ) d ,
”
2
O .
r
12 s
Cons equently the expression for the derivati ve of th e poten

tial reduces to merely
d vz Pot
Th e p a rti a l de riva tive of the p o te n ti a l o f a s c a la r f u n c tio n V

is l to th e p o te n tia l of the p a rtia l de ri va tive of V
e qu a .
Th e de ri va tive V of the p o t e n t ia l of V is e q u a l to th e p o te n tia l

of th e de riva tive V V .
V Pot V Pot V V
: 2
( )7
Th is statement follo ws
immediately from the former As .
the V upon the left-hand side applies to the set of vari

ables xl Z‘l v z l it may b e written V I In like manner t h e
y
, , .
V upon the right-hand side ma be written V2 to call atten

ti on to the fact that it applies to the variables wz yz z z of V , , .
VI Pot V = Pot V2 17 .
To demonstrate th s identi t i y y
ma be e xpa nde in d
j
V
i, ,
k .
9 Pot V
9 I
!1
f
—
i Pot + jPot +k Pot
THE IN TEGRAL CA L C UL US OF VECTOR S 21 5
As i, j
are consta nt vectors the may be pla ced under
k y
y
,
the sign of integration and the terms ma be coll e cted Then .
by means of ( 2 6)
V 1 P 0t V = P Ot V z V
The c u rl Vx a nd di ve rge n c e V o
f the p o te n tia l f
o a vec to r
f it/no t io n W a re e u a
q l r e sp e c ti ve ly to th e p o te n tia l f the
o c u rl a n d
dive rge n c e of th a t
fu n c t io n .
curl W P ot c u e
Pot :
V l P o t W Pot V2 W :
i
,
9
di v Pot w P o t d v w .
These i y
relat ons ma be proved in a mann er analogous to the
a bove It is even possible to go further and fo rm the de l s
i
.
o f h gher order
V 0
V Pot V : Pot V V V, ( 3 0)
V-V Pot W = P o t V -V W , (31 )
VV- Pot Wfi Pot V V - W ,
32
( )
V x V x P o t W= P o t V xW .
( 33)
Th e de ls pon the left might have a sub script 1 attached to
U
show that the differentiations a re performed with res pect to

the va riables x1 gl z l and for a simil ar reas on the de ls upon
, , ,
the right might have been written wi t h a sub script 2 Th e

r
.
esul ts of this article may be summed up as follo ws

Theorem : Th e dife re n ti a tin g op e ra to r V a n d th e i n tegr a tin g
Op e ra t o r Pot a re c o m m u t a ti ve .
In the foregoing w ork it has been assumed that the

region T wa s fi n ite and t ha t the function V wa s everywhere
fi nite and continuous inside of the region T and moreover
decreased so as to approach z e ro continuously at t h e surface
bounding that region These restrictions are inconvenient
.
21 6 VE CTOR A NA L YSIS
and y r
ma be e moved by ma k n g use of a su fa c e i r it l
i p g
n e ra .
Th e deriva tive of the po te nti al wa s o bta n e d ( a ge 2 1 3) in

y
essenti all th e form
9 Pot V
9 x
1
LIM 1 V032 A x2 , ya , 5 2 )
A xe — O
A
s r
12
VG” ? y 2 ’ 2
2 )dU ‘
2
Le t d a b e i
a d re cted element of t h e surface S bo u nd ng t h e i
r l
egion M Th e e ement of volume d v z n t h e reg on m is '
i i
q l
.
there fore e ua to
d v2 = A x 2 i da .
He cn e
V023, A
7
32
x
2,
'
f
lz a z
s ) d v,
VO5 2 A 93 »
2
2
2 ) i 0 da .
7
12
Th e lmn
e e e t l i
of vo ume d v2 n th e eg on r i m is q l e ua to
A 23
2
i o da .
V( x2 ’ z
2 ) d ?) a
7
12
V03 2 » ya , z
a ) i day
Conse quently
9 Pot V
i o dS .
( )
34
thi s point with a small Sphere of radi us R et S den ote t h e . L

s u rface of this Sphere and M all the region T not included
within the sphere Then .
9 Pot V .
1 . da .
9 x1
By ii i
the cond t ons mposed upon V
Vr < K
h da E de d¢ = 2 7r K .
C onsequently when the sphere of radi us R becomes sma er ll

and smaller the surface integra l may or ma not be come z ero y .
Moreover the volume integral
y y
ma or ma not approach a li mit when R becomes sm ll
a er
and smaller H
ence the equation
.
9 Pot V
9 58
1
ha s y
not alwa s a de fi nite meaning at a point of the eg on r i
T at which V becomes in fi nite in such a manner th at t h e
r
product V r e m ain s fi n ite
q
.
If however V remains fi nite at the point in uesti on so

r
, ,
that the product Vr approaches z ero the constant K is z e o

l ll
,
and the surface in tegra bec omes sma ller a n d sma er a s R

r
appro a che s z e o Moreove t h e volume inte g a
. r rl
1
THE INTEGRAL CA L C UL US OF VECTOR S 21 9
appro a ches a defi nite li mit as R becomes infi ni tesim al . Co n

sequently the equati on
OP o t V Pot 67V
9 x
1
9 wz
holds in the neighborhood of all isolated poin ts at which V

remains fi nite even though it be dis continuous .
Suppose that V becomes in fi nite at some single po int
( 2 y 2 z ) not coincident with ( 1 1 gl z l ) A ccording to the

x , ,
z , , .
condi ti ons laid upon V

W K2
i
where l s the distance of the point ( x2 ) f rom a po int
l y2 ,
, z
z
near to it Then the surface inte gra
.
i o da
d
nee not be come z ero and consequent ly the e quation
9 PotV OV
A
c oo
l
9 x
2
need not hold for an pointy ) of the eg on r i B ut
i gl , z
l
.
f V becomes in fi nite at gz , z
2
in such a mann er th at
Vl < K ,
then the surface integral will approac h z ero a s its limit a n d

i
the equat on will hold .
Fin all y suppose the fu ncti on V remai n s fi nite upon the

surfa ce S boundin g the region T but does not van ish there
i
.
,
In th is ca se there exists a surface of dis cont nuiti es of VI

i r
Within th s su face V is fi nite ; w thout it s z ero Th e i , i .
i -
da
2 20 VE CTOR A NA L YSIS
doe s not vanish in general . H ence the e q atio u n
9 Pot V 9V
9 x
1
9 a
s
c a nnot hold
y
.
Similar reasonin g ma be applied to

pa rtial derivatives w th espect to co ] i r
l
, g] ,
t h e resu ts it is seen that in general
Vl Pot V = Pot V, V ( 35 )
L et V hs any i
fun ction n spa c e and let it be gra n t e d th a t ,
Pot V e xists Surround each point of spa ce at whi ch V

L
.
ceases to be fi ni te by a sma ll sphere et the surface of the

ll
.
sphere be denote d by S Draw in spac e a thos e s u rfac e s

y r
.
which a re surfa ces of di sconti nuit of V Le t thes e su

y l d
.
faces also be denote d b S Then the formu a ( 8 5 ) hol s

r r i
.
whe e the surfac e integ al s taken over all the s u rfaces

d
which have been e signated b S If the inte n t aken y
i r i r
.
over all these surfaces van shes when the adi of the sphe es
a b ove mentioned becom e nfi n i tesi m al then i ,
VI Pot V : Pot V2 V .
This fo rmul a
VI P o t V : Pot V, V:
wil l su re ly ho ld t p o in t ( ) if V re m a in s lwa ys
fi fi Yb
a a x 2 a
1 , 1
n i te be c o me s in n it e th a t th e
or a t a
p o i n t ( x) , Ya , 2
2)
so
p r o duc t VI re m a insfi n i te a , n d if V
n o su rfa c es of
o s
p se s ses
dis c o n t in u it y, a n d f u r th e rm o re t he
i f V 3
d m i fi/n i te
r p r o u c t r re a ns
be c o me s infl a te } In other cas e s special tes ts m u st b e

pp li ed
as
a certain whether the formul a

to as can be us e d
or the more c omplicate d one ( 35) mus t be re s o rte d to .
i
x
Fo r e t e ns i o ns a nd m difi
o ca i i
t o ns o f t h s t h e o re m , se e e xe rc iws .
222 VEC TOR A NA L YSIS
Th e irregul i ies which may arise are th own into the inter
t
not into the analy tic appearance of the formul e
ar r
t a ti o n ,
meth d of treatment
p re a .
T his is the essence of Professor G ib b s

’
s o .
Th e fi rst
partial derivatives of the potential may also
be obtained by differentiating under the sign of in te gration 1 .
d x2 d y a d z z
( 36 )
doe 2 dy“dz “
V[<
w. —
a r]
In like mann er for a vector function W
9 Pot W 517
1)
W ( 2
x , y2 , z z )
9 x
1
9 Pot V 9 Pot V
V P ot V= i
9 a 1
wi l l, k (z 2
s 3
B — —
ut i ( :c
2 x1 ) + j( y g y 1) + k (z z
m
1 If a n
a n n e r,
a tt e
it wo u
mldp t we re
be se e n
md
a e to bta i n
o
t ha t t h e vo l u mi g
the
e
se c o nd
n te g
ra ls n o l o n e r c o n ve r e d g
pa rt i a l d e ri va t i ve s in t h e
.
sa m e
TH E IN TEGRAL CAL C UL U OF VE CTOR S S 22 3
Henc e V Pot V
III
Inlik e mann e r
V x Pot W
III
V o P ot W=
fff
These th ree integrals obtained from the potent a il
differentiating O perators are of great importance in mathe
m a t ic a l physics E ach has its own interpretation Co n s e
l
. .
quent y although obtained so simply from the potential each

is given a separate name M oreover inasmuch as these
i
.
integrals may ex ist even when the pote ntial is d vergent

y
,
they must be considered independent of it The are to .
be looked upon as three new integrati ng operators defi ned

each upon its own merits as the potential was de fi ned
L
.
et therefore
, ,
r
12 X W ( 39 2 g a , z
e ) d xg d y g d z z
L ap W 43
( )
1
'
12
°
w( (13
2, y 2a z
2 >d x = Ma x w
3 2
dy2 dz 2 .
( 44 )
If the p o te n ti a l e xis ts , then

V P o t V = Ne w V
V X P otW La p W
V-P o t W = Ma x W .
Th e fi rst is writ en t N e w V and read “

Th e N ewto ni an of
224 VE CTOR A NA L YSIS
reason for calling this integral the Newt n is t t

Th e o n ia ha if
V repre ent the density a body the integral give the f f
y
s o s o rc e
f at the point
ttra c tio n ( ) due to the bod Thi s
wi be proved later
o a x pl s
1 , , l .
ll second is written Th e La p W d
r ad Lap acian of W his integral was used to a
. an
“
th e l
”
T
c n iderable tent by L aplace is of fre quent occurrence
e .
It
in electricity and magnetism
o s ex .
represent the current If W

in space the L aplacian of gives the
.
0 f at the 0 m a gn e tic
i
orc e
point ( ) due
x ,
l
to the
pl c, rrent
z
l
th rd is w tten u . Th e ri
Ma x W and read the Ma wellian of W his integral ”

T wa s
used by Ma we l too occurs freq ently in electricity
x .
l It ,
represent the inten ity
x .
, u
and magnetism instance if . Fo r W s
of magnetiz ation I the M axwellian of I gives the m a gne tic

,
p o te n ti a l at the point ( 501 p l s l ) due to the magnetiz ati on

, , .
To show tha t the N ewtonian gives the force of attr actio n

acc ording to th e la w of t h e inverse s ua e of th e distan ce q r
L y l
.
et d m z be an e ement of mass situa ted at the point

( 2 y,
x , , Th e force at (x1 y1 z l ) due to d m s e ua t o , , i q l
in magnitude and h as t h e di e cti on of the vector rm from the r

i H r
.
po nt ( x1 9 1 2 1 ) to the point (mg 31 2 z z )

, , enc e th e fo ce is , , .
Integrating over t h e entire body or over a spac e a cco ,

ll rdin g
to the conventi on here adopted the total force is ,
r V
d v2 = Ne w V
12
7
4
31 ,
whe e r denot s the den ity of matter

V e s .
226 VEC TOR A NA L YSI S
Integrating over all space the total magnetic force acting

,
the point z ) upon a unit positive pole is

gl l ,
tl v
’
2
L ap W .
This integr a l may be ex panded in terms of i , j L et , k .
i X Q’ s i z) 0 )
7
W ( x2 , z
a ) z + j1 3
2, 19 2 , z
a
k Z ( z )
'
a
z , z
—
x
1 ) i + ( ya ( z
,
z
1 ) k .
Th e i, j ,
k components of ap L W are respectivel y
_ ) Y
(ya —
9 1 ) Z “
( z
2
z
1
-
j La p W
— x
) Y — (y 2 —
g1 ) X
k -
La p W
1
3
t erms the potential (if one ex ists ) thi s ma be y

9 Fot z 9 Pot V
i -
La p W
a yl 9 a
1
9 Po t X 9 F ot z
” La p W
9 a
1
9 x
1
9 Pot V 9 Pot X
k . La p W
9 50
,
To show that if
be the intensit of magnet z ation at the
I y i
point ( x 2 v2 z 2 ) that is if I be a vector whose magnitude is
i l d
, , , ,
equal to the magnet ic moment per un t vo ume an whos e

TH E IN TEGRAL CAL CUL US OF VECTOR S 2 27
direction is the direction of magnetiz ati on of the element d v2

fr om south pole to nort h pole then the Max wellian of I is th e ,
magnetic potential due to the di stribut ion of magneti z ati on .
Th e magnetic moment of the element of volume d v2 is I d v2 .
Th e potential at (513 1 p l s l ) due to thi s element is equal to it s

, ,
magnetic moment di vided b y the square of the distance r 1 2

and multi plied b y the cosine of the angle b etween the dire c
tion of magnetiz ati on I and the vector rm Th e potential is .
therefore
Inte g rati g the total magneti c potential is seen

n , to b e
d vz Ma x I .
Thi s integral may a so be writt n out in term l of x

Let
e s , y, z .
1 0 0 ,
2 V 2,
z
a ) 11 4 02
0 , z
z) +j
B k 0 002 . 9 2a z
z )
A — z
( as
,
— x
1 ) ( V2 “
V1 ) B ( z
z 1 ) C .
If inste ad of se , Z/v z 1 the variables x g z ; and inste ad of

, , ,
the variables 5 C be used 1 the e xpression takes
i y
x ,y z , n
2 2 2 , ,
o n the form g ven b Maxwell .
Ma x I A (g ’‘
Accord ing to the notation employed for the Laplacian

Ma x W
1 Ma xwe ll : El e c t ri c it y and Ma gn e t is m , Vo l II . . p . 9 .
Th e Maxwell ian of a vector fun ction is a scalar uanti t q y

y i
.
It ma be wr tten in te rms of the pote ntial ( if it e xists ) a s

9 Pot X 9 Pot Y 9 Fo t Z
Ma x W _ +
9 x
1
9 z
1
Thi s form of expression is much used in o dinar t reatises r y

upon m at hematical physics
L
.
Th e N ewtonian aplacian and M axwellian however should

, , , ,
not b e associated indissolub ly with the particular physical

interpretations given to them above They should be looked .
upon as integrating operators which may b e applied as the ,
potent ial is to any functions of posi t ion in sp a ce Th e N e w

yi
, .
t o n ia n is applied to a scalar function and elds a vector

L
function Th e aplacian is applied to a vector fun ction
y
.
and ields a fun ction of the same sort Th e Max wellian

y
.
is applied to a vector function and ields a scalar functi on .
Moreover these integrals should not be look ed upon as the

,
derivatives of the potential If the potential e xists the . y

are its derivatives B u t they frequently e xist when the
.
potential fai ls to converge

L
.
9 L] et V and W b e such f u nctions that their potentials

e xist and ha ve m general de fi nite values Then by ( 2 7) and .
( 29 )
V V Pot V
o : V Pot V V= o Pot V o VV
B ut by ( 45) V Pot V : N e w V,
and V P o t V V = Ma x V V
o
Hence V o V Pot V= V o Ne w V = Ma x V V
Pot V-VV 4
( )6
B y ( 2 7 ) and ( 2 9) V V W= V P o t V W
Pot : P ot V V W .
B ut b y ( 4 5)
'
V Pot W Ma x W ,
and by (45) V Pot V -W Ne w V - W z .

230 VE CTOR A NAL YSIS
E qu a tio n
’
P o is s o n s
92 ] Le t V be a ny fun c tio n i n sp a c e su ch t he p o te n tia l
P ot V
h a s in ge ne ra l a fi
de n ite va lu e . Th e n
V -V Pot V — 4 vr V,
9 2
P 0t V 92 P ot V 9 2
Pot V
2
4 qr V
9 33
1
2 9 z
1
Thi s equation is known as Poisson s E uation ’

q .
Th e integral which has been de fi ned as the p o te n tia l is a
solution of P oisson s Equation Th e proof is as follows

’
. .
V
Pot V
r
12
-
V 2
V
3
Th e subscripts I and 2 have been attached t o designate

clearly what are variables with respect to which the di fi e re n ~
t ia t io n s are performed .
Vl o P o t Vl o Ne w V Vs v
z
.
and v, V v,
TH E IN TEGRA L A LCUL US OF VECTOR
C S 231
v, V v,
or v1 V2 V = V V 2 -V2 + v2 .
VV
Integrate
V2 V d v 2
That is to say i L
sat s fi es aplace s ’
E quation . An d y
b ( 8)
He e h s VI Vl P o t V V2 Vd v2 ( 5 3)
Th e l
surface integra is taken over the surfac e which boun ds
the region of integration of the volume integral This is .
taken over all space Hence the surfac e integral must b e

.
”
taken over a sphere of ra di us R a large quantity and R m us t

, ,
be allowed to increase without limi t At the point (x1 y 1 z l ) , , ,
however the integrand of the su rface integral becomes in

,
fi n i te owin g to the presence of the term
1
23 2 VEC TOR A NA L YSIS
Hence the surface S must include not only the surfa ce of the
Sphere of radi us R but also the surface of a Sphere of ra dius
,
R a small quantity surrounding the point ( x1 p 1 z l ) and R

’
, ,
’
, ,
must be allowed to approach z ero as its limit .
As it has been assumed that the potential of V e x ists it is ,
assumed that the conditions given (Art 8 7) for the e x istence .
of the potential hold That is .
Vr a
K when
, r is large
Vr X, when r is small .
Introduce polar co ordinates wi t h the orig n at the point i

( x1 , y1 , c )
l
. Then r becomes simpl r y
1 r
r
3
r
12
Then for the large sphere of radius R

1
VI r
z
s in O d O d cp .
Hence the surface integral over that sphere approaches z ero

as its limit Fo r .
2 7r
da
Ff
Hence when R becomes infi nite the surface integra over the l
large sphere approaches z ero as its limit .
Fo r the small Sphere
1
Vl o d a r
z
s in d db dd
)
’
.
Hence the integral over that sphere becomes

V s in O d d d d
) .
Theorem : If V a n d W a re s u c h f
unc ti on s o
fp o si ti o n i n sp a c e
th a t the ir p o t e n ti a l s e xis t in ge n e ra l, th e n fo r a ll p o i n ts a t wh ic h
V a nd
’
W a re fi n i te a n d c o n t in u o us th o s e p o te n t ia ls sa tisfy
P o is s o n s E qu a tio n ,
V V Pot V 5
( )2
V V Pot W
Th e modifi cations in thi s theorem w h ich are to be made at
points at which V and W become dis c o n tin u o u s will not be
taken up here .
It was seen (4 6 ) Art 9 1 that .
V V P ot V : V o Ne s Ma x V V
V -Ne w V — 4 vr V
Ma x V V 4 vr V.
In a similar man ner it was seen ( 51 ) Art 9 1 tha t .
V- V P o t W = V Ma x W— V > < La p W
~
—
Ne w V - W
V Ma x W — V x La p W — 4 7r W , ( )
54
Ne o W — La p V x W — 4 7r W .
By vi rtue of this equa ty li W is di vided into two parts .
Lap x V W Ne w V -
W . 5
( )5
W WI W2 ,
where W1 Lap x W V L ap curl W ( 56 )
and W2 N ew V W N ew div W ( 57)

.
THE INTEGRA L C AL C UL US OF VEC TOR S 2 35
E quation ( 55) states that any vector fun ction W multiplied

by 4 71 is equal to the difference of the aplacian of its c ur l L
and the N ewtonian of its divergence Furt hermore .
V -W1 V La p V x W
o V-
V x La p WI .
B ut the d ivergence of the curl of a vector function is z ero .
Hence V -W1 div W1 = 0 5

( )8
1 1
< W2
V > -W2 V X V Ma s .
4 ”
B ut the curl of the derivative of a scalar funct on is z ero i .
Hence V xW 2
c u rl W2 O .
( 59)
Conse quently any vect r fu ction whi ch has a potential
o n W
may b e di vided into two parts of which one has no divergence
and of which the other has no curl This division of W into .
t wo such parts is un ique .
In case a vector fun ction has no potential but b oth it s curl

and divergence possess potentials the vector function may be ,
divided int o th ree parts of which the fi rst has no divergence

the second no curl ; the third neither di vergence n o r curl
, ,
.
L et W La p V x W Ne w V -
W l—W3
— .
V -La p V x W Vo Pot W= 0
— 1
V x Ne o W —
V X V Pot V -
W= O .
4W
Th e i
d vergence of the fi rst part and the cur of the secon l d
part of W are the refore z ero .
V x La p V x W V x V x Pot W
VV -
P ot W V -
V Pot W .
VV o P ot W V Pot V o W= O ,
V -V x W= O .
Hence
Hence 1
4 '
71
Th e l q
cur of W is e ual to the curl of the fi r st part
4
1
7r
La
PV XW
into whi ch W is divided Hence as t h e second . p rt has

a
c u rl the third part can have none Moreover

, .
1
4 7r
V Ne o W = V -W= V -
W1 .
Thus the divergence of W is equal to the di vergence of

the second part
N ew V W .
i
into which W is d vided Hence as the fi rst part has no
q
.
divergence the third can have none Conse uently the thi rd .
pa rt W8 has neither curl nor divergence This proves the .
statement
y
.
B y means of Art 9 6 it may be seen that an function W3

.
which po ssesses neither curl nor divergence m u st either ,

With re sp e c t to a scalar fu n c tio n V th e op e ra to rs
V o or i
dv a nd
4
1
7
a n d a lso Ma x a nd V
a re in ve rs e Op e r a to rs .
Ne w V : V
Ma x V V = V .
Wi th re sp e c t to a solenoidal fu n c tio n W1 th e Op e ra to rs
1
Pot a nd o r c url c url
4 7r
a re in ve rse op e ra to rs . That is
Pot W1 = W1 ( 64)
.
Wi th re sp ec t to a n l
irrotationa fu n c tio n W2 th e op e ra to rs
Pot a nd — V V
a re in ve rs e op e ra to rs . That is
1
—
4W
Pot V V w, — vv Pot w2 = W2
Wi th res e c t
p to a n
y scalar or vector fu n c tio n V, W the
O e ra
p to rs
TH E I NTEGRA L C AL CUL US OF VECTOR S 239
1
Pot V -
V V — V -V Pot V= V
4 71
"
1
— P ot V -
VW — v v o Pot W= W ( 66)
I7r
.
With re sp e c t to a solenoidal fu n c tio n W1 t he defe re n ti a ting

Op e r a to r s o f t he s e c o n d o rde r
V V a nd V x V X
a re e qu i va le n t
( 67 )
Wi th r esp ec t to an irrotational fu n c tio n W2 the dife re n ti a t
i n g Op e ra to rs o f th e se c o n d o rde r
V -
V a nd V V
a re e u iva
q le n t . That is
V- V W2 = V V -WZ .
By i
integra t n g the e uat ons q i
4 WV V N ew V
and W W 4 7r = V x La p — V Ma x W
by means of the potent al i tegr i n al Pot
4 7r Pot V — Pot V -
Ne w V — Ma x N e w V 6
( )9
4 7r P ot W= P ot La p W — P o t V Ma x W
4 7r P o t W = ap L La p W — N e w M a x W ( 7 0) .
H enc e f sca
or a fu n c tio n s lr a nd irrotationa l ve c to r u n c tio ns
f
1
N ew Ma x
4 rr
is a n op e ra to r wh ic h is e q u i va le n t to Pot . Fo r solenoi dl a vec to r
fu n c tio n s th e
L ap Lap
op e ra to r
i ves t h e p o te n ti a l For any ve c t o r fu n c ti o n th e firs t Op e r a to r
g
.
g iv es t he p o te n t i a l of th e irrotational p a rt ; the se c o n d, the
o te n ti a l of th e solenoidal p a r t
p
.
There are a numb er of do u ble volume integrals whi ch

are of such frequent occurrence in mathematical physics as
to merit a passing mention although the theor of them will
, y
not b e developed to any considerable e x te nt These double .
integrals are all scalar quantities They are not scalar func.
tions of position in Space They have but a Single value

. .
Th e integrations in the e x pressions may be considered for

convenience as e x tended over all Space Th e fu nctions b y .
vanishing identi cally outside of cert ain fi nite limi ts deter

mine for all practical purposes the limits of integration in
case t hey are fi n i te .
G iven two scalar fun ctions U V of positi on in Space ,
y
.
Th e m u tu a l p o te n ti a l or p o te n ti a l p ro du c t as it ma be called, ,
of t h e t wo functions is the sex tuple integral
Pot ( U V),
” Wd vl d v2 .
On e y
of the integrations ma be performed
71
fff P o t V d v,
ff V ( :c 2 , y, , z
, ) Pot U d v
z . 7
( )2
In a Similar manner t h e mutual potential or potentia product l

of two vector functions W’ W” is ,
z
l)
° W I!
d vl d e g .
Th is l
is a so a scalar uantit q y . On e integrati on ma be car y
ried out
O n e integration yields
M a x (W, V) M a x Wat v l
7
( )8
By 5
( )3 Art 9 3 . .
4 7r UPot V= (V Ne w U) P o t V .
v .
[ Ne w U P o t V] = ( V o Ne w U) P o t V + ( Ne w U) -
V P ot V .
( V Noe w U) P o t V = — V [ N e w U P o t V ] + N ew U N e w V o
Inte grate
U P ot Vdv —
fff V o
[ N e w U P o t V] d v
+
ff Ne w U Ne d v
.
47 Pot ( U V) = ,
fff Ne w U Ne d v
_
ff S
P o t V Ne w U -d a . 7
( )9
Th e surface integral is to be taken over the entire surface S

bo undi ng the region of integration of the volume integral .
As t his region of integration is all Space t h e surface S may ,

”
be looked upon as the surface of a large sphere of radius R .
If the functions U and V va n is h identicall y for all points out

side of certain fi nite limits the surface integral must vanish ,
.
Hence
( my
( 54) Art 9 3 .
,
4 n w ” o Pot W ’
V x Lap W ”
W
Pot ’
V Ma x W ”
Pot W ’
.
TH E I NTEGRAL CA L CUL US OF VECTOR S 24 3
V [ L ap W W] W V x Lap W
” ’ ’ ”
B ut X Pot Pot
L ap W ”
V x Pot W ’
,
and V [ M a x W ”
Pot W] ’
P otW ’
V Ma x W ”
Ma x W ”
V Pot W ’
.
H ence V x L ap W ”
Pot W ’
V [ L ap W x
”
Pot W]
’
Lap W Lap W ” ’
,
and V Ma x W ”
Pot W ’
V [ Ma x W
”
Pot W] ’
M a x W Ma x W
H ence substitut ng
” ’
4 7r W Pot W
” ’
Lap W L ap W ’ '
Ma x
[ L ap W x W]
”
V P ot ’
V [ M a x W ”
Pot
Integrating
4 7r Pot (W W )’
,
”
ff La p W ’o
La p W ”
dv
ff M a x W Ma x ’
W ”
dv ( 8 0)
Pot W x La p W
ff Ma x W P o t W d a
’ ” ” ’
da — o .
If now W and W e x ist only in fi ni te s p ace these surface

’ ”
integrals taken over a large sphere of radius R must vanish

a n d then
4 7: Pot =
fff La p W ’
L ap W ”
dv
ff Ma x W Ma x W ’ ”
dv .
There
are a number of useful theorems of a function
theo re tic nature whi ch may perhaps be mentioned here owing
to their intimate conn ection w t h the integra calcul us of i l
vecto rs Th e proofs of them will in some instances be given
.
and in some not Th e theorems are often useful in prac t ical

y
.
applications of vector analysis to physics as well as in purel

mathematical work .
Th e o re m : If V ( x y z ) be a scalar function of position

, ,
in space which possesses in general a de fi nite derivative V V

y
and if in an portion of space fi n ite or infi nite but necessarily
i i
,
continuous that derivative vanishes then the fun ct on V s

, ,
constant throughout that portion of Space .
V V= O .
V : cons t .
Choose a fi x ed point ( 901 , y ,, z , ) in the region . By 2

( ) p ge a
1 80
VV y , z ) V a l , ?/p z
1 )
f V V-dr =
f 0-dr = 0
Hence V ( v, y , z )
. V ( x1 , y 1 , s
l)
const .
Th e o re m If V (x , y, z ) be a scalar function of position

in sp a ce which possesses in general a de fi ni te derivative V V;
if the divergence of that derivative e xists and is z ero through
out any region of Space } fi nite or infi nite but necessaril y
continuous ; and if furthermore the derivati ve V V vanishes
at every point of any fi ni te volume or of any fi nite port ion of
surface in that region or bounding it then the derivative ,
vanishes throughout all that region and the function V re

duces to a constan t b y the preceding theorem .
1 Th e t e r m g
thro ugho ut a ny re io n of s a c e
g p us t b e
bo un da rie s o f t h e re i o n a s we ll a s t h e re gi o n i ts e lf
m .
re g
ar e d d as in c l u din g t he
24 6 VE CTOR ANAL YSIS
an e x tension of the reasoning V is seen to be constant
throughout the enti re region T .
The o re m If V ( x y z ) b e a scalar function of position in

, ,
space possessing in general a derivative V V and if through

out a certain region T of Space fi nite or in fi nite continuous
1
, ,
or di scontinuous the divergence V V V of that derivative

,
o
e xists and is z ero and if furthermore the function V p o ss e s s e s

,
a constant value 0 in a ll the surfaces b ounding the re gion

and V ( x y z ) approaches 0 as a limit when the point ( cc y z )
y
, , , ,
recedes to infi nit then throughout the entire region T the

,
func t ion V has the same constant value c and the derivative
V V vanishes .
Th e proof does not di ffer essentially from the one given

in the case of the last theorem Th e theorem ma be gen . y
e ra liz e d as follows
Th e o rem : If V ( x y z ) be any scalar function of position

, ,
in space possessin g in general a derivative V V; if U ( x y z ) , ,
b e any other scalar function of position which is either posi

tive or negative throughout and upo n the b oundaries of a
region T fi nite or in fi nite continuous or discontinuous ; if
, ,
t h e divergence V [ U V V of the product of U and V V

]
ex ists and is z ero throughout and upon the b oundaries of T
and at in fi nity ; and if fur t hermore V b e constant and equal
to c upon a ll the b oundaries of T and a t infi ni t y ; then the
function V is constant throughout the entire reg on T and i
is equal to c .
Th e o re m : If V ( x y z ) be any scalar function of position

, ,
in Space possessing in general a derivative V V; if through

out any region T o f space fi nite or infi nite continuous or
, ,
dis con t inuous the di vergence V V V of this derivati ve e x ists

,
and is z ero ; and if in a l l the b ounding surfaces of the region

T t h e normal component of the derivative V V va n is h e s and
at in fin ite distances in T ( if such there be ) the p roduct
1 Th e re gi on i n c l u de s it s bo un da ri e s .
TH E I NTEGRAL CAL C UL US OF VECTOR S 247
r
2 vanishes where r denotes the distance measured
9 V/ 9 r ,
from any fi x ed o ri gin ; then throughout the entire region T

the derivative V V va n is h e s and in each continuous portion
of T V is constant although for difi e re n t continuous portio n s
,
this constant may not b e the same .
This theorem may b e generali z ed as the preceding one

y
wa s b the substitution of the relation V U V V) O for
V-V V= Oa nd Ur 2
9 V/9 r = 0 fo r r
2
9 V/9 r = 0 .
Ascorollaries of the foregoing th eorems t h e following

y
statements ma be made Th e language is not so precise .
as in the theorems themselves but will pe rh aps be under ,
stood when they are borne in mind

y
.
If V U = V V then U and V di fi e r at most b

, a
constant
i
.
If V V U = V V V and
o f V U = V V in any fi n ite
o
port ion of surface S then V U V V at all points and U ,
difi e rs from V only b y a constant at most .
If V - V U= V - V V and if U V in a ll the bounding :
surfaces of the region and at in fi n ity (if the region e x tend

thereto ) then at all points U and V a rc equal
,
.
If V V U V V V and if in all the bounding surfaces

of the region the normal components of V U and V V are
equal and if at infi nite d stances r ( U 9 r — 9 V/9 r) is
2 9
i
z ero then V U and V V are equal at all points of the region
,
and U difi e rs from V only b y a constant .
Th e o re m If W and W are two vector functions of position

’ ”
in Space which in general possess curls and divergences ; if

for any region T fi nite or in fi n i te but necessarily conti nuous
q
, ,
the curl of W is e ual to the curl of W and the di vergence

’ ”
of W is equal to the divergence of W ; and f moreover

’ ”
i
the two functions W and W are equal to each other at
” ’
every point of any fi nite volume in T or of any fi n i te surface

in T or bounding it ; then W s e ual to W at ever point
’ ”
i q y
o f the reg on T i .
Since V W V x (W xW ’ = V x A vec ”
,
’
tor function whose curl vanishes is equ l to t h derivative 1
L
a e
of a scalar function V ( page et V V = W W — ’ ”
y
.
Then V V V O owing to the equalit of the divergences

y
.
Th e theorem therefore b ecomes a corollar of a precedi ng one .
Th eo re m IfW and W are two vector functions of pos i

’ ”
ti on which in general possess de fin ite curls and divergences

if throughout any p e rip h ra c tic region T fi nite b u t not
2
l
a ,
n ecessarily continuous the curl of W is equal to the c u r of ’

,
W and the divergence of W is equal to the divergence of

” ’
W ; and if furthermore in a ll t h e b oundin g surfaces of the

”
region T the t a nge n ti l components W and W are e ual a

’ ”
q
then W is equal to W throughout the a p e rip h ra c t ic region T
’ ”
.
Th e o re m : If W and W are two vector functions of posi

’ ”
tion in space which in general possess de fi nite cur s and l

i
divergences ; f throughout any a c yc lic region T fi nite bu t not ,
necessarily continuous the curl of W is equal to the curl ’
q
,
W and the di vergence of W is e ual to the divergence of

” ’
W ; and if in a ll the b ounding surfaces of the region T the

”
d l components of W and W are equal ; then the fu nc ’ ”
tions W and W are equal throughout the region acyclic T

’ ”
.
Th e proofs of these two theorems are carried out by me a ns

of the device suggested before .
The o re m : If W and W are two vector functions such’ ”
that V V W and V V W h ave in general de fi nite values

’ ”
in a certain region T fi nite or in fi ni te contin uous or discon , ,
ti n u o us ; and if in ll the bo unding s u rfaces of the region

q
a
and at infi nity the functions W and W are e u al ; then W ’ ” ’
is equal to W throughout the en t r e region T

”
i
r y r
.
Th e proof is given by t e a tin g separatel t h e th e e c o m

p o n e n t s of W and W
’ ”
.
1 Th e ggi i
re on Tm ay h a ve t o b e mi d f y li by gi i
a e ac c c the i
n se rt o n o f dia ph ra gm s
gi
.
A re on wh i c h e n c l o se s wi t h n i ts e l a n o t h e r re on is sa id t o b e p e rip h ra c
ti c . If it l
e n c o se s n o re on it is a p e rip hra c t ic .
fff
ff X e + d d c + Z d wde l.
—
8
[ d y d
if X Y Z be the three components of the vector f u nction W

, ,
.
Stokes s Theorem : Th e surface integral of the curl of a

’
vec t or func t ion taken over any surface is equ al to the line
integral of the function taken around the line boun d ng the i
surface An d convers ely if the surface inte gra l of a vector
.
func t ion U taken over any surface is equal to the lin e integral
of a function W taken around the boundar then U is the y ,
curl of W .
V X W ‘ da W t dl '
,
a nd if
ff S
U -d a
s 0
( 1 2)
Application of the theorem of Stokes to deducing the

equations of the electro -magnetic fi eld from two e xperimental
facts due to Faraday Application of the theorems of Stokes
.
and G auss to the proof that the divergence of the curl of

a vector func t io n is z ero and the curl of the derivative of
a scalar function is z ero
y
.
Formul a analogous to integration b parts
q v
v u -d r ,
ff S
V u X V o da u v -d r —
ff S
q v
ff s
Vu v -
da q -d r —
;
j vV u -
d r ( 1 6)
,
V -V P o t P ot V -V W , 31
( )
V V -P o t W = P o t VV -W , 3
( )2
3
( )3
Th e integrating operator Pot and the differentiating operator

V are commutative .
Th e thr ee additional integrating operators known as the

N e wto n i a n the La p la c i a n and the M a xwe lli a n
, , .
Ne w V
Ma x W
If the i rl
potent al e xist s these integ a s are related to t as fol i
lows :
V Pot V: N e w V,
V x Pot W = La p W;
V P o t W = Ma x W .
Th e interpretation of the physical mean ing of the N ewtonian

on the assumption that V is the density of an attra cting
L
b ody of the aplacian on the assumption that W is electric
i
,
flu x of the Max welli an on the assumption that W s the

y i l
,
intens it of magnetiz at on Th e e x pression of these integra s

.
or their components in terms of ac y z formul a , ,
and
V o N e w V = M a x V V,
V Ma x W = Ne w V -W ,
1
Ne w V = V
4W
Ma x V V = V .
( )
6 4
P ot V V-
WZ — V -
V Pot W2 = W2 ( 65).
1
P ot V -V V — V -V P ot V
4 7r
1
P ot V -
VW — V -V -— - P o t W = W
;r
.
1
£
( 6 7)
V-
V W2 = VV -W2 ( 6 8)
4 7: Pot V M a x Ne w V ( 6 9)
4 7r Pot W L ap L ap W W ( ) Ne w M a x . 70
M u tu a l pote ntials N ewtonians L aplacians and Ma well an

, ,
x i a
may b e formed They are sex tuple integrals Th e integra

. .
tions cann ot all b e performed immedi ately ; b u t t h e fi rst three

may be Formul a ( 7 1 ) to ( 8 0) inclusive deal wi th these inte
.
grals Th e chapter closes with the enunciation of a number

.
of t heorems of a function -theoretic nature B y mean s of .
these theorems certain facts concernin g functi ons may be

inferred from the conditions that satis f aplace s equati on yL ’
and have certain b oundary conditions .
A mong the e x ercises numb er 6 is worthy of especial atten

tion Th e wo rk do n e in the te xt h a s fo r th e m o s t p a rt a s s u m e d
.
t h a t th e p o te n tia l e xis ts B o r m u l ae c o n n e c tin g

. ut ma ny o f th e f
N e wto n ia n s, La p l a c i a n s, a nd M a xwe lli a ns h o ld whe n th e p o te n
ti a l do e s n o t e xis t . Th ese are taken up in Ex ercise 6 referred to .
TH E I NTE GRA L CAL CUL US OF VE C TOR S 55
EX ER CISE S ON CHA PTER IV
If V is a Scalar function of position in space the line

integral
is a vector uantity q . Show that
Vd r Vd a d a <VV
> .
That is the line integral of a scalar fun ction around a

closed curve is equal to the s ke w surface integral of the deriv
ative of t h e function taken over any surface spanned into
the contour of the curve Show further tha t if V is constant .
the in t egra l around any closed curve is z ero and conversely

if the integral around any closed curve is z ero the function V
is constant .
Hint : Instead of treating the integral as it sta nds m u ltiply

it ( with a dot) by an arb itrary constant un it vector and thus
reduce it to the line integral of a vector function
i
.
2 If W s a vector function the lin e integral

.
d r
q
is a vector uantity It may be called the s ke w line integra l
.
of the function W If e is any constant vector Sho w that if

.
,
the inte gral b e taken aro u nd a closed curve
( V
c -
W— c -V W) -d a d r,
we ll
’
Th e
s c he
fi fo u r e xe rc is e s a re
rs t
Th e o ri e de r El e c t ric ita t
ta k f ym
en
wh e re t h e
ro P o p pl
a re wo r
’
kd
s
e
Ein fu h run g in die M a x
o ut .
2 56 VECTOR A N ALYSIS
and H o c = c o V -
Wd a V (W o d a )
W [c e o
case the integral is taken over a plane curve and the

l
In
surface S is t h e portion of p ane included b y the curve
[ V-
Wd a — V (W
Show that the integral taken over a plane curve van shes i
when W is constant and conversely if the integral over an y
plane curve vanishes W must be constant .
3 Th e s u rface integral of a scalar function V is

.
Vd a .
Th is is a vector quantity Show

that the surface integral
q
.
of V taken over any closed surface is e ual to the volume

integral of V V taken throughout the volume boun ed b d y
that surface That is .
V Vdv .
Hence conclude that the surface integral over a closed su r

fac e vanishes if V b e constant and conversely if the surfac e
integral over any closed surface vanishes the function V must
be constant .
4 IfW be a vector function the surface integral

.
,
<w
da >
may be called the s ke w surface integral It is a vector .
quantity Show tha t the Skew surface integral of a vector

.
By e xercis e ( 3) V2 ( p 1 2 V) d v2 p 12 Vda .
It can be Shown that if V is such a function that N e w V

e xis t s then this surface integral taken over a large Sphere of
,
ra di us R and a small sphere of radius R approaches z ero ’
y
when R b ecomes inde fi n itel great ; and R inde fi nitel ’
, y
small Hence .
P 12
V2 V d vz r
Ne w V : Pot VV
Prove in a Sim ilar manner that
Ma x W= P o t V -
W .
By means of ( 8 7) it is possible to p ove r

V -N ew V = Ma x V V,
V Ma x W= Ne w V -
W .
=
fff p 12 VV o
W d vz —
fff pl o
Vd z
V Ma s
fff p l V-d z
.
H enc e La p W— V Ma x W —
fff p 12
V V W d vz
° ’
Hence V >
< La p W— V Ma x W= 4 7r W .
7 . An integral us ed by H elmholt z is
r
12 V d vz ,
THE INTE GRAL CAL CUL U OF VECTOR S S 2 59
or if W be a vector function
7
12
W d vz . 9
( )0
Show that the integra converges if l V dim in is h e s so rapi dl y
Vr 5
K
when r becomes inde fi n i tel great y .
VH V
( ) = H ( V V) = N w V)
'
e ,
V o H ( W) = H (V W) Ma x ( r Z
W) ,
V XH ( W) =H ( V W) = La p ( 7
2
W) ,
V VEo
( V) = H ( V o V V) = M a x ( T
Z
V V) = 2 P o t V
V-
V H ( W) =E (V
Pot Pot V
H ( W) Pot Pot W .
( 7)
9
9
( )8
G ive
a proof of G auss s Theorem which does not depe nd ’
8 .
upon the physical interpreta tion of a func t ion as the flu x of a

fluid Th e reasoning is similar to that emplo ed in Art 51
. y .
and in the fi rst proof of Stokes s Theorem ’

.
9 Show tha t t h e division of W into two parts page 2 3 5

i
.
, ,
s unique .
1 0 Treat in a manner analogous to that upo n page 2 2 0

di i
.
, ,
the case in which V has curves of s continuit es .

H
C AP TER V
LINE AR VE CTOR FU N CTION S
AFTER the
de fi ni tions of products h a d be en laid down
and applie d two paths of advance were open O n e was
,
.
differential and integral calcul us ; the other higher algebra ,
in t h e sens e of the theory of linear homogeneous substitutions .
Th e treatment of the fi rst of these topics led to new ideas

and new symb ols to the derivative dive rgence c u rl scalar
i
, , ,
and vector potential that is to V V V x and P o t w th the

L
, , , ,
au xiliaries the Newt onian t h e aplacian and the Maxwell ian

, , , .
Th e treatment of the second topic will likewise introduce

novel t y b oth in concept and in notation the linear vector
function the dyad and the d adic with their appropriate
, , y
symboliz ation .
Th e simplest e x ample of a linear vector function is the

product of a scal ar constant and a vector Th e vector r ’
.
( )
1
is a linear function of more g neral linear funct on A i

may be obtained by consideri g the components of r indi vi d
r . e
Let jk be a system of a es
n
ua ll y . i, , components of x . Th e
r a re
i -r , j o r, k -r .
L et each of these be mul iplied by a scalar constant which t

may be different for the di fferent components .
0
1
i 0 r, C
z j ' r’ 08 k .
ro
De fi vector r is said to be a linear vector fun c
n i tio n : A.
'
tion of another vector r when the components of 1 along "
three non-c oplanar vectors are e xpressible lin early with scalar
coeffi cients in terms of the components of r along those same
vecto rs .
se a yb z c , where [ a b c ] 0,
a
l
w bl y e
l
z ,
“2 x ba y e
z
z ,
’
z a
g
x ba y c
a
z ,
then r is a linear function of r ( Th e constants a l bl c l

’
.
, , ,
etc have no connec t ion with the components of a b 0 par

j
.
, , ,
allel to i k ) A nother de fi nition however is found to b e

, ,
.
more convenient and from it the foregoing may be deduced

fi
.
De n i ti o n : A continuous vector func t ion of a vector is

said to b e a lin e a r vector function when the function of the
sum of any two vectors is the sum of the functions of thos e
vec t ors That is the function f is linear if
.
,
f( r r ) fOi ) ( )
4
'
:
1 2
Th e o re m be any positive or negative scalar and if f

If a
be a linear function then the function of a times r is a times
,
the fun c t ion of r .
f Ca r) a
m) .
An d hence
f< 1 r l a a
z
r
z
“
a
r
e
‘
l
‘
a
z f ( 2)+
r a
3 f( r3 )
Th e proof of this theorem which appears more or less
obvious is a t rifle long It depends upon making repeate d .
use of rela t ion

f< r r ) =f
( ) r + f ( r) me .
L INEA R VE C TOR FUNC TI ONS 2 63
Hence f ( 2 r) 2 f ( r) .
In like manner f ( n r) n f ( r)
where n is any positive integer
L y
.
et m be any other positive integer . Then b relation

jus t obtained
f( )
r =f m
Hence n
n
r
f( ) .
That is , equation ( 5) has b een proved in case the constant a
is a rational positive num b er

r
.
To show the relation for negative numbe s note that
0 =
f( ) f( 0 0) = 2 f
‘
i d» o.
=
f( ) f <
0 r — r ) = f<
r — r
> f ( ) + f(
>= r — r)
f <>r —
fc e — .
prove ( 5 ) for incommensurab le values of the cons tant

To
a,it becomes necessary to make use of the continuity of the
function f That is
.
f( a? r =
) f ( )
90 r
L et approach the incommensurable n umb e r a

a: passing
through a suite of commensurab le values Then .
f( x r )
H ence f( )
wr a
f( ) r
( a: r
)
Hence r
f( ) a a f ( r)
which proves the theorem
i ly det r
.
Th e ore m : A linear vector function f ( r ) s e ntire

r are
e .
mined when its value for three non -coplan ar vec t o s a , b, c

known
Let
.
l = f ( a ),
m f ( )’
b
I =f
y d
.
Since r is any vector whats oever it ma , be ex presse as
r = x a + yb + z a
Hence
In Art 9 7 . a particular case of a l inear funct on i wa s
d
r
e xp re s s e as
i o
l
i - i jz j
r -- c -r --
fk os k o
.
Fo r the sake of brevity and to save repeati ng the vector r

whi ch occurs in each of these terms in the same wa th s y i
may b e written in the symbo l ic form
In like manner if a 2 be any given vectors and b v b 2

, , ,
b another set equal in numb er the e xpre s sion ,
'
r a
l
b l
o r + a
2
bé o r + a
3
bg o r + u o
( 6)
is a linear vector function of r ; for owing to the distrib ut ive
c haracter of the scalar product this function of satis fi es r
relation Fo r the sake of brevity r may be written s m ’
y
b o lic a lly in the for m
'
r
multipli ed into r by direct or scalar multiplication Th e .
order of t h e factors O and r is important Th e direct .
product of r into O is
r O= r o
( a
1
b1 + a
2
b2 aa b a
_r -a
1
b1 + r -a 2 b 2 + r o a
3
b 3 + 9
( )
Evidentl y the vectors r M are in general difle re n t
Q;
fi
Q Q .
De n i ti o n : When the dyadi c O is multiplied in to r a s O r ,
O is said to b e a p refa c t o r t o r When r is multiplied in O as .
r O O is said to be a p o s tfa c to r to r
, .
A dy a dic O u s e d e i th e r a s a p refa c to r o r a s
”
a
p os t
/ c to r
a to a
ve c to r r de t e rm in e s a lin e a r ve c to r fu n c ti o n of r
two li near . Th e
vector functions thus ob t ained are in general different from
one another They are called c o nju ga te linear vector func
.
tions Th e t wo dyadics
.
¢ = a
1
b1 + a
z
bz '
l
'
a
g
bg
each of which may b e ob tained from the other by inter

changing the an t ecedents and consequents are called c o nju ,
ga te dy a dic s Th e fac t tha t one dyadi c is the conjugate of

.
another is denoted by affix ing a sub script C to either ’

.
Th e o re m : Adyadic used as a postfactor gives the sam e

r esult as its conjugate used as a prefactor That is .
t o $0 0
12 ( 9)
fi
De n i tio n : An y two d a di cs y O and T are said to
be e
qu a l
when O r T r for all values of r

r
,
or when r O r T for all values of ,
or wh e n s o O -
r z s o T o r fo r a ll va l u e s o f s a n d r .
L INEA R VECTOR FUNCTI ONS 2 67
Th e third relation is equivalent to the fi rst Fo r if the .

,
vectors O -r and T r are equal the scalar products of any ,
vector 3 in t o t hem must b e equal A n d conve rs ely if the .
scalar product of any and e ve ry vector 8 into the vectors O r

and T r are equal then those vectors must be equal In
o
, .
like manner it may be shown that the thi rd relation is e q u iva

lent to the second Hence all three are equivalent
y
.
.
Th e o re m : A d adic O is completely determined when t h e

values - -
O a, O b, $4
y
,
where a b c are an three non-c oplanar vectors are known

, , , .
This follows immediately fr om the f a ct that a dyadic de fi n es

a linear vector function If .
a: a zc
r yb ,
O- r = O- c ,
y
consequently two d adi cs O and T are equ a l provided equa
tions ( 1 0) hold for th re e non -coplanar vectors and th re e r
non-coplanar vectors 8 .
Th e o re m A n y l inear vector function f may b e represented

by a dya dic O to be used as a prefactor and b y a dyadic T ,
w hi ch is the conjugate of O to b e used as a postfactor

, .
Th e linear vector function is completely determin ed when

its values for thr ee non-coplanar vectors ( sa i k) are y j
L
, ,
known ( page et
f O) = b.
'
f ( i) a, k
f( ) c .
Then the l inear function f is equivalent to the dyadic O
O a i b j c k,
to be used as a postfactor and to the dyadi c T
T:
to be us ed as a prefactor
r
.
fo ) r r
Th e y
stud of linear vector functions therefore s identical i
with the study of dyadics
fi l
.
De n i tio n A dyad a b is said to be mu ti plied b y a scalar

a when the antecedent or the consequent is multipli ed b y
that scalar or when a is distrib uted in any manner between
,
the antecedent and the consequent If a a a .

’ "
' ”
a
( a b) ( a a
)b a (a b) (a a ) (a b) .
A dyadic O is said to be multiplied b y the scalar

each of its dyads is multiplied b that scalar Th e y .
is written
a O or O a .
Th e dyadic a O appl ied to a vector r either as a prefactor or

as a postfactor yields a vec t or equal to a times the vector
y y
obtained b appl ing O to r th at is
( a O) o r a
( O-
r) .
Th e o re m : Th e combination of vecto rs in a d ad s y i dis t rib

utive . Th a t is
(a + b) c a c + b c
and
This y
follows immediatel from the e fi nition of e ualit of d q y
dyadi cs Fo r
( a c + b c ) o r
and
a b o r + a c o r
Hence it follows that a dyad whi ch consists of two factors

each of which is the sum of a numb er of vecto s may be r ,
multiplied out accordi n g to the la w of ordi nar algeb ra

-e x cept t hat th e o rde r o
y,
f th e fa c to rs i n the dy a ds m u s t be
m a i n t a in e d .
form the scalar coeffi cients of the correspondin g da ds be
q
,
e ual .
If the coeffi cients be equal then obviously ,
O -r = T - r
for any value of r and the dyadi cs b y ( 1 0) must b e aq u a l

q y
,
Conversely if t h e dyadics O and T are e ual t hen b ( 0)

, ,
s -O o r s o T o r
for all va lues of s and r et s and r each take on the . L v lu e s
i jk
, ,
Then
.
i- O j i T- j i O k = i o z o
,
o o o T k
j-O -i z
j T i,
o .
j-O -
k z -
j T k
k -O -
i z k o T-
i,
'
B utthese quantities are precisely the nine coe ffi cients in the

e xpansion of the dyadi cs O and T Hence the correspon din g .
coeffi cients are equal and the theorem is proved 1

Th u
y
.
anal tic s t at ement of the equality of t wo dyadics can some

t imes b e used to greater advantage than the more fundamental
de fi nition ( 1 0) b ased upon the conception of the dyadic as
de fi ning a linear vector function .
3 The o re m A dyadi c O may be e x pressed as the sum of nine

dya ds o f which the antecedents are an three given non y
coplanar vectors a b c and the conse uents any three given
, , , q
non -00planar vectors 1 m 11 , , .
E very antecedent may be e xpressed in te rms of a b c ;

y
, ,
and every consequent in terms of 1 m n Th e dyadic ma , , ,

.
then be reduced to the form

O= a
11
a 1 + a
lz
e m + a
la a n
a
21
bl + a
gz
b m + a
23
b n
a 31 + a 0m + a o n
m
31 82 38
.
C
1 As
de pe n de n t
a c o ro
.
lla ry o f t h e
No n e o ft h e m xp
t h e o re
ma y be
it is
e
evid e n t t h a t t h e n i n e dya ds
re ss e d li n e a rly in t e r s o f t h e m 12)
o t h e rs .
a re ih
L INEAR VECTOR FUNCTI ONS 2 71
This e xpressi on of O is more general than that given in

It reduces to t ha t e x pression when each set of vectors
a b c and l m n coincides with i k
, , , , , j , .
Th e o re m : An y dyadic O may b e reduced to the sum of

th re e dyads of which either t h e an t ecedents or the consequents ,
but not b oth may b e arb i t rarily chosen provided they be non
,
coplanar
L
.
et it be required to e xpress O as the sum of three dyads

of which a b c are the consequents et 1 m n be any o t her L
y
.
, , , ,
three non -coplanar vectors O ma then be expressed as in .
Hence
c ( a
31
1 + a
az
m + “
32 0
1 ,
( 1 6)
In like manner if i t be required to e xpress O as the sum of
three dyads of whi ch the three non-COp l a n a r vectors 1 m n are
q , ,
the conse uent s

O Ll Mm N n,
where L a
ll
a a
21
b a
81
c ,
M= a
12
a + a
gg
b + a
32 0,
N = a
ls
a + a
23
b + a
33
m
Th e e x pression s for O are u n iqu e Two equal .
dyadics which have the same three non -coplanar ante

cedent s a b 0 have the same consequents A B C
, , , , these , ,
however need not b e non-coplanar A n d two equal dyadics

q
.
which have the same three non -00planar conse uents 1 m n , , ,
have t h e same three antecedents

fi
.
1 02 ] De n i tio n : Th e symb olic product fo rmed by the jux ta

position o i two vectors a b without the intervention of a dot
d r
,
or a cross is calle the in de te rmin a te p ro du c t of the two vecto s

9 and b
. .
Th e reason for the term indeterminate is this two . Th e
products a h and a x b have defi nite meanings O n e is a
o .
cer t ain scalar the other a certain vector O n the other hand
,
.
the product a b is neither vector nor scalar — it is purely

sym b olic and acquires a determinate physical meanin g onl y
when used as an operator Th e product a b does not ob ey
.
the commutative law It does however obey the distrib utive

.
law ( 1 1 ) and the associative law as far as scalar mul tiplication

is concerned (Art
T he o re m Th e indeterminate product a b of two vectors is
the most general product in whi ch scalar multiplication is
associat ive .
Th e most general product conceivable ought to have the

property that when the product is known the two factors a re
also known Certa inl y no product could be more general
i
. .
Inasmuch as scalar multiplicati on is to be associative that s ,
’
a
( a b) ( a a ) b a ( a b) ( d a )
it will be impossible to completely determine the vectors a

and b when their product a b is given An y scalar factor .
may be transferred from one vector to the other Apart from .
thi s possib le transference of a scalar factor the vectors com ,
posing the product are kn own when the product is known In .
other words
Th e o re m : If the two indetermi nate products a b and a b ’ ’
are equal the vectors a and a b and b must be collinear and

,
’
,
’
the product of the lengths of a and b ( taking into account the

positive or negative sign accordi ng as a and b have re s p e c
t ive l y equal or opposite directions to a and b
) s e ua to t he
’ ’
i q l
product of the lengths of a and b ’ ’
.
Th e indetermin ate product a b imposes five conditions upo n
the vectors a and b Th e directions of a and b are fi x ed and
.
lik ewise the product of their lengths Th e scalar product .
b b eing a scalar quan t i t y imposes only one condition upon

x
a ,
,
a and b Th e vector product a

.
b b eing a vector quantity , ,
imposes three conditions Th e normal to the plane of a and .
b is fi x ed and also the area of the parallelogram of which they

are the side Th e nine indeterminate products ( 1 2 ) of i 1:
. , j ,
into themselves are independent Th e nine scalar products .
are not independent O nly two of them are different . .
i -i z
jj o z k o k z l,
and
Th e n ine vector products are not in dependent either ; for
and i xj jx k k xi
Th etwo products a b and a x b ob tained respectively from

the inde t erm inate product b y insert ing a dot and a cross b e
tween the factors are functions of the indeterminate product .
That is t o say when a b is given a b and a x b are determined

, , .
Fo r t hese products depend solely upon the directions of a and b

and upon the produ ct of the length of a and b all of which ,
are known when a b is known That is .
if a b z a
’
b ’
, a o h ( 7)
1
It does not hold conversely that if a b and a b are known x

a b is fi xed ; for taken toge t her a b and a x b impose upon t h e
vectors only four condi t ions whereas a b impos es fi ve Hence , .
a b appears not only as t h e mo s t general product but as the
mos t fundamental product Th e others are merely functions

y
.
of it Their functional nature is brought out clearl b y the

.
notation of the dot and the cross .

L INEAR VE CTOR F UNCTI ONS 2 75
De fi scalar known as t he s c a la r of O may be o b

n itio n : A
t a in e d b y inser t ing a dot b et ween the antecedent and c o n s e
quent of each dyad in a dya di c Thi s scalar will be denoted .
b y a sub script S attached to O I

.
If
( 1 8)
In like manner a vector known as th e ve c to r of O may be
o b tain ed b y inserting a cross bet ween t h e antecedent and con
sequent of eac h dyad in O This vector will be denoted b y .
attac hing a sub script cross to O .
¢x 3
1
X b 1 + 3
2
X b2 + 3 8 X b3 + - 0
If O be e xpan ded in nonion form in term s of i , j , k,
2
( )0
“
23 ) i + ( a 4
13 ) j ( a a ) k ( 21 )
-O j+ o
k o O-
k,
Ox = (j o O k k O o
j
) i + ( k o O i o — i c O k) j
+ (i -O - —
j j -O -
i) k .
In q
e uations ( 2 0) and ( 2 1 ) the scalar and vector of O are
e x pressed in terms of the coe ffi cients of O wh en ex panded
in the nonion form Hence if O and T are two equal
.
dyadi cs the scalar of O is equal to the scalar of T and the

,
vector of O is equal to the vector of T .
If O T, OE : T5 and Ox TX .
( 2 2)
From thi s it appears that O and O are functions of O , )(
uniquely determined when O is given They may s ometimes .
be ob t ained more conveniently from ( 2 0) and (2 1 ) than from

( 1 8 ) and and sometimes n o t
m g
.
a nd
A su
fre e m m
b s c ript do t i h t b e us e d fo r t h e s c a l a r o fQ if it we re
fro li a bilit y t o i s i n t e rp re ta t io n .
s uf
fi c e nt i ly dis t i n c t
P ro du c ts o D
f y a dic s
giving the de fi ni t ions and proving the theore ms

In
concerning products of dyadics the dyad is made the unde r ,
lying p rinciple What is true for the dyad is true for the
d
.
dyadic in general owing to _the fact that dya s a n d dyadics

ob ey the distrib utive law of mul t iplication
fi
.
De n i ti o n Th e dire c t p ro duc t of the dy a d a b into the

:
dy a d c d is written
( a b ) ( c d)
and is by de fi nition equal to the dyad ( b c ) a ll
( a b) a c t l
2
( 3)
That is the antecedent of the fi rst a n d the consequent of the
,
second dyad are taken for the antecedent and consequent

respectively of the product and the whole is multiplied b y
the scalar product of the consequent of the fi rst and the
antecedent of the second .
Thus the two vectors which stand together in the product
( a b ) (c d)
are multiplied as they stand Th e other two are left to form .
a new dyad Th e direct product of two dya dic s may be

.
de fi ned as the formal e x pansion ( according to the dis trib utive

law) of the product into a sum of produc t s of dyads Thus .
1f
- u
)
T= ( 0
1
d1 + c
2
d2 + c a d3 + o u
)
O
(o l d1
_ a
1
b1 -
c
l
d1 + a
1
b l
o c
z
d2 + a
1 b 1
-c s d3 + - u
+ a
2
b2 °
°1 d1 + a
2
b 2
' c
2
d2
+ a
a b3 -c l d1 + a
3
b3
1 Th e p a re n t h e s e s ma y be o mi tte d in e a c h o ft h e s e t h re e e xp i
re s s o n s .
O o T
( + T+ O T ’
an d
Hence in genera the product l
9
( +
4 W4 .
a rr
+ qrf m
+ q +
may be e xpa nded formally according to the d stributive la w i

i
.
Th e o re m Th e product of th ree dyad cs O T Q is associa , ,
tive Th a t is
.
( 26)
and conse uent q ly either product ma be wr tten y i without
parentheses as ,
(D g
p
‘
. g ,
Th e proof consis t s in the demonstration of the theorem for

three dya ds a b e d e f taken respective from the th e e ly r
y
, ,
d adi cs O T Q , , .
( a b c d
o
) -e f = ( b - c ) a d e f
: = (b o ) ( d e ) a i o o o
,
a h - - -
( c d e f) (d e ) a b e: t ( d e )
o
( b c) a f o z o .
Th e y
proof ma als o be given by conside ing r O, T, an d Q
as o p e ra t o rs
r -
{ < T> -r >-Q
< o- .
’
Q o r r
-
r = (O-T)
T o r
’
r
”
,
{( O T) -Q § .
-r = -
r]
r
.
( T o Q) -
r = T T o r
’ =
O-
[ T O o
r
”
{ ( d .
values of r . Conse quently

(O .
L INEA R VECTOR FUN C TI ONS 27 9
Th e y
theorem ma be e x tended b y mathematical induction
to the case of any numb er of dyadics Th e direct product .
of any num b er of dyadics is associative P arentheses may .
b e inserted or omitted at pleasure without altering the resul t .
It wa s shown above ( 2 4 ) t hat
Hence the product of two dyadi cs and a vector is associative .
Th e theorem is true in c a se the vector precedes the dyadics

and als o when the number of dyadics is greater than two .
B u t the theorem is u n tru e when the vector occurs b e tween

the dyadics Th e produc t of a dya d c a vector and another
. i , ,
dya di c is not associative .
( O -
r) T¢ O o
( r T) .
L et a b be a d ad of y O, and e d a dyad of T .
( a b -
r)
a h -
( r -
c d =
) ab
Henc e ( a b o
r) -c d a b -
( r -
c d) .
Th e results of this article may be summed up as follows

Th e o re m : Th e direct product of any number of dyadics
or of any number of dya di cs with a vector factor at ei t her
end or at both ends obeys the distributive and associative
la ws of multiplication parentheses may be inserted or
omitted at pleasure B u t the direct product of any numb er
.
of dyadics with a vector factor at some other position than at

either end is not associative — parentheses are necessary to
give the expression a de fi nite meaning
L
.
ater it will b e seen that by making use of the conjugate

dyadi cs a vector factor whi ch occurs between other dyadics
may be placed at the end and hence the product ma b e y
ma de to as sume a form in which it s associat ve i i .
De fi n i tio n : Th e s ke w products of a d a a b nto yd i
a vecto r r and of a vector r into a dyad a b are defi n ed
y
.
respectively b the equations

( a b) x r a
(b x r) ,
r x (a b) (r x a ) b .
Th e d
skew pro uct of a dyad and a vector at either end is a
dyad Th e ob vious e x tension to dyadics is

.
r x
Th wre m : direct product of any number of dyad cs

Th e i
multiplied at either end or at b oth ends by a vector whether
the multiplication be pe rformed with a cros s or a dot is
associative B u t in case the vector occurs at any other
.
position than the end the product is not associative That is .

,
(e ) -T ,
( O-T) x r = O
(e ) o s r x ( O -
s) =e o s,
r r -O x s,
e x s,
O) ¢ T.
Furthermore the e xpressions

s o r x O an d r o s
can have no other meaning than

Degre e s o f N u l li ty oD
f y a dic s
was shown ( Art 1 01 ) that a dyadic cou d alwa s

It . l y
be reduced to a sum of three terms at most and t his reduction ,
can b e accomplis hed in onl y o n e way when t h e antecedents

or t h e consequents are specifi ed In particular cases it ma. y
be possib le to re duce the dyadic further to a sum of two
terms or to a single term or to z ero Thus let .
O= a l + bm + c n
If 1, m, are coplanar one of the three ma be e xpressed y

r
n
in te ms of the other t wo as
l = x m + yn .
Th e y i
d ad c has been reduced to two terms If 1 m n were
i
.
, ,
all collinear the dyadi c would reduce to a single term and f

y
they all vanished the d adi c would vani sh
y i
.
Th e o re m : If a d ad c O be e x pressed as the sum of thr ee

terms
O= a l + bm + o n
of which the antecedent s a b c are known to be non-coplanar

, , ,
then the dyadic may b e reduced to the sum of two dyads

when and only when the consequents are coplanar .
Th e proof of the fi rst part of the theorem has just been

given To prove t h e second part suppose that the d adic y
r
.
could be educed to a sum of two terms

O = dp + e q
and that the consequents l m n of O were non-coplanar

i i l
, , .
Th s supposition leads to a contrad ction Fo r et m n ' ’
y
.
,
be the s ste m reciprocal to l m 11 That is , , .

,
mx n
[ l m n
]
LINEA R VE C TOR FUNC TI ONS 2 83
Th e r
vec t o s l m n e xist and are non -coplanar be cause
' ’ ’
r
, ,
1 m have been a sumed to be non -coplanar An y vector

y
, n , s .
ma b e e xpressed in terms of them as
B ut l o l =m
’ e m ’
n o n
’
= 1,
a nd l -m m o u
’
m ’ o n n
Hence xa + yb + z c .
By i
g ving to r a suitab le value the vector O r may be made
y
equal to an vector in space .
B ut O
This shows that O r must b e coplanar with d and e Hence .
O r can take on o nl y those vecto r values which lie in the

o
plane of d and e Thus the assumption that l m n are non

.
, ,
coplanar lea ds to a contradi ction Hence I m 11 must be

i
.
, ,
coplanar and the theorem s proved

y i
.
Th e o re m : If a d ad c O be e x pre ss ed as th e sum of thr ee

terms
i
of wh ch the ante cedents a b c are known to be non-coplan a r
y i y
, , ,
the d ad c O can be reduced to a sin gle dyad when and onl

when the consequents 1 m n are collinear , , .
Th e proof of the fi rst part was given above To prove

pr d
.
the second a t supp o se O could be e xpresse a s
O z dp .
T= a l x p + b m x p + c n x u
From the second equation it is evident that T us e d a
postfactor for any vecto r
where a
’
, b ’
, c
’
is the reciprocal system to a , b, 0 i
g ve s
t o
From the fi rst e xpression
Hence
must be z ero for every value of r tha t is for ever va ue of , , y l cc ,
y z
, Hence
.
l x p z
m m s m n X p = u
Hence I m and n are all parallel to p and t h e theorem has

, ,
been demonstrated .
If the three consequents 1 m 11 had been known to b e non , ,
coplanar in stead of t h e three antecedents the statement of ,
the theorems would have to b e altered by interchanging the

words a n t e c e de n t and c o n s e qu e n t throughout There is a fu r .
ther theorem dealing with the case in whi ch both antecedents

and consequents of O are coplanar Then O is reducible to
y
.
the sum of two d ads

fi
.
D e n i tio n : A dyadic which cannot be reduced t o

the sum of fewer than three dyads is said to be c o mp le te A .
dyadi c which may be reduced to the sum of t wo dyads but ,
cannot b e reduced to a single dyad is said to b e p la n a r In .
case the plane of the antecedents and the plane of the con
sequents coincide when the dyadic is e xpressed as the sum of
two dyads t h e dyadi c is said to be u n ip la n a r A dyadic
, .
which may b e reduced t o a single dyad is Said to be lin e a r

q
.
In case the antecedent and cons e uent of tha t dyad a re col

se que n t o f O ; bu t no o the r d a d c O us ed as a
va lu e s . Th e y i .
prefactor reduces any ve c tor r to the l ine of the an tecedent

of O In particular any vectors perpen di cular to the con
.
sequent o f O are reduced to z ero Th e dyadic O used as a .
postfactor reduces any vector r to the li ne of the consequent

of O In particular any vectors perpen di cular to the ante
.
cedent of O are thus reduced to z ero .
If O is a z e r o dy a dic th e ve c to rs 8 a n d t a re bo th z e ro n o
m a tte r wh a t th e va lu e of r m a y be
fi
.
D e n i tio n : A p la n a r dyadic is said to possess on e de gree of

n u lli ty . A li n e a r dyadic is said to possess t wo degree s of
n u l l i ty
. A z ero dyadi c is said to possess th re e degre e s of n u l
l i ty or c o m p le te n u lli ty .
Th e o re m : Th e di rect product of t wo complete dya dics

is complete ; of a complete dyadi c and a planar dyadi c ,
planar ; of a complete dyadic and a lin e ar dyadic linear , .
Th e o re m : Th e product of two planar dyadics is planar

e x cept when t h e plane of t h e consequent of the fi rst dya dic
in the product is perpendicular to the plane of the a n t e c e
dent of the second dyadic In this c a se the product reduces
.
to a linear dyadic — and only in this case .
L et O= a
1
b 1 a
2
b 2,
Q : O o T .
Th e vector s T r takes on all value s in the plane of 0

1
and 0 2
a; 0 c
1 y z
.
vector 8
’
O 3 takes on the values
s
’
= O o s
9 4 + { cc
(b 2 °
cl )
L et :c
’
a
1 y
’
a
2,
where a:
(b l 0
1 ) y (b l
and 9
,
a: “2 (3
1)
-
! (b z
Ff
’
These equations may always b e solved for a: and y when

any desired values cc and y are given — that is when s has
’ ’
,
'
any des ired value in the plane of a 1 and e , — unless the .
determinant
bl °
1
bl °
2
b2 °
1
b2 °
2
B ut y
b Chap II , . . this is merely the product
( .
b x b .) <c l < c .)
> 0
.
Th e x
vector b 1 b 2 is perpendicular to the plane of the con
x
sequents of O ; and 01 02 to the plane of t h e antecedent s of
,
T . Their scalar product va ni shes when and only when t h e

vectors are perpendicular that is when the planes are per ,
p e n dic u l a r C ons equently 8 may take on any value in the

.
’
plane of a 1 and a 2 and O T is therefore a planar dyadi c

unless the planes of b 1 and b 2 01 and c 2 are perpendicular , .
If ho w ever b 1 and b 2 01 and c 2 are perpendi cular 8 can take

’
’
on only values in a certain line of the plane of a 1 and and

hence O T is linear Th e theorem is therefore proved
. .
T he o re m : Th e product of t wo linear dyadi cs is l inear

e x cep t when the cons equent of the fi rst factor is p e rp e n
dic u l a r to the antecedent of the second In thi s case the .
product is z ero — and only in this case .
The o re m : Th e product of a planar dyadic into a linear is

linear e x cept when the plane of the consequents of t h e
planar dyadi c is perpendicular to the ant ecedent of t h e linear
dyadic In this case the product is z ero — and only in t his
.
case .
Th e o re m : Th e product of a linear dyadic into a planar

dyadic is linear e xcept when the consequent of the linear
dyadic is perpendicular to the plane of the antecedents of
the planar dyadic In th s case the pr o duct s z ero — and
. i i
only in this case .
It is immedia t ely e vident t hat in the cases mentioned the

produc ts do reduce to z ero It is not quite so apparent that .
t hey can reduce to z ero in only those cases Th e proofs are .
si m ilar to t h e one given above in the case of two planar

dyadics They are left to the reader Th e proo f of t h e
. .
fi rst theorem stated page 2 86 is al so left to the reader

, , .
1
Th e I de mfa c tor ; Re c ip ro c a ls a nd Conj
u a te s
g f Dy a dic s
o
De fi If a
dyadic applied as a prefactor or as
n i t io n :
a postfactor t o any vector al ways yields that vector the

i
dyadic s said to be an ide mfa c to r That is .
if O r r for all values of r ,
or if r O r for all values of r ,
then O is an idemfactor Th e capital I is us ed as the s m . y

bol for an idemfacto r Th e idemfactor is a c o mp le te dya di c
. .
Fo r t here can b e no di rection in which I r vanishes o .
Th e o re m When e xpressed in nonion form the idemfactor is
3
( )3
Hence all ide m fa c to rs are equal .
To prove that the idemfac t or takes t h e form ( 3 3 ) it is

merely necessary to apply the idemfactor I to the vecto s r
i, j
1: respectively
, et . L
I= a
u
ii + a
lz
i j+ a
ls
ik
“
21 j+
i a
22 jj “
23 jk
a
31
ki + a
82
kj a
as
kk .
or
1
g
In t h e t h e o ry
d in a ry a l e bra .
of
Th e
dya d ic s
n o ta t on i
the m
is in t e n de d t o s u gg
i d e fa c t o r I pla ys a mi le
e s t t h is
a na o
a na l o
l gg o us
y .
to un i t y in
290 VECTOR ANAL YSI S
the fi rst place since O is t h e idemfactor it is a comp ete l
d
In ,
dyadic Hence the antecedents a b c are non-coplanar an

L
.
, ,
possess a set of reciprocals a b c et '

,
’ ’
.
r
By y
h pothesis r O r.
Then r
for all values of r that is for a ll values of a y 2

, , , , . Hence
correspondi ng coe ffi cients must be equal That is .
,
m =b ’
, n z c
’
.
Th eo re m IfO and T be
an two dyadics and f the pro uct y i d
q
: ,
O T is e ual to the idemfactor ; then the product T O

1
r
when the facto s a re taken in the revers e d order is a so l ,
q
,
e ual to the idemfactor .
L et O o Tz I .
To show T o O= I .
r-( O T) = r -I = r ,
r-( O -T) -O = r -O ,
Thi srelation holds for all values of r A s O is complete . r O

must take on all desired values Hence b y de fi nition .
T o O= I .
If the product of two dyadics is an idemfactor that pro duct ,
may be taken in either order

fi y
.
De n itio n : When two d adics are so related that

their product is equal to the idemfactor they are said to b e ,
1 Th is
m
n ec e ss
m
it a t e s bo t h t h e dya di c s 4» a n d 11! t o b e c o pl e t e Fo r t h e pro d u c t m
m
.
of t wo inc o ple te dya dic s is in c o ple te a n d h e n c e c o uld n o t b e e qua l t o th e

i d e f a c to r .
L INEA R VECTOR FUNCTI ONS 291
re c ip roc a ls nota t ion used for reciproca s in ordinary

1
Th e l
y
.
alge b ra is emplo ed to denote reciprocal dyadics That is .

,
—1 I _1 I
T a nd T O
w O
Th e o re m : Reciprocals of the same or equal dyadics are
equal
L d
.
et O and T b e two given equal dyadics O I an T

y i
" ‘
1
,
their reciprocals as de fi n ed above B y h pothes s .
a : T,
n os —
1,
—
1 —
1 .
-1 -1
42 : 97
-1 — —1
O ( . 0 1 : T . 2 .
—l -l
a : T, O . O O . T ,
-
1 -l -l
O . O . o «H . O . T ,
O I O I,
‘
I O
‘
l — O
‘
l —
I T
‘
I = T “
l
Hence O
“
I T 4
.
reciprocal of O is the dya di c whose antecedents are the

Th e
reciprocal system to the cons equents of O and whose c o n s e
quents are the reciprocal syste m to the antecedents of O .
If a complete dyadi c O b e written in the form
O : bm o n,
its reciprocal is O
‘
I
l ’
a
’
m b ’ ’
n c
’ ’
. 3
( )6
Fo r
Th e o re m the direc t products of a complete dyadic

If O
into y
:
two d adics T and 9 are equal as dya di cs then T and Q
1 A i pl t dy di h
n nc o m
( fi i t ) ip l e e a c a s no n e re c ro c a .
are equal If the product of a dyadic O into two vecto s r
r
-
.
and 3 (whether the m ul tiplication b e pe rformed with a dot

or a cross) are equal then the vectors r and s are e ual ,
q .
That is ,
if O o T= O-
Q, then T = O,
a nd if O a r = O o s, then r = s,
a nd if the n r s.
This y
ma be seen b multiplying each of y the q
e uation s
y
through b the reciprocal of O ,
-1
T
‘
l o T o T : T: T 0 T g a
O
'
1 -O
1
O
'
To reduce the last e uation proceed as follows q . Le t t b e

an
y vector ,
t -
I r = t I s x o
x ,
t o I 17 .
Henc e
As t y
is an vector is equal to 8 r
q l l
, .
Equations ( 3 7 ) give what is e uiva ent to the aw of

celation for complete dyad cs Complete d adi cs ma b e i y y
y
.
canceled from either end of an e x pression just as if the

were sc a lar quantities Th e cancelation of an incomplete
i
.
dyadic is not admissib le It corresponds to the cancelat on

y
.
of a z ero factor in ordi nar algebra

y
.
Th e o re m Th e reciprocal of the product of an

y
numb er of d a di cs is equal to the product of the rec proca s i l
taken in the op p o s ite order
i
.
It will be s u f fi cient to give the proof for the c as e in wh ch

p d
t h e ro uct c ons s ts of t wo d a d c s i To s how y i .
G eometricall y the transformation
r
’
= O-
r
is a reflection of space in t h e jk-plane This t ans formati on . r

replaces each fi gure b y a symmetrical fi gure symmetrically
j
,
si t uated upon the opposite s ide of the k-plane Th e trans .
formation is sometimes called p e rve rs io n Th e idemfac t or

y
.
has a l so a doub l infin ite system of square roots of the form

T ii jj kk .
G eometricall y the transformation

r
’
= T-
r
is a reflec t ion in the i ax is This transformation replaces each

- .
fi gure b y its equal rotated ab out t h e i-a x is through an angle

of Th e idemfactor thus possesses not only two square
roots ; b u t in addition two doubly in fi nite systems of square
l
roots ; and it wil be seen ( Art 1 2 9 ) that these are b y no .
means all .
u a te of a dyadic has been de fi ned

Th e c o nj A 9 9
g ( rt ) .
as the dyadic ob tained by interchanging the antecedents and

consequents of a given dyadic and the nota t ion of a sub script
C has b een employed
’
Th e equation
.
h as b een demonstrat ed Th e following theorems concerning

.
conjugates are useful .
Th e o re m : Th e conjugate of the s u m or di fference of t wo

dyadics is equal to the sum or difference of the conjugates ,
( T : t ¢ ) C
= w e : l: T0 .
The o re m conjugate of a product of dya di cs is equal

Th e
d
:
to the prod uct of the conjugates taken in the op p o s i te or er .

L INEAR VECTOR FUNCTI ONS 295
It ill
w be s u fli c ie n t to demonstrate t h e theorem in case
the product contains two factors To show .
m0
: wc wm '
(i n r -( T
r -O z Oo o r,
(r-O) T = TC -(r -O) = TO -a r
H ence
.
( O T) O = TC . O0
.
Th e or e m conjugate of the power of a d adic s the

Th e y i
power of the conjugate of the dyadi c .
2b
Thi s y
is a corollar of the foregoing theorem Th e e xpression .
O 2 may b e interpreted in either of t wo equal ways

. .
Th e o re m : Th e conjugate of the reciprocal of a dyadi c is

equal to the reciprocal of the conjugate of the dyadi c .
17 1
( 6
Fo r (T
A
R A To = ( T o Ia : I
.
Th e idemfactor is its own conjugate as ma be seen from y

the nonion form .
I=i i + ji + k k
O0
H enc e ( ¢ C)
—l
$0 :
( W )
I
C
0 To .
Hence
Th e expression O0 may therefore be interprete d in either
"
1
of two equivalen t ways — as the reciprocal of the conjugate

or as the conjugate of the reciprocal
fi
.
D e n i tio n : If a dyadic is equal to its conjugate it is said ,
to be s e lf-c o nj
uga te If it is equ al to the negative of its con
.
jugate it , is s i
a d to be a n ti -
se -
j
fc o n u ga te
l . Fo r fconjugate
se l -
dyadi cs .
Fo r anti-self-conjugate dyadics
r -O — O o r, O — OO .
Th e o r e m dyadic may b e divided in one and

An y
way into two parts of which one IS se f-conjugate and the l
other anti-self-conjugate .
— Oa ) .
$00 ¢ 0 + $2
¢a — Q
Hence the part %( O O0) is sel f-conjugate ; and the

H O O 0) anti -se f-conjugate l
Thu s the div sion has bee n i
i L
, .
accompl shed in one way et .
(O ¢ a) W
( O To ) O ”
.
T T ’
T ”
.
Suppose it were possible to decompose O in an other wa y

into a self-conjugate and an anti -self-conjugate p a rt et . L
then
T :
(T
’
+ 9 ) ( T ”
Whe e r
( O ’
O) ( O ’
9 0
Hence if ( O ’
Q) is self-conjugate ,
Q is self-conjugate .
( T "
Q) ( T H
Q)0 = $ "
o QO
‘ ‘ QU ‘
Hence if ( O ”
Q) is anti -self-conjugate Q is an ti -self
conjugate .
Q : 9 0, Q 9 0.
§( O — Oc ) o r O x r,
r X ¢ x
o
Th e o re m : An y conjugate dyadi c O possesses one

a n t is e l f-
”
degree of nullity It is a uniplanar dyadic the plane of

.
whose consequents and antecedents is perpendicular to O ”

x ,
the vector of O
y
.
This theorem follows as a corollar from equa t ions

Th e o re m : A n y dyadic O may b e b roken up into two parts
of which one is self-conjugate and the other equivalent to
minus one half the vector of O used in cross multiplication .
1
or symbolically 2
.
TX X .
( 45)
vector 0 used in vector m ul ti
An y plication de nes a fi
linear vector function Fo r .
Hence it must be possible to represent the Operator c x as a

dyadic Thi s dya dic will be uniplanar with plane of its
.
antecedents and consequents perpendicular to 0 so that it

will reduce all vectors parallel to c to z ero Th e d adic ma .
,
y y
be found as foll ows
Ry ( )
3 1 I -I ,
(I x c ) o
r {(I x c -
) }
I -
r = {I -
r
I -( c x I) -r
( c x I ) -
r .
Hence -r ( c x I) -
r ,
and -( I x c )
r x c r
This may be sta ted in words .

Th e o re m : Th e vector c used in vector multiplication with

a vector r is equal to the dyadic I x c or c I used in direct x
mul tiplication with r If e precedes r the dyadics are to be
.
us ed as p re f a c t o rs ; if c foll ows r as f Th dyadics

x p
, o s t a c t o rs e .
I x c and c I are an t i -self-conjugate .
In case the vector 0 is a unit vecto r the application of the

x
operator 0 to any vector r in a plane perpendicular to c is
equivalent to turning r t hrough a posi t ive righ t angle ab out
x
the ax is 0 Th e dyadi c c x I or I c where c is a unit vector
.
therefore turns any vector r perpendi cular t o 0 t hrough a

right angle ab out the line 0 as an ax is If r were a vector .
lying out of a plane perpendicular to c the e fle c t of t h e dya dic

I x c or c x
I woul d b e to annihilate that component of r whi ch
is parallel to c and turn that component of r whi ch is p e rp e n
dic u l a r to c through a right angle a b out 0 as a x is .
If the dyadi c b e applied t wice the vecto rs perpendicular to

r are rotate d through t wo right angles They are reversed in .
direction If it be appli ed three times they are turned thr ough

x x
.
three right angles A pplying the operator I c or c I four

.
times b rings a ve c tor perpendicular to 0 b ack t o its original

p osition Th e powers of the dyadic are therefore
.
—
( I — c c
) ,
— I >
<c
— c c
,
c x I .
It x
thus appears that the dya di c I c or c x I ob eys the same
law as fa r as its powers are concerned as the scalar imaginary
1 in alge b ra
V
x x
‘
.
Th e dyadic I c or c I is a quadrantal vers or only for

vectors perpendicular to c Fo r vectors parallel to c it acts
.
as an annihilator To avoid this c fi e c t and obtain a true

.
quadrantal versor for all vectors r in space it is mere ly ne ces
sary to add the dyad c c to the dyadic I x c or c x I .
X 2 — I,
X 3 — X,
X = I,4
X =X 5
i
.
Th e dyad c X therefore appears as a fourth root of the

idemfactor Th e quadrantal versor X is analogo u s to t h e
.
imaginary V 1 of a scalar algeb ra Th e dyadic X is com

i
.
p l e t e and consi s ts of two parts of whi ch I x c s anti self

-
conjugate ; and c c self-c onjugate

j
, .
Ifi k are thr ee perpendicular unit vectors

, ,
I >

<I = ji — ij
,
y
as ma be seen by multiplying the idemfacto r
I ii ii k 1:
into i j
and k successively These e x pressions represent
j y
, , .
quadran t al ve rs o rs ab out the ax is i k respectivel comb ined , ,
with annihi lators along those ax es They are equivalent

x
.
,
when u sed in direct multiplication to i k x respectively

, , ,
—
(ji — ij),
Th e e pression is an idemfactor for the plane of i and

(Ix )
k 4
j
x
b u t an annihilator for the direction k

, In a similar man .
ner the dyad k k is an idemfactor for the direction k but an ,

Re du c t ion f Dy a dic s
o t o N o r ma l For m
115 ] L et any complete d ad c and let

O be y i r be a un t i
vector . Then t h e vector r ’
r
’
= O-r
is a linear function of r When r takes on a v a lues co us s . ll i

tent wi t h its b eing a un i t vector that is when the termin us ,
of r describ es the surface of a un it sphere — the vector r ’
y
,
varies continuous l and its terminus describes a surface This .
surface is closed It is fact an ellipsoid 1
y
. .
Th e o re m It is always possi b le to reduce a complete d a di c

to a sum of thr ee term s of which the antecedent s among
themselves and the cons equents among themselves are mutu
ally perpendic u lar This is called the n o rm a l fo rm of O . .
’ ’ ’
O a i i b jj c k k .
To demonstrate the theore m consider the su fac e escr be r d i d

r
’
= O-
r .
As this is a closed surface there must be some directi on of r

which makes r a max imum or at any rate gives as great
’ ’
r
a value as it is possib le for r to ta k e on et this d rection ’
. L i
of r b e called 1 and let the correspondin g direction of r ’
r l
,
the direction in whi ch takes on a value at e a st as great as

’
any — b e called a Consider ne xt all the values of r which .
li e in a plane perpendicular to i Th e corresponding values

r
.
of I lie in a plane owing to a fact that O is a linear vector

’
1 Th is m a y b e p ro ve d a s fo ll o ws
’
r z dn r r = ¢
-1 -1
r=1 - —l w -
mq
H e nc e r .
f ( Tc o
r
'
.
g
B y e x p re s s in g ‘
lfin i fo r qua t io n r d
'
t o b e o ft h e se c o n
’
non on , th e e a
? r z ] is se e n
d e re e . He n c e r
’
d es c rib e s a ua d ri c s urfa c e . Th e on ly c l o se d q ua dric f
s ur a c e
is t h e e llipso id .
function . O f these
values of r one mus t be at least as great '
as any other Call this b and let t h e correspondi ng directi on

j j
.
of r b e called Finally choose k perpendicular to i and

j L
.
upon t h e positive side of plane of i and et 0 b e the .
value of r whi ch corresponds to r k Since the dyadic O

’
j
.
changes i k into a b c it may b e e xpressed in the form

, , , ,
O a i b j c k .
It rema ins to show that the vectors a, b, c as determin ed

above are mutually perpendicular .
+ b j+ c k) -
r ,
+ b j+ c k) o d r,
r
’
o dr ’
r
’
o
a i -d r + r
’ o
b j-dr + r ’
o c k -d r .
i
When r s parallel to i r is a maximum and hence must be ’
i y
,
perpen dicular to d r Since r is a unit vecto r d r s alwa s ’

.
perpendicular to r Hence when r is parallel to i .
r
’
o b -
j dr + r
’ -
c k -d r = 0 .
If further d r is perpendic ul ar to r c vanishes and if j ,

’
c
,
d r is perpen di c ul ar to k r b vanishes Hence when r is ,

’ o .
parallel to i r is perpen di cular to b oth b and 0 B u t when

,
’
.
r is parallel to i r is parallel to a Hence a is perpendi cular

’
j
.
,
to b and 0 Consider nex t the plane of and k and the

L
.
plane of b a n d c et r b e any vector in the plane o fjand k

. .
( b j+ c k) -
r ,
r
’ o dr ’
r
’ o
b -
j dr + r
’ c
c k
When r takes the value jr is a max imum in this plane and

’
di i
,
hence is perpen cular to dr Since r is a un t vector it is

’
.
perpendi cul ar to d Hence when r r is para e ll l j to dr
j
. ,
is perpendic ul ar to and ,
k -d r .
Hence r c is z ero B u t when r is parallel to r ta kes t h e

’
j ’
y
. ,
value b Consequentl b is perpen di cular to 0

. .
It has therefore been shown that a is perpendicular to b and

c and that b is perpendicular to 0 C onsequentl the three y
y
.
,
antecedents of O are mutu ally perpendic ul ar They ma be

y j
.
denoted b i ’
k ’
Then the dyadi c O takes t h e form
’
, , .
O= a i i ’ ’
b jj+ c k k,’
where are scalar consta nts positive or negative

y y
a , b, c .
Th e o re m : Th e complete d adic O may alwa s be

reduced to a sum of three dyads whos e antecedent s and
whose cons equents form a right-handed rectangul ar system
of unit vectors and whose scalar c o e fli c ie n t s a e either a r ll
positive or a ll negative .
( )
’ ’
O : z iz ( a i i + b jj 5 3
Th e proof of the theorem depends upon the statements

made on page 2 0 that if one or thr ee vecto s of a righ t -handed r
system be reversed the resulti ng s stem is left-hande d but y ,
if two be reversed t h e system remains right-handed If then

i i
.
o n e of the c o e fii c ie n t s in 5 s negative the d rections of the

( )2 ,
other two ax es may be reversed Then all the coeffi cients .
are negative If two of the coe ffi cient s in ( 5 2) are negative

y
.
,
the directions of the two vectors to which they belong ma

be reversed and then the coeffi cien t s in O are all positive .
Hence in any case the reduction to the form in which all

the coe ffi cients are positive or a are negative has been ll
performed .
As a l imitin g c ase between that in which the coe ffi cients

a re a ll p i
o s it v e a n d t ha t n wh ch the i i
a re a ll nega t v e comes y i
’ ’
s
z ’ ’ ’ ’ z
O O0 : a i i j c k k ,
O, O a
z
ii s j c
z
kk .
O O0,
O . O, = O 2
.
I = ii + jj kk = ’ ’
i i + jj
’
k k, ’ ’
2 2 ’ ’
O2 a
2
I (b a ) jj (c
2
a
2
)k
’
k ’
,
( O z —
a
z
l) o i = 0
’
O z z
I z 2 z — z
a :
( b a
) jj (o d
) k k,
( O Z —
a
z
l) o i = 0 .
If i a ndwere not parallel ( O 2 a I) wo ul d annih late

i ’ 2
i
two vectors i and i and hence ever vector in their plane ’
y
y
.
(O
2 2
I) would therefore possess two degrees of nullit
i
a
and b e linear B u t it is apparent that f a b c are di fle re n t

.
, ,
this dyadi c is not linear It is planar Hence i and i must ’
j j
. .
be parallel In like manner it may b e shown that and

.
’
,
k and k are parallel ’

Th e dyadic O therefore takes the form .
O= a i i + bjj+ c kk
where a , b, c are pos itive or negative scalar constants .
Do u ble Mu ltip lic a tio n 1
De fi product of two dyads is

n i t io n : Th e do u ble do t
y
t h e s c a la r quantit obtained by multipl ing the scalar product y
of the antecedents by t h e scalar product of the consequents .
Th e product is denoted b y inserting two dots between the

dya ds “
a b : c d= a -c b -
d .
( 56 )
This product evidentl obeys the commutative law y
a b z c dz c d z a b,
Th e
m Pro fe ss o r Gibbs po n D M ult ip lic a t ion
1 re s e a rc h e s of u o u bl e a re h e re
p rin te d fo r t h e fi rs t t i e .
and the distributive law both with regard to the dyads and
with regard to the vectors in the dyads Th e doub le dot .
produc t of two dyadics is ob tain ed b y multiplyin g the prod

u c t out formally accor di ng to the distri b utive law into the
sum of a number of double dot products of dyads .
T= c
1
d1 + c
2
d2 + 03 d3 +
a
2
h2 a
3
b 3 3 (°
1
d1 ez aa
c 3 d3 +
_ a
1
b1 :c l d1 a l bl z c 2 d2 + a
l
bi i c a ds i ' '
3
2
b2 261 d1 + a
2
b2 3 02 d2 + a , b, z c a d3 +
a gba z c l d1 a
a
bgz c z d2 a
a
ba i cs ds
b3 -
d2 + a 3 -
0
3
De fi n i ti o n : product of t wo dyads is the

Th e do u ble c ro ss
dy a d of which the antecedent is the vector product of the

ant ecedents of t h e two dyads and of which the consequent is
the vector product of the consequent of the two dyads Th e .
product is denoted b y inserting t wo crosses between the

y
d ads
5
b x d .
( 7)
This l
product a so evidentl ob eys the commutat ve law y i
and the distrib utive law both with regard to the dyads an d
wi t h regard to t h e vectors of which the dyads are compose d
d
.
Th e doub le cross product of two dya di cs is therefore de fi n e

as the formal e xpansion of the product accordi ng to the
distrib utive law into a sum of double cross products of
dyads .
If
and
i ( 01 d1 + c 2 d2
+c 3
d3 +
d1 + -
+ a 3 b3 § c l a 3 u
b l x d1 + a 1 x c2
+ a2 >
<c l < d2
b2 > b z x d3 + m
+ a
8 < 03 11 3 >
> < d1 + a
3 > < d1
< c 2 b3 >
Th e o re m double dot and doub le cross products of

: Th e
two dyadics obey the commutative and distrib utive laws of
multiplication B u t the double products of more than two
y y
.
dyadics ( whenever they have an meaning) do not obe t h e

associative l a w .
O T T O
O § T = T§ O
( O z m ww z wm .
y
theorem is su ffi cientl evident w thout demonstration i .
the factors is reversed each scalar triple product cha nges i
sign Their product therefore is n o t a l t e re d

i
.
.
A dya di c O may be multipl ied by itself w th doubl e

cross et. L O= a l + bm + c n
l x m + a >
< c l >
<n
+ b >
< a m x m + b x c m x n
+ c >
<a n x m + c >
< c n x n .
Th eproducts in the main di agonal vanish . Th e othe s are r

equal in pairs Hence .
m x n + c x a l x m) . 60
( )
If a , b , c and l , m, n are non —coplanar this ma y be written
2
( a l l ,
+ b m
’ ’
c
r
n
r
) ,
[ a b c
] [ l m n
]
product O 35O is a species of power of O It may be re
Th e .
garded as a square of O Th e notation O2 will be employed

to represent thi s product after the scalar factor 2 has been
stricken out .
(b x c mxn + c >
<a l x m) 6
( )1
2
triple product of a dyadi c O e xpressed as the sum of

Th e
three dyads with itself twice repeated is
O i Oz O= 3 n O
O2 : O= (b x c l x m)
In e xpanding this product ever term in whi ch a letter is y

repeated vani shes Fo r a scalar triple product of t hree vec
.
i
to rs two of wh ch are equal is z ero . Hence the product
reduces to three terms only
O2 O= [ b o a ] [ m n l] [c b] [ n l m] [
: a a b c ] [l m n ]
O2 : O : 3 [a b c ] [l m n]
[l m n
] .
p
triple roduct of a d ad ic b y itself twice repeated is
Th e y
equal to s ix times the scalar t riple product of its antecedents
multiplied by the scalar triple product of its consequents .
Th e product is a species of cu be It will b e denoted b y O3 .
after the scalar factor 6 has been stricken out .
O O
g
i z
[
a b c ] [ I n n
] . 6
( )2
If O2 l
be ca led the se c o n d of O ; and O3 the third of ,
O the following theorems may be stated concerning t h e

,
seconds and thir ds of conjugates reciprocals and products , , .
Th e o re m Th e second of the conj u gate of a dyadic is equal

to the conjugate of the second of that dyadic Th e third of .
the conjugate is equal to the third of the dyadic .
w
( a s
:
63
( )
$3
The o re m second and third of the reciprocal of a

Th e
q l
:
dyadic are e ual respectively to the reciproca s of the second

and third .
- - —
D 1 1
«0 9 « O Q2
.
2
—1 -1
( 2 ( fig $3
O 3 1 + bm o n
—1 _ l l l l 1 ]
l a m b + 11 0
’ ’
a l
[ a b c ] [ l m n
]
[ a b c ] [l m n ] ( l a mb n o )
l mb n o
( w )2
—1 a
l l
]
l l l l
[ a b c
] [ l m n
B ut [ a b c ] 1 and [ 1 ’
m
’
n
’
] [ l m n
] 1 .
Hence ( O2 )
—l
( O )2
“
1
O2 4
.
$8 [ a b c ] [ l m ]
n ,
1
,
[ a b 0 ] [ l m n
]
1 ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
( O )3 [a b ] [l m
‘
Henc e ( Og)
"
l
( O
‘
l
)a O3
"
1
.
second and thi rd of a product a e e ual

Th e o re m : Th e r q
respecti vely to the product of the seconds and the product of
t h e t hirds
-T2
.
(O o T) 2 = O 2
9 03 : $3 T3 ,
Choose y
an three non-coplanar vectors 1 m n as cons e uents q
d
, ,
of O an let m n be th e ante cedents of T

’
,
’
.
( O e x f+ c >
< a fx d + a d x e,
< m,
l >
d x c .
Hence O2 e x f+ c >
<a fx d+ a dx e .
Henc e
( O o T) 3 = [ a b c ] [ d e f]
O2 = b >
<c m x n + c >
<a < m,
l >
O3 [ a b c ] [ l m n
] .
Th e o re m : Th enecessary and suffi cient con di tion that a

dyadic O be complete is that the third of O be d fferent from i
z ero .
Fo r it was shown ( Art 1 06) that b oth the antecedents and

.
the consequents of a complete dyadi c are non-c oplanar .
Hence the two scalar triple produc t s whi ch occur in O3

cannot vanish
y
.
Th e o re m : Th e necessar and su ffi cient condition that a

dyadic O be planar is that the third of O shall vanish but the
second of O shall not vanish .
It was sho wn ( Art 1 06 ) that if a dyadic O be planar its con

.
sequents l m 11 must be planar and conversely if the c o n s e

, ,
quents be 0 0planar the dyadi c is planar Hence for a planar .
dya di c O8 must vanish B u t O2 cannot vani sh Since a

x
. .
,
b e have b een assumed non-coplanar the vectors b x c c

, a , , ,
a x b are non- c oplanar Hence if O2 vani shes each of the

.
vectors m x n n x l 1 x m vanishes — that is l m n are col

y
, , , , ,
linear B u t thi s is impossible since the d adic O is planar

.
and not linear

y
.
Th e o re m : Th e necessar and suffi cient condition that a

non vanishing dyadic be linear is that the second of O and
-
,
cons equently the third of O vanishes , .
Fo r if O be linear the consequents l m n are collinear , , ,

.
Hence their vector products vanish and the consequents of

O2 vanish If con versely O2 vanishes each of its conse uents
.
, q
must b e z ero and hence these consequents of O are collinear .
Th e vanishing of the third unaccompanied by the vanish ,
ing of the second of a dyadic implies one degree of nullity

i r y
.
,
Th e vanish n g of the second implies two deg ees of n ul li t .

L INEAR VECTOR FUNC TI ONS 31 5
Th e i i
van sh ng of the dyadic i t self is complete nu t lli y Th e
y
.
res ults ma be put in tab ular form .
O3 0, O is complete .
O3 = O, O2 0, O is p la n a r .
O3 = O, O2 = O, O 0, O is lin e a r
y
.
Itfollo ws imme di ate ly that the third of an anti -self-conjugate

dyadi c vanishes ; b u t the second does not Fo r any such
y i
.
d adic s planar but cann ot be linear .
N on io n Fo rm . D e te r mi n a n ts .
1
I n va ri a n ts o f a Dya dic
If O be ex pressed in nonion form
O= ul 1 ii + a
12
i j+ a
13
ik
“2 1 ji + “2 2 ll “
2s l k
a 31 ki “
32
kj a
33
kk .
Th e conjugate of O has the same scalar coeffi cients as O but

r d y y
,
they are ar ange s mmetricall with res pect to the main

i
d agon al Thus .
O0 : a
11
ii a
21
i j+ a
31
i k,
“
12 ji “2 2 jj “
32 1 k,
a
la
ki a
23 jk a
33
kk .
second of O may be computed Take for instance one

Th e
L
. , ,
term et it b e required to fi n d the coe ffi cient of i jin O2

y
.
.
What terms in O can ield a doub le cross product equal to

j Th e vector product of the antecedents must b e i and
j
i
the vector product of the cons equents must b e Hence the
j q
.
antecedents must be and k ; and the conse uents k a n d i , .
These ter ms a re
“as kk “2 1 “3 34 1
0 0
x
o o
“3 1 k1 “ 3 1 “2 3 ”
m
Th e re s u l ts
de t e r in a n ts i h g
h o ld on
d i t h h M l t
mg
l y fo r de t e r i n a n t s o ft h e t h i rd o rde r
ipl e A l e bra g
. Th e e xt i
e ns o n to
of h e r o r e rs s ro u u .
Hence the term in i in j O2 is
“ 3 “
21
“
sa l i l
is is the rst minor of
2
Th fi a m the determi na n t
i
Th s i
minor is tak en w th the negative sign That s the i
j
.
,
coe ffi cient of i in O2 is what is termed the c ofa c to r of the

j
coeffi cient of i in the determinant Th e cofa cto r is merely .
the fi rst minor taken with the positive or negative sign

accordin g as the sum of the subscripts of the term whose
fi rst minor is under consideration is even or odd Th e c o .
effi c ie n t of any dyad in O2 is easily seen t o be the cofactor of

the correspon di ng term in O Th e cofacto s a re denote d
. r
generally by large letters .
a
rs the cofacto of a r
is the cofactor of a
“
“
21
is the cofactor of a
i i
With th s notat on the second of O becomes
A 2 1 ji + A 2 2 “4
.
“
Az s k k
Aal k i A 32 k j A3 3 k k
y ri i
.
Th e value of the third of O may be obta ined b w t ng O

as the sum of thre e dya ds
O j 19 1 4 k“
22 l
“ “ "
“ “3 2
21 31
2a j
“ “s a l0k
31 8 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Ifthe determinant be denote d by D
A A2 1 A31
_ 11 “
1 k
77 D 1)
A1 2 A2 2 0 '
A 82 °
’k
D D D
A1 3 A2 3 88
If T is y
a second d adic given in nonion form as
T = bu i i + bu i j bl s i k,
”2 3 311 ,
ba l k i b,, k j ba s k k ,
the product O T of the two dyadics ma rea y dily be fo nd

y
u
by actuall performin g the mul tiplication

T T ”1 1 “
12
”2 1 “1 3 ”3 1 ) 1 1 ”1 2 “1 2 ”2 2
“
13
”3 2 ) 1 j ”1 3 “1 2 ”2 3 “
13
”3 3 >1 k
”1 1 “
22
”2 1 “2 3 ”3 1 >
l1 ”1 2 “2 2 ”2 2
1
“
“
23
”3 2 ) jj ”1 3 “2
2
”2 3 “ 3
2
”3 3” k
”1 1 1 ” “
“
32 ”2 1 “
33
”3 011 1 4 “
”1 2 “3
2
”2 2
“3 3 ”3 2 ) k l ”1 2 “
32
”2 3 “
33
”3 3 >k 11
$1 ? “
11
”1 1 “
12
”1 2 “1 3 ”1 3
“2 1 ”2 1 “
22
”2 2 “2 3 ”2 3
“3
1
”3 1 “3 2 ”3 2 “
33
”3 3 :
Since the third or determinant of a product is equal to the

product of the determinants the law of multiplication of ,
de t erminants follows from ( 6 5) and

“
11
”1 1 “
12
”2 1 “
13
”3 1
“
21
”1 1 “
22
”2 1 “
23
”3 1
“
31
”1 1 “
32
”2 1 “3
3
”3 1
“
11 ”1 2 “
12
”22 “
13
”3 2 “
11
”1 3 1 " “
“
12
”2 3 “
13
”3 3 :
“
21
”1 2 “
22
”22 “
23
”3 2 “
21
”1 3 “ 2
2
”2 3 “ 3
2
”3 3 , ( )
7 6
“3 1 ”1 2 “
32
”2 2 “
33
”3 2 “
31
”1 3 “
32
”2 3 “
33
”3 3 °
Th e rule may be stated in words To multiply two deter .
minants form t h e determi nant of which the element in the

wit h ro w and n t h column is t h e sum of the produc t s of t h e
elements in the m t h row of the fi rst determinant and n t h
column of the secon d .
If
O2 = b x e <m
l > .
Then
c x a a x b] [ m x n 11
Hence IO 2 ( 2 1 93 [ a b [ l m n]
2
O3 “.
Hence A A A
I O2 ! A A A
A A A 33
Th e determinant of the cofactors of a given determinant of

t h e third order is equal to the square of the given determinant .
1 22 ] A dyadic O has thr ee scalar invarian t s that is

three scalar quanti t ies which are independent of the form in
which O is e x press e d These are .
T3 , ”a ,
the scalar of O the scalar of t h e second of O and the thi rd

, ,
or determinant of O If O b e e xpressed in nonion form these

.
quantities are
$8 “
11
“2 2 “
23
3 A1 1 A 22 A 33
“
12 13
“
22 23
“ 2 “
3 33
No matter in terms of what right-ha nded ectangular system r

of these unit vectors O may b e e xpress ed these quantities are
the same Th e scalar of O is the sum of the three coeffi cients
.
in the main di agonal Th e scalar of the second of O is t h e

.
sum of the fi rst minors or cofactors of the term s in t h e

main diagonal Th e third of O is the de t erminant of the
coe ffi cient s These three invariants are b far the mos t
. y
important that a dyadi c O possesses .
The o re m : A n y dyadic satis fi es a cub ic equa t ion of whi ch

t h e three invariants OS O2 3 O8 are the coeffi cients
, , .
B y (6 8) ( O ( O A
DC :
( O
“
3 “ “
12 13
“ — 27 “
22 23
“ “ 9”
32 33
Hence ( O— c )3 = Os — cc Ow —
l-a ' 2 — az 3
as may b e seen by actually p e rfo rm in g t h e e xpansion '
( O — T I) 2 -( O — x l)0 = Os — x O2 5 + s S
— a s
This equation is an identi t y holding for a ll values of the

scalar ac It therefore holds if in place of th e scalar a the
.
,
'
dyadic O which depends upon nine scalars be sub stituted .
That is
( O O -
l )a ( O -
O I)3 = I O3
o - 2
O Oz s i O OS O 3
.
B ut the te rms upon the left are identically z ero . Hence

$ 2
$2 8 O $8 1 = O °
dyadics are equal when they are equal as o erato rs
Two p
upon all vectors or upon three non-copl a nar vec to rs That .
is when
,
O r T r for all values or for three non

coplanar values of r ,
r O r T for all values or for three non

coplanar values of r ,
s O r s T r for all values or for thre e non

coplanar values of r and 3 .
A n y li near y
vector function ma be represented b a dyad c y i
i
.
Dyads obey the dis t ributi ve law of multipl ication w th

regard to the two vectors composing the dyad
+ c l +
O 0
Multiplication by a scalar is associati ve In v rt u e of these . i

two laws a dyadic may be ex panded into a sum of nine terms
by mean s of the fundamental dyads ,
i i, ij
, i k,
13 ii 1k .
k i, k j
, k k,
O= a
u
ii + a
m i j+ a i lg
13
_ a ki + a k j+ a kk
32 33 .
If two dyadi cs are equal the corresponding coe ffi cients in

the i r expans ions into nonion form are equal and conversely .
L INEA R VECTOR F UNCTI ONS 3 23
An y dya dic may b e e x pressed as the sum of three dyads of

whi c h the an t ecedents or the consequen t s are any t hree
given non -coplanar vectors This e x pression of the dyadic is
.
uni que .
Th e symbolic product a b kn own as a dyad is the most

general produc t of t wo vectors in whi ch multiplication b y a
scalar is associative It is called t h e indeterminate product
. .
Th e product imposes fi ve condi t ions upon t h e vectors a and

b. Their directions and the product of their lengths are
determined by the product Th e scalar and vector products
.
are functions of the indeterminate product A scalar and

i
.
a vector may be obtained from any dyad c b y inserting a dot

and a cross b etween the vectors in each d ad This scalar y .
and vector are functions of t h e dya di c .
direct product of two dyads is the dyad whose ante

Th e
cedent and cons equent are respectively the ant ecedent of the
rst dyad and the consequen of the second multiplied b
q
fi t y
the scalar produc t of the conse uent of the fi rst dyad and
the antecedent of the second .
( a b) 0
( e d) (b o
c )
direct product of t wo dyadics is the formal e x pansion
i
Th e ,
c
a c ord ng to t h e di stri b utive law of the product into the
,
sum of products of dyads Direct multi p lication of dyadics
y
.
or of dyadics and a vector at ei t her end or at both ends ob e s

the distri b utive and associative laws of multiplicat ion Co n .
sequently such e xpressions as

w wf
0 0
,
SO Q ‘ wr ‘
,
ma y b e written without parentheses ; for parentheses ma y

b e ins erted at pleasure without altering the value of the
product In case the vector occurs at other positions than
.
at the end t h e product is no longer associative

y
.
Th e skew product of a dyad and a vector ma be de fi ned

y
b the equation
r
( )
a b X a b x r ,
2
( )8
Th e skew product of a dyadic and a vector s e ual to the i q

formal expansion of that product into a sum of products of
dyads and that vector Th e statement made concerning t h e
.
associative law for direct products holds when the vector is

connected with the d adi cs in skew multiplication Th e y .
e xpressions
e -T , O o T x r, e o
s, r -O x s, e x s ( 29 )
i
may b e written w thout parentheses and parentheses ma b e y
inserted at pleasure without altering the value of the product .
Moreover
-O ,
O o
( r x T
.
B the parentheses cannot be omitted

ut
y y i y
.
Th e necessar and suffi cient condition that a d ad c ma

be reduced to the sum of two dyads or to a single dyad or
to z ero is that when e x pressed as the sum of three
,
dyads of which the antecedents ( or consequents ) are known

Ifthe product of t wo complete dyadics is equal to the idem
factor the dyadics are commutative and either is called
the reciprocal of the other A complete dyadic may be .
canceled from either end of a product of dyadics and vectors

y
as in ordinar algeb ra ; for the cancelation is equivalent to
mul t iplication b y the reciprocal of that dyadic Incomplete .
dyadi cs pos s ess no recipro c als They correspond to z ero in

.
ordinary algeb ra Th e reciprocal of a product is equal to the

.
product of the reciprocals t aken in inverse order .
—1 - —l
( O . 51 0 T l
O .
( 3 8)
Th e conjugate of a dyadic is the dya di c o b tained b y in ter
changing the order of the an t ecedents and consequents Th e .
conj u gat e of a product is equal to the product of t h e con

u a t e s taken in the Opposite order
jg .
4
( )0
Th e conjugate of the re c iprocal is equal to the reciprocal of

the conjugate A dyadi c may b e divided in one and o nl y
.
one way into the sum of two parts of which one is self
conjugate and the other anti self—conjugate - .
—
a >
.
( )
4 3
An y i - dyadi c or t he anti -self-c onjugate

ant self-conjugate
part of any dyadic used in direct multipli cation is equivalent
, ,
to minus one-half the vector of tha t dyadi c used in skew

m u ltiplication
r O x r )( ,
r $0) I X $10 4
( )4
A dyadi c of the form c x I or I x c is anti-self-conjugate and

used in direct multiplication is equiva ent to the vector 0 l
u sed in s kew m ul tiplication .
L INEA R VECTOR FUNCTI ON S 3 27
( c x I) a
r,
-O .
Th e x
dya di c c x I or I c where c is a unit vec t or is a quad,
rantal versor for vec t o rs perpendi cular to c and an annih ilato r

for vectors parallel to c Th e dyadic I c c c is a true . x
quadr an t al versor for all vectors Th e powers of these dyadics .
—
behave like t h e powers of t h e imaginary unit V l l as may ,
b e seen from the geome t ric interpretation Applied to the

j
.
unit vectors i k , ,
I >
< i i x I = k j— jk , e tc .
( 49)
Th e vector xin skew multiplication is equivalen t

b to
x
3
(a b) x I in direct multiplication .
— a b 5
( )0
( a x b) — a b) -r
r x ( a x b) r -(b a — a b) . 5
( )1
Acomplete dyadi c may b e reduced to a sum of three

dyads of whi ch the anteceden t s among t hemselve s and t h e
consequents among t hem s elves each form a right -handed
rectangular system of three unit vectors and of whi ch the
scalar c o e flic ie n ts are all positive or all negat ive .
5
( )3
Thi s is called the normal form of the dyadic A n in c o m .
p l e t e dyad i c may b e reduced to thi s form b u t one or more of
the c o e fli c ie n t s are z ero Th e reduc t ion is unique in case

.
the constants a b c are difi e re n t In case t hey are not

, ,
.
di f ferent the reduc t ion may b e accomplished in more than

one wa y An y self-conjugate dyadic may b e reduced to
.
the normal form

55
( )
in whi ch the consta nt s a , b, c are not necessaril positive y .
3 28 VEC TOR A NAL YSIS
Th e double do t and doub le cross mul t iplicat on of d i yd a s
is de fi ned by the equations

a b z c d= a o
c b o d, ( 56 )
a b i c d= a >
< c b x d . 5
( 7)
Th e double dot and doub le cross multiplication of dyadics
is o b tained b y e xpanding the product formally accordi ng to ,
t h e di stri b utive law into a sum of products of dyads

, Th e .
doub le dot and doub le cross multiplication of dyadics is com

mutative but not associative
y i y
.
O n e -half the doub le cross product of a d ad c O b i t sel f

is called the second of O If .
O2 l xm .
( 61 )
O n e -thirdof the double dot product of the second of O a n d O

is called the th ird of O and is equal to the product of the
scalar triple product of the antecedents of O an the scalar d
triple product of the cons equent of O .
O8
é O; O : O= [ a b c ] [ l m n
] .
second of the conjugate is the conjugate of the second

Th e .
Th e third of the conjugate is equal to the third of t h e

original dyadic Th e second and third of the reciprocal are
.
the reciprocals of the second and third of the second and

third of a dyadic Th e second and third of a product are the
p
.
roducts of the seconds and thi rds .
T
( o le $3 2
( 0 92
16 2
¢2
( r so .
r. a .
6 . Prove the statements made in Art 1 06 and t h e con .
verse of the statements

i
.
Show tha t if 9 is complete and f O Q T Q then

'
y
7 . .
O and T are equal G ive the proof by means of theor

.
developed prior to A rt 1 09
fi
. .
8 . D e n i t io n : Two dyadics such that O T T O t hat :
is t o say t wo dyadics that are commutative — are said to b e

,
ho m o lo go u s Sh ow tha t if any num b er of dyadi cs are h o m o ge

.
neons to one another any other dyadi cs whi ch may b e ob t ained

,
from them b y addit ion sub traction and direct mul tiplication
, ,
are homologous to each other and to the given dyadi cs Show .
al so that the reciprocals of homologous dya di cs are homolo

gous J . ustify the statement that if O T or T 1 —1
O
‘
o
,
which are equal be called the quotient of O by T then the

, ,
rules governing addition sub t raction multiplication and , ,
divi s io n of h o m o lo go u s dyadics are identical with the r ul es

governi ng these opera t ions in ordinar algeb ra — it being y
understood that incomplete dyadics are analogous to z ero ,
and the idemfactor to unity Hence the algeb ra and higher

y
.
,
analysis of h o m o lo go u s dya di cs is practicall identical with

that of scalar quantities .
9 .Show tha t ( I x c ) O = c > < T and ( c x I) O = e x O

o o .
10 .Show that whether or not a b c be coplanar , ,
and
11 . If are copl a nar use the ab ove relation to prove
a, b, c
the law of sines for the triangle and to ob t ain the relation
with sc a lar coeffi cients which e xists between three coplanar
vectors This may b e done b y multipl ing the e uation b a
. y q y
u nit normal to the plane of a b and c , , .
12 What is the condition which mus t sub sist between the

i
.
coe ffi cients in the e xpansion of a dyadic into nonion form f

L INEAR VECTOR FUNCTIONS 331
the dyadic b e self-conjuga te ? What if the dyadi c be anti ,
self-conjugate
13 Prove the statements made in Art 1 1 6 concerning the
. .
numb er of ways in which a dyadic may be reduced to its

normal form .
14 . necessary and s uffi cient condition that an anti

Th e
self-conjugate dyadic O b e z ero is t hat t h e vector of the
dyadic Shall b e z ero
y
.
15 . Show that if O be an dyadic the product O O0 is

self-conjugate .
16 .Show how to make use of the relation O 0 to x
demonstrate that the antecedents and consequents of a self

conjugat e dyadic are the same ( Art .
17 . Show that (172 i O2 O3 2 O
and
18 . Show that if the double dot product O O of a d adic y
by its elf vanishes the dyadi c vanishes Hence ob tain the
, .
condi t ion for a linear dyadic in t h e form O2 O2 O .
1 9 Sh o w t h a t
.
-OZ -
f .
20 . Sh o w t h a t T)3 = O3 + (172 : T + O : T2 + T3 .
21 . Sho w
that the scalar of a product of dyadics is un
cha nged by cyclic pe rmutation o f the dyadi cs That is .
( O m a fi a ? O w a
r -
( r o s
C H AP TER VI
R OTA TIO NS AN D STRAIN S
INthe foregoing chapter the a n a ly tic a l theor of y

dyadics has b een dealt wi t h and b rought to a state of
completeness which is nearly fi nal for practical purposes .
There are however a numb er of new questions which presen t

, ,
themselves and some old ques t ions which present t hemselves

under a new form when t h e dyadic is applied to physics
or geome t ry Moreover it was for the sake of t h e applica
y
.
tions of dyadics that the t heor of them was developed It is .
then t h e o b ject of the present chapter to supply an e x tended

application of dyadics to the theory of rotations and strains
and to develop as far as ma appear necessary the further
, y ,
analytical theory of dyadics .
That the dyadic O may b e used to denote a transformation

of space has already b een men t ioned A kno wledge of the .
precise nature of thi s tran s formation ho wever was not needed , ,
at the time Con s ider r a s drawn from a fi x ed origin and r ’
L
.
,
as drawn from the same origin et now .
r
’
= O-
r .
This equation therefore may be regarded as defi ning a trans

format ion o f the points P of Space Situated at the terminus of
r into t h e point P situated at the terminus of r Th e origin
’
,
’
.
remains fi x ed P oints in the fi nite regions of space remain in

.
the fi nite regions of Space A n y point upon a l ine.
r = b + x a
b e c o me s a p o int r
’ = O-
b + :c O-
a
.
3 34 VECTO R A NAL YSIS
It is important to notice t hat the vector 8 denoting a plane
area is not transformed into the same vector 3 as it woul d ’
b e if it denoted a line This is evident from the fact that in

.
t h e latter case O acts on 3 whereas in the former case O2 ac t s

upon 3
i
.
To Show that volumes are magni fi ed in the rat o of O3 to

unity choose any three vectors (1 e f whi ch dete rmi ne t h e , ,
volume of a parallelopiped [ d e f] Ex press O wi t h the vec .
tors which form the reciprocal system to d e f as consequents , , .
O c
’
f .
Th edyadi c O changes d e f into a b c ( whi ch are d fferent , , , ,

i
from the a b 0 a b ove unless d e f are equal to l m
, , , ,
’
,
’
,
Hence the volume [ d e f] is changed into the volume [a b

O3 [a b c ]
[ d e f] .
Hence [a b ]
0 [ d e f] 3
O .
Th e ratio of the vol um e [ a b c ] to [ d e f] is as O3 is to un i t y .
B u t the vectors (1 e f were a n y three vectors which deter

H
, ,
mine a parallelopiped ence all volumes are chang ed by

.
the action of O in the same ratio and this ratio is as O3 is to 1 .
Ro ta tio n s a bou t a Fi xe d P o in t Ve rs o rs
y i
.
1 2 5] necessar and su ffi cient cond tion tha t

Th e o re m : Th e
a dyadi c represent a ro ta tio n about some axis is that it be
reducible to the form
( )
1
where i ’
j
and i ’
k’ , j , k are two right-han e dd rectan gular
systems of unit vectors
L
.
et xi + y j+ z k
’ ’ ’
x i yj z k .
R O TA TI ONS A ND S TRA INS 3 35
Hence if is reduci b le to the given form the vectors i k

O j
j
, ,
are changed into t h e vec t ors i k and any vector r is ’ ’ ’
j
, ,
changed fr om its po s ition relat ive t o i k into the s ame posi

j
, ,
tion relative t o i k Hence b y the transformation no

’ ’ ’
.
change of Shape is e ffected Th e s t rain reduces to a rota t ion

j j
.
w hi ch carries i k into i k Conversely suppose the ’ ’ ’
r
, , , , .
b ody su ffe s no change of Shape — that is suppose it su b jected

j
,
t o a ro t a t ion Th e vectors i k mus t b e carried into ano t her

L
.
, ,
right-handed rectangular system of unit vectors et these

j
.
he i ’
, k
’
, Th e dyadic O may therefore be reduced to the
’
.
form
’
+k k .
De fi n i t i on : A y
d adi c which is reducible to the form
' ’ ’
i i jj k k
and which consequently represents a rotation is called a

ve r s o r .
Th e o re m conjugate and reciprocal of a versor are

: Th e
equal and conversely if the conjugate and reciprocal of a
,
dyadic are equal the dyadic reduces to a versor or a versor

multiplied b the negative Signy
L et
.
¢ C
= i l i l + jj + k k = 1 r l l r
—l —
O OC .
Hence the fi rst part of the theorem is proved . To prove the

second part let
O 3 1 b j c k,
O o OC =
a a + b b + c c =L
336 VE C TOR A N AL YSIS
Hence ( Art 1 08) the antecedents a b c and t h e cons e uents
.
, , q
a b 0 must b e reciprocal systems
, ,
Hence ( page 8 7) they .
must b e either a right -handed or a left-handed rectangu lar

system of unit vec t ors Th e left-handed system ma be
. y
changed to a right-handed one b y p re fi xin g the negative
Sign to each vector Then .
O_
_
Th ethird or determinant of a versor is evidently equal t o

u nity ; that of the versor with a negative Sign to minus one , .
Hence the criterion for a versor may be stated in the form

O 0 O0 = L 2
( )
Or inasmuch as the determinant of O is plus or minus one
if O OG = I it is only necessar to state th at if
, y
O o O0 = I,
O is a ve rs o r .
There
are two geometric interpretations of the transforma
tion due to a d adic O such that y
$ 0 ¢3 = l ¢ l
O=
Th e transformation due to O s one of rotation combined w thi i

fl
re ection in the ori gin Th e d adi c i i + + k k causes a
.
’
y ’
jj
’
rota t ion ab out a de fi nite ax is it is a versor Th e negative

y
.
Sign then reverses the direction of ever vector in Space and

replaces each fi gure by a fi gure symmetrical to it with respect
to the origin B y reversing t h e d rections of i and the
’ ’
i j
j
.
syste m i ’
, k still remains right-handed and rectangular
’
,
’
,
but the dyadic takes t h e form

— ’
k k,
O :
— 4
jk) .
( )
ij +
.
k k = I — ii
.
k j— jk z I x i .
Hence O=ii + c os q (I
— i i) + s in q I x i . 5
( )
If more generall in place y
of the i -axis any axis denoted
by the unit vecto r 3 be taken as the axis of rotation and if as
b efore the angle of rotation about tha t a x is b e denoted b q y
y
,
the d adic O whi ch accomplishes the rotation is

O= a a + c os q ( I 6
( )
To how that this dyadic actually does a ccomplish the
S
rotation apply it to a vec t or r Th e dyad a a is an idemfactor

.
for a ll vec t ors parallel to a ; b u t an annihi lator for vectors

perpendicular to a Th e dyadic I — s e is an idemfac t or
.
for all vectors in the plane perpendic ul ar to a ; b u t an

annihilator for all vectors parallel to a Th e dyadic I x a .
is a quadrantal versor ( Art 1 1 3 ) for vecto rs perpendicular

.
to a ; but an annihilator for vectors parallel to a If then .
r b e p a ra ll e l t o a
(D . r a a o r z r .
Hence O leaves unchanged all vectors ( or components of

vectors ) which are parallel to a If r is perpendic ul ar to a .
Hence the vector r has been rotated in its plane through the
angle q If r were any vector in space its component parallel
.
to a s u fi e rs no change ; but its component perpendicular to a

is rotated about a through an angle of q degrees Th e whole .
vector is therefore rotated about a t hrough that angle

L j
.
et a be given in terms of i k as , ,
a a — a 2
1 1 -
0 0
1 a - a
0 °
rj + a a
0
1 k
1 1 2 1 3
R O TA TI ONS A ND S TRA INS 3 39
jk
+ a
3
a
1 ki + a
3
a
2
kj a
2
k k,
,
I x a = 0i i — a i j+ a i k,
3 z
M a n on - a
s k,
O { a
1
2
(1
jl a a
z ( 1 -c o s
q)
-d
a
sin q } i j
+ {a 1
a
3 ( 1
ga z a
l (1
{ 0
2
2
(1 — 008
2) cos 9} i i
+ { a
2
a
3 (1 — c os q)
— a
1
Sin
qjjk
+ { a
3
a
1 (l — cos q)
— a
2
sin q } ki
{ a
s
d
a (l kj
1
( + cos q ) + c o s q } kk .
( 7)
If O be written as in equat ion ( 4) the vecto r of O

and the scalar of O m a y be foun d .
O8 = 1 + 2 c os q .
Th e ax is of rotation i is seen to have the direction of O x,
the negative of t h e vector of O This is true in general . .
Th e direction of the ax is of rotation of any versor is the

negative of the vector of O Th e proof of this statement .
depends on the invariant propert y of O An y versor O x

.
may be reduced to the form ( 4 ) by ta king the direction of i

coincident with the direction of the a xis of rotation After .
this reduction has b een made the direction of the ax is is seen

t o b e the nega t ive of O B u t O is not altered b y the
x
.
x
reduction of O to any particular form — nor is the ax is of

rotat ion altered b y such a reduction Hence the direction of .
t h e a x is of rotation is always coincident with O the dire c

tion of the negative of the vecto of O r .
Th e tangent of one-half the angle of version q is
sin q x/ Ox -OX
1 + c os 1 + OS
( 8)
q
Th e tangent of one half the angle of version is therefore

-
determined when the values of O and O , are known Th e , .
vector O and the scalar OS which are invariants of O deter

L Q
x , ,
mine completely the versor O et be a vector drawn

L
.
.
in t h e di rection of the a x is of rotation et the magni t ude

Q
.
of . be equal to the tangent of one -half the angle q of

version .
1 +O ;
Q o ta n
z
éq .
Th e Q
vector determines the versor O completel
. Q will b e y .
call ed t h e ve c to r s e m i t a n ge n t of ve rs io n
-
.
B y ( 6 ) a versor O was e xpressed in terms of a unit vector

parallel to the ax is of rotation .
O= a a + c os
q (I
— a a
) + s in q l x a .
Hence if G be the vector semi-tangent of version

Q Q .
Q
+ c os q + si a >
< 1
( )0
V e -a
There is a more compact e xpression for a versor O in terms
of the vector semi tangent of version -
et 0 be any vector in . L
Space Th e version represented by Q carri es
.
.
— Q X in t o c -
c c i- Q x c .
and c
c
-( I
M ul t ip ly b y c
— I x 0).
-1
-
(c
H ence th e dyad c i
carr ies the vector 0 Q x 0 into the vector 0 x o no matte r Q
what the value of 0 Hence the d adic O determines the y
Q
.
version due to the vector semi-tangent of version

Q x
.
Th e dyadic I + I X carries the vector 0 — 0 0 into .
( I + Q -Q ) c .
—
Q >
<c
-
( c
Hence the d adic y

I+ I x Q
1 + Q -
Q
( I I x Q) “
carries the vector 0 Q x 0 into the vector 0 if c be p e rp e n

q y y i
,
dic u l a r to Q as has been supposed C onse uentl the d ad c .
1 + Q Q °
produces a rotation of all vecto s in the plane perpen cul ar r di

to QIf however it b e applied to a vector x Q parallel to Q
.
, ,
the resul t is not equal to x Q .

R OTA TI ONS AND S TRA INS 34 3
To i
ob viate th s di ffi culty the dyad Q whi ch is an annihilator Q
Q
.
for all vectors perpendicular to may b e added to the nu ,
m e ra t o r Th e versor O may then be written

.
1 + Q - ( 1 0)
Q
a + l )
( I x Q) -
QQ —
Q-
QI .
Hence substitut in g
1 —
( e
1 + Q -
Q
Th is may be e panded x in noni on form . L et

Q a i bi 0 k.
(1 + a 2—
b 2
— a 2 2 — 2 a )ik
+b (1 1 )
— a 2— 2 2
+ (2 a c (1 b + 0 ) kk
1 a
2
b 2
c
“
1 28 ] If a is a uni t vector 3 d adic of the form y

O 2 a a I ( 1 2)
is a biq u a dra n ta l versor Tha t is t h e dyadi c O turns t h e
.
,
points of space ab out the axis a through two right angles .
This may be seen by setting q equal to 71 in the general

r
e xp ession for a versor
O= a a + c os q (I
— a s
)
or it may be seen directly from geometrical cons iderations .
Th e dyadic O leaves a vector parallel to a unchanged but re

y
verses ever vector perpendicular to a in direction .
Th e o re m : Th e product of two biquadrantal ve rs o rs is a

r i
ve sor the ax s of whi ch is perpend cular to the axes of the i
b iquadrantal and the an gle of which is twice the
ve rs o rs
angle from the axis of the second to the ax is of the fi rst

L q
.
et a and b be the ax es of two bi uadran tal ve rs o rs Th e .
product
9 2 — I 2 s e — I)
:
( b b ) o
(
y
is certainl a versor ; for the product of an tw o ve rs o rs y
is a versor Co nsider the common perpen di c ul ar to a and b
. .
Th e b iqua drantal versor 2 a a — I reverses this perpendi cular

in direction ( 2 b b — I) again reverses it in direction and con
.
se q uently b rings it b ack to its origin al position Hence the .
produc t 9 leaves th e common perpendicula r to a and b u n

changed 9 is therefore a rotation about this line as axis
. .
Q-
.a = ( 2 b b — I) o
( 2 3 3 — I) o
a = 2 bb o a — a.
Th e cosine of the an gle from a to Q

. o a is
a -Q o e z 2 b -a b o a — a o a = 2 (b o a )
2 —
1 = cos
Hence the angle of the versor Q is equal to twice the angle .
from a to b
y
.
Th e o re m : Conversel any given versor may be ex pressed

as the product of two biquadrantal ve rs o rs of which the ax es ,
lie in the pla ne perpendicular to the ax is of the given versor

and include between them an angle equal to one half the
angle of the given versor
L
.
Fo r let I? b e the given versor et a and b be unit vectors .
perpendi cular to the ax is — Q of thi s versor Furthermore .

x .
let the angle from a to b b e equal to one ha lf the angle of

this versor Then b y the foregoing theorem
.
O= 2
( bb ( 1 4)
resolution of ve rs o rs into the product of two b iq u a d
Th e
rantal ve rs o rs a fi o rds an immediate and Simple method for
compounding two fi nite rotations about a fi x ed point et L
L
.
O and T be two given ve rs o rs et b b e a unit vector per .

O8 = 4 ( a o h) 2 —
1,
T= 4 c o h c b — 2 b b — 2 0c + I,
Tx = 4 c o
b c x b,
Ts z 4 -
(o b)
2 — 1
T o O=4 c o a c a — 2 c c — 2 a a + I,
( T o O) x = 4 c -a c x a ,
z —
o
e ) 1 .
a xb b x c
Hence ’ Q2 ’
a o
h b c c
[ a b c ] b
QZ X Q I
-b -c -c
' ' °
a b a o
b b
B ut
Hence -
b .
a xb a >
< o
< Q1
Q2 > +
a -b a -b b o
c
Hence Q2 x Ql Q,
s e e
a o h b e
0l
, Q2 ( a x b) a . b b . c a . c b . b
a O
b b o
c a o b b o c a .
b b .
c
Hence 1 Q2 ,
QI .
Hence QI Q" A T Q 2 1 11 ' ‘
1
ROTA TI ONS AN D S TRA INS 34 7
This form ul a gives the composition of two fi nite rotations .
If the rotations b e in fi nitesim a l Q 1 and are b o t h in fi n it e s i

mal N eglecti ng in fi n it e s im a ls of the second order the for
.
mula reduces to
Q3 QI i Q2 ‘ "
.
Th e in fi nitesimal rotations comb ine accord ng to the law of i

vector addi tion This demonstrates the paral lelogram law for
.
angul ar velocities Th e subject was treated from di fferent

.
standpoints in Arts 51 and 6 0 . .
Cyc li c s Righ t Te n s o rs , To n ic s ,
,
a nd Cy c lo to n i c s
If the dyadi c O be a versor it ma be written in the y

form ( 4 )
s in q ( j
k j)
k
+ — .
Th e axis of rotation is i and the angle of rotation about th at

ax is is q L
et T b e another versor with the same ax is and
q
.
an angle of rotati on e ual to q ’

.
T : ii + c oS q
’
ji
C + k k) + s in q
’
( j
k —
jk ) .
y
M u ltipl ing
O T : T O : ii c os (jj+ k k)
> sin ( c
jk ) ( 1 6)+g
'
k
( : — .
This is the res ul t which was to be e x pected the product of

two ve rs o rs of whi ch the ax es are coincident is a versor with
the same ax is and with an an gle equal to the sum of the
angles of the two gi ven ve rs o rs
y
.
If a versor b e multiplied by itself geometric and anal tic ,
cons iderations alike make it evident that

—
jk) ,
and s in n q ( j
k —
jk) .
O the o t her hand let Ol equal jj kk; and O2 q
e ual
j
n
k —
jk T.hen
O ( i i cos O
q I sin ”
q
Th e product of i i into either OI or O2 is z ero and into itself is

ii . Hence
O ii ( cos O
q I s
”
rn :O
q 2)
”
O ii
"
c os
: O
q , n cos
1
q sin
”
q Ol
l
O ,
” ” "
fl-
Th e dyadic OI raised to any po wer reproduces itself OI OI .

“
.
Th e dyadic O2 raised to the second power gives the negative

of OI ; raised t o the third power t h e negative of O2 ; raised ,
to the fourth power OI ; raised to the fi ft h power O2 and so

q
, ,
on ( Art Th e dyadic OI multiplied by O2 is e ual to

.
O2 Hence
.
O =ii +
” "
q O1 +
" 1
si a
‘
cos n c os q 2
B ut
E quating coe ffi cients of OI and O2 in these two e xpressions

for O "
n ( n — l ) cos
c os n q — cos q
2!
n ( n — 1 — 2
s rn n q = n c os
” ‘
1
q s rn q
Thus the ordinar expansions for cos n q and Sin n q are y

ob tained in a manner ver Similar to the manner in which y
they are generally obtained .
Th e e xpression for a versor may be generali z ed as follows

L
.
et a b c b e any three non -coplanar vectors and a b

, , the ’
,
’
,
reciprocal system Consider the dyadic .
O ’
q (b b +
’ ’
: a a + cos c c ) + s in q (c b ’
1
( )7
th e who le e llip s e a s
qa displacement of t h e
i s to 2 7 r .
1
Such
radius vector r may b e called
an e llip tic ro ta tio n th r ough a
sector q from its si m ilarity to an ordi nar rotation of which y
it is the projection
fi
.
De n i tio n A dya di c O of the form
O : a a
’
+ cos q (b b +
’
c c
’
) sin g ( c b ’ — b c
’
) 1
( 7)
is called a c yc lic dya di c Th e versor is a Special case of a.
cyclic dyadic .
It is evident from geometric or analytic considerations that

the po wers of a cyclic dyadic are formed as the powers of a
y
,
versor were formed b y mul t ipl i ng the scalar q by the power

,
to which the dyadic is to be raised .
O "
a a
’
cos n
q (b b
’
c c
’
) sin n q ( c b ’
If the scalar q is an integral sub-m ul tiple of 2 7r, th at is f , i

2 71
'
i
it s possible to raise the dyadic O to such an integral ower p ,
namely the power m that it becomes the idemfactor

, ,
O m =I
O may then be regarded as the m t h root of the idemfactor .
In like manner if q and 2 n are commensurab le it is possi b le

to raise O t o such a power that it becomes equal t o t h e idem
factor and even if q and 2 are incommensurab le a po wer of 71
O may be found which difi e rs by as little as one pleases from

t h e idemfac t or Hence any cyclic dyadic ma be regarded as
. y
a root of t h e idemfactor
g
.
1 It is i d e n t t h a t fix i n t h e re s u l t o ft h e a ppli c a t i o n o f T t o a ll ra dn ve c t o rs
ev
ve c t o r in t h a t pla n e m a
t h e e l lips e .
g
in a n e llip s e p ra c t i c a l l y fi x e s it fo r a ll ve c t o rs in t h e pl a n e o f b a n d c
y b e re a rd e d a s a s c a l a r m Fo r a n y
u l t ipl e o f a ra di us ve c t o r o f
.
R O TA TI ONS A ND S TRAINS 3 51
De fi n it i o n : Th e transform ation rep resented by the

O= a ii + b jj+ c kk ( 1 8)
w here are posi t ive scal ars is called a p u re s tra in
a , b, c . Th e
dyadic itself is called a right t e n s o r .
A right te n sor may b e facto red into three facto rs
o z
( i i +
a jj b j j k k ) + ( i i + jj c k k)
r
.
.
Th e o rder in which these fa ctors occur is immate ial . Th e

transformation
(i i + jj+ c k k) o r
is such that the i and jcomponents of a vecto r remain u n

altered but t h e k-c omponent is altered in the rati o of c to 1 .
Th e transforma t ion may t herefore b e described a s a s t retc h or

elongation along t h e dir ec t ion k If the cons t ant c is greater '
y
.
t han uni t the elongation is a tru e elonga t ion : b u t if c is less

y
t han unit the elongati on is really a compression for the ra t io ,
of elongation is less t han uni t y B etween these two cases

y
.
comes the case in which t h e constant is uni t Th e lengths .
of the k-c omponents are then not a ltered .
Th e transformation due t o t h e dyadi c O may b e regarded

the successive or simultan eous elongation of t h e com
j
as
n ts of r parallel to i and k respectively in the ratios

b
p o n e , ,
a to 1 to 1 c to 1 If one or more of the cons t an ts a b c

y
, , .
, ,
is less than unit t h e elongation in tha t or t hose di rections

b ecomes a compression If one or more of the constants is
.
uni t y components parallel to that di rection are not altered

j
.
,
Th e di rections i k are called t h e p ri n c ip a l a xe s of the s tra in

, , .
Their directions are n o t altered b y t h e stra in whereas if the

y
,
cons t an t s a b c be different ever other direction is al t ered

, , ,
.
Th e s c alars a b c are known as t h e p ri n c ip a l r a tio s of

, ,
e l o n ga tio n .
In Art it wa s seen that any complete dya di c

. 115 wa s
reducib le to the normal form
3 52 VECTOR A NAL Y I SS
where a b c are positive constants Thi s expression ma be
, ,
. y
factored in to the product of two dyadi cs .
’
i i + b jj+
’ ’ '
k k ' ’
) 1
( )9
o : :t ( a c
'
a : i + k k)
’
Th e factor i i ’
+ jj
'
k k
which is the same in ei t her metho d of factoring is a versor

j
.
It turns the vectors i k into the vectors i j k T his , ,

'
,
'
,
'
.
versor may b e represented b y i ts vector semi-tangent of

ve rs io n a s
1 1 + JJ+ k k ’
1 +i o 1
’
-
+ JJ+ k
’ o k
Th e other factor
a ii + bjj+ c kk
is a right tensor and represents a pure strain In the fi rst .
case the strain has t h e lines i j k for principal ax es : in

' ’ ’
j
, ,
the second i k In b oth cases the ratios of elongat ion are

b
, , , .
the same — a to 1 to 1 c to 1 If the negative sign occ u rs

, , ,
.
b efore the product the version and pure strain mus t have
associated with them a reversal of direc t ions of all vectors in
space — t hat is a perversion Hence , .
The o re m A n y dyadic is reduci b le to the product of a

versor and a right tensor taken in either order and a pos itive
or negative sign Hence the most general transformat ion
.
representab le b y a dyadic consists of the product of a rota

tion or version ab out a de fi nite ax is through a de fi nite angle
accompanied b y a pure strain either with or without pe rver
sion Th e rotation and strain may be performed in either
.
order In the two cases the rotation and the rat ios of elonga
.
t ion of t h e s t rain are the same ; b u t the principal a x es of t h e
strain differ according as it is performed before or after the

componen ts are stretched in the rati os a to 1 to 1 c t o 1 , b , .
If one or more of t h e cons t ants a b c are negative the com

'
, ,
o n e n t s parallel to the correspon di ng vector a b c are re

p , ,
versed in direction as well as changed in magnitude Th e .
t onic may b e fac t ored into thr ee factors of which each

s t re t che s t h e components parallel to one of the vectors a b c , ,
b u t leaves unchanged the components p a rallel to the other

t wo .
Th e value of a ton ic O is not altered if in place of a b c , ,
any three vec t ors respectively collinear wi th the m b e s u b ~
sti t uted provided of course that the corresponding changes

y
,
which are nece s sar b e made in t h e reciprocal system a b c ’

,
'
,
’
.
B u t with the e x ception of this change a dyadic which is ,
e xpressib le in the form of a tonic is so e xpressib le in only

one wa y if the constants a b c a re different If t wo of the , , .
constants say 6 and c are equal any two vectors coplanar ,
with t h e corresponding vectors b and 0 may be substituted

in place of b and c If all the consta nts are equal the tonic
.
reduces to a constant multiple of the idemfa ctor An y three .
non -00planar vectors may b e taken for a b c , , .
Th e product of two tonics of which the a x es a b c are the , ,
same is commuta t ive and is a tonic wi t h these ax es and

with scalar coeffi cients equal respectively to the produc t s of
t h e correspondi ng coe ffi c ients of the t wo dya di cs .
O o 97 : 117 -O = a
1
a
2
a a
’ -
4 b b
Th e generaliz ation of t h e cyclic dyadic

’ — ’
( c b b c )
( 23 )
ROTA TION S AND S TRAI S N 355
where a b c are three

, ,
non-coplanar
vectors of which a b c ’
,
’
,
’
is the reciprocal sys t em and where t h e quantities a b c are , , ,
positiv e or negative scalars This dyadic may be changed .
into a more conve n ient form b y de t erm ining the posit ive
scalar p and the positive or negative scalar q ( which may
always b e chosen be tween the limits 1 7r) so that
b =p c os q
c =p s in q .
a nd
Then
O : a a a
’
+ 19 cos q ( b b ’
c c
’
) +p s in q ( o h ’
( 25)
Th is may be fact red into the product of three dya

o di cs
O= (a a a
’
bb
’
c c
’
) ( a a
’
+p bb +p
’
c c
’
)
{ a a
’
cos q (b b
’
c c
’
) sin q ( c b ’
Th e order of these factors is immaterial Th e fi rst is a tonic .
which leaves unchanged vectors parallel to b and 0 b u t

stretches those parallel to a in the ratio of a to 1 If a is
i
. .
negati ve the stretching must be accompan ed b y reversal

in direction Th e second factor is also a to ni c
. It leaves .
unchanged vectors parallel to a but stretches all vectors in

the plane of b and c in the ratio p to 1 Th e th rd is a . i
cyclic factor Vectors parallel to a remain un changed ; but
.
radii vectors in the ellipse of whi ch b and c are conjugate

se m i -di ameters are rotated through a vector such that the
area of the vector is to the area of the whole ellipse as q to
2 7r O ther vectors in the plane of b and 0 may b e egarded r
r i
.
a s scalar m ul tiples of the adi vectors of the elli ps e .

356 VECTOR A NAL Y I SS
Defin i tio n : A y
d adic whi ch is reducib le to the form
O a e a
’
+ p cos q ( b b ’
c c
’
) +p sin q (c b
’
( 2 5)
i
ow ng to the fact that it combines the properties of th e
y y
c clic d adic and the tonic is called a c yc lo to n ic .
Th e product of two c y c l o t o n ic s whi ch have the same three

vec t o rs a b c as antecedents and the reciprocal s stem y
y
, , ,
a
’
b
, c for con sequents is a third c cloto mic and is com
’
,
’
mu tative .
= a
1
a a
'
+p1 c os q1 + 19 1 s in g1 ( c b ’ — b c
’
)
= a
2
a a
’
+p2 cos q2 (b b
’ -
l sin q2 (c b ’ — b c
’
)
O
’
: ill -O = a a a a
’
+p1 pz c os ( q1 + q2)
( 26)
'
+ 101 1 )s (91 + 92 ) (e h
Re du c ti o n oD
f y a di cs t o Ca n o n ic a l Fo rm s
general an dyadic O may be reduced

Th e o re m : In y
ei ther to a toni c or to a c y c l o t o n ic Th e dyadi cs for whi ch .
the reducti on is impossible may b e regarded as li miting cases

which may be represented to an desired degree of a pp ro xi y
mation by tonics or c y c l o t o n ic s
i y
.
From th s theorem the importance of the tonic and c cl o

to nic whi ch have been treat ed as nat ural generaliz ations of
the right tensor and the cyclic dyadic ma be seen Th e y
i
.
proof of the theorem including a d scus sion of all t h e ,
special cases that may arise is long and somewhat tedious , .
Th e method of proving the theorem in general however is

patent If three di rections a b c may be found wh ch a re
.
, , i
left unchanged by the application of O th en O must b e a
to nic If only one such directi on can be found the e e x ist s
.
, r
a plane in which the vectors suffer a change such as that due
to the c y c l o to n ic and the d adi c ndeed proves to be s uch y i .
An y value of x which satis fi es this equation wi l l be such
that
(O x l )3 0 .
That y
is to sa the dyadic O x 1 is planar A vector per
,
H
.
n dic u l a r to its consequents is reduced to z ero ence O

p e .
leaves such a di rection unchanged Th e further di s c u ssion

y
.
of the reduction of a d adic to the form of a tonic or a cyclo

tonic depends merely upon whether the cubic equation in se
has one or three real roots .
Th e o re m If the cu b ic equation
x
2
$8 4 x $2 3
1
“
$3 1
:
has three r e al roots the dyadic O may in general be reduced

to a tonic .
For let a : ac = c
be the three roots of the equation . Th e y i

d ad cs
O— a I, O — b I, O — c I
are in general planar et a b c be respectively three

. L , ,
vectors drawn perpendicular to the planes of the consequents

of these dyadics .
(O a I) a O,
( (D — b I) -b = 0,
( O
O a a a
b
,
O b b,
O -c c &
If the roots a b c are distinct the vectors

, , a, are non
00 planar. Fo r suppose
m a n b
(O — c I)
R O TA TI ONS AN D S TRAI S N
m O -
a — m c a + n O o b — n c b = 0 .
O . a a a, O o b = bb .
m ( a
m (a n (b
m = Oor a n = Oor b = c .
Cons e quently if the vectors are coplanar the roots are a, b, c ,
not distinct ; and t herefore if the roo ts are distinc t the ,
vectors a b c are necessarily non-coplanar In case the roots

, ,
.
are n o t di s t inct it is still always possi b le t o choose three

non coplanar vectors a b c in such a manner t hat the equa
-
, ,
tions ( 30) hold This b eing so there e x is ts a system a b c ’ ’ ’
y
.
, , ,
reciprocal t o a b c and the d adic which carries a b c into

, , , ,
a a,b b c c is the to n ic
,
O= a a a
’
bbb
’
c c c .
The o re m : If the cub ic e uation q

x2 OS + cc (Dz s
has one real root the d adic O ma in general be reduced to y y

a cycloto mic .
Th e cub ic equa t ion has one real root This must b e posi
L
.
tive or negative a c cording as O3 is positive or negative et .
the root be a D ete rmine a perpendicular to the plane of

q
.
the conse uents of O a I .
( O — a I) o a = 0 .
D ete rmine at! also so tha t

a
’
( O — a I) = O
and let the lengths of a and a be so adjusted that a a l ’ '
i
z .
Th s cannot be accomplished in the special case in whi ch a

3 60 VECTOR A N AL Y IS S
and a are mutual ly perpendi cular
' . L et b be an vector in y
the plan e perpendicular t o a ’
.
8” ( O— a I) 0 b = 0 .
Hence ( O— aI) b is perpendic ul ar to a Hence O h is

o
’
. o
perpendicular to a In a si ilar manner

m O 2
b O h and
3 ’
.
,
o
,
b etc will all be perpendicular to a and lie in

— 1 3 " ’
O b
, O , .
,
one plane Th e vectors O h and b cannot be parallel or O

.
o
wo ul d have the direction b as well as a unchanged and

thus t h e cubic woul d have more than one real root .
Th e dyadic O changes a O h b into O a O b O -- z

b re ,
o
, ,
o
,
s p e c t ive ly Th e volume of the parallelopiped

.
[ O c a OZ o
h O O o h b] .
B ut O-a a a .
Hence a a -
b) = O3 a
Th e vectors O h O h b all lie in the same plane Their

Z o
,
o
, .
vec t or products are parallel to a and to each other Hence ’

.
a
( O Z o h) x( O -
b) = O3 O -
b x b .
Inasmuch as a and OS have the same sign let ,
2 -1
p a O3 .
( 3 2)
b3 = p 1 O-
b bz z
Oz b, etc 3
( )3
“ ‘
z
p o .
b 1
=p 2
O
‘
l o b b _2 _ p 2
O
‘
2 -b , etc .
bs l
z bl x bz,
Th e vectors b 2 b and b 1 are parallel . L et

b2 + b = 2 n b1 .
Then b3 + b1 = 2 n b2 b1 + b2 = 2 n b3
b 1 + b _1 2 n b b -1 + b _2 — 2 n b
3 62 VE C TOR A NAL Y I SS
There
remain two cases in wh ch the reduction 1
i
is impossible as can b e seen b y look ng over the proof In
, i .
the fi rst place if the c o n s t a n t n used in the reduction to cyclo

tonic form b e i 1 the reduction falls through In the second
p
.
lace if the plane of the antecedents of

O— a I
and the plane of the conse uents a e perpendicu ar the q r l

vectors a and a used in the reduction to c y c l o t o n ic form are
’
perpendicular and it is impossible to determine a such that

’
a a sha l l be unity Th e reduction fall s through

’
. .
If ” = i 1, b _l + b 1 = i 2b
L et
o
b _1 bl “
2 z h o
Choose 0 z b1 — b =b — b _l
y
.
Consider the d a di c T= a +p c b ’
T o a a a = O . a ,
ill
'
o b = p b i—p h 1 ~
O -b ,
—
p h = O -c .
Hence O a a a
’
p (b b
’
c c
’
) +p c bl .
( 3 7)
Th e transformation due to this dyadic may be seen best b y
factoring it into three factors which are independent of the
order or arrangement
O ( ’
+ b b +
’ ’
: a a a c c )
( a a
’
bb ’
C W)
mg d q lil mi i g lyi g b
il bi c e qu a t io n
m l
1 In t h e s e c as e s it w l be se e n tha t th e cu h a s t h re e re a ro o t s .
In one case t wo o f th e a re e ua a nd in t h e o th e r c a s e t h re e of t he Th us
i m gi y
.
t he s e dya d i cs ma y be re a r e d as t n c a se s n e t we e n t h e c y c l o t o n ic in
li m i g k i g pl
wh i c h t wo o ft h e ro o ts a re i a i na r a nd t h e to n c in wh c h a ll t h e ro o t s a re re a l
a nd
i
t wo
mg
a
dis t i n c t Th e
.
in a ry p a rt o f t h e
o ft h e ro o t s o f th e t o n
t
i m gi y
t wo
i pp i g
d
m a y be
c a
a na r
re
ro a c h
ar de
ro o ts o
n
as ta
ft h e
e a c h o the r
c
n
y c l o t o n ic
.
a ce e
mg
i th e r by t h e p u re
be c o i n z e ro o r by
R O TA TI ONS A ND S TRAINS 3 63
Th e fi rst facto r represents an e l ongation in the dir ection a in a

ratio a to 1 Th e plane of b and c is undisturbed Th e
. .
second factor represents a stretching of the plane of b and c in

i
the rat o p to 1 Th e last factor takes the form
.
I+ c M
( +
’
1 o h ) ma ma ,
b =
’
1
( + c b ) cc zc b a s,
’
(I b ) a o
'
c cc c .
A y
d adic of the form I o h leaves vectors parallel to a and c ’
unaltered A vector x b parallel to b is increased by the vec

.
tor c mul tiplied b y the ratio of the vector a xb to b In other .
words the trans forma t ion of points in Space is such that the
plane of a and c remains fi x ed point for point b u t the points
in planes parall el to that plane are shift ed in the di rec t ion c
by an amount proportional to the di stance of the plane in
which they lie from the plane of a and 0
i
.
Defin itio n A dyad c reduci b le to the form
I+ c h ’
is called a dyadi c or
s h e a ri n g s h e a re r and the geometri ca l
transformation which it causes is d
calle a s h e a r Th e more .
general dyadic
( 3 7)
ll ll
wi al so be ca ed a shearing dyad c or s he a rer Th e trans i .
formation to which it gives rise is a shear combined with

"
elongations in the direction of a and is in the plane of b and c .
— 1 instead of n
If n + 1 the result is much the same ,
.
Th e dyadic then b ecomes
O : a a a
’ — e h’
’ ’ ’ ’ ’
O: (a a a bb c c ) {a a -
p (b b (I
364 VECTOR A N AL Y I SS
Th e facto rs are the same ex cept the second whi ch now re p re
sents a stretching of the plane of b and 0 comb ined with a
reversal of all the vectors in that plane Th e shearing dyadic .
O then represen t s an elongation in th e direction a an elonga ,
tion comb ined with a reversal of direction in the plane of

b and c and a shear
,
.
Suppose that the plane of the antecedents and the plane of

the consequents of the dyadi c O — a I are perpendi c ul ar et L
j
.
these planes b e taken respectively as the plane of and k and

j
the plane of i and k Th e dyadic then takes t h e form
.
Th e coeffi cient B must vanish . Fo r other wis e the d adic y

O — a I — B I= ( — B i + A j — E h)
is planar and the scalar a B is a root of the cubic e uation q .
With this root the reduction to the form of a tonic may b e

carried on as b efore N othing new arises B u t if B vanishes
L
. .
a new case occurs et .
This may be reduced as follows to the form

’ ’
a b + b c
where a -b ’
z a -c ’
z b o
c
’
z o a nd b
Square T Tz z —
A D ki = a c
’
.
H nce must be chosen parallel to k ; and ’

parall e to l
y
e a c , i .
Th e dyadic T ma then be trans formed into
0i + Dj
T=AD k + A ji .
A D
—
A D k,
b =A j
more systematic treatment of the var ous k nds
A i i
of dyadics which may arise may be given by means of the
Hami lton -Cayle equat ion y
O 3 Ts O + O 2 5 O 2 Os I = 0
and the cubic equation in x
x 3 —
Os x2 + Oz g x — O3 = 0 .
If a
b are
,
the
,
roots
c of th s cubic the Ha m ilton -Cayle i y
equation may be written as
( O — a I) -( O 4
( )0
If, however, the cubic has only one root the Hamilton -Ca le yy
equat ion takes the form
(O — a -
I) ( O 2
4
( )1
In general the Hamilton Cayley equation which is an equ a -
tion of t h e third degree in O is the equation of lowest degree

which is satis fi ed by O In general therefore one of the above
.
equations and the corresponding reductions to the tonic or

c y c l o t o n ic form hold In special cases however the dyadic
.
, ,
O may satisfy an equation of lower degree That equation .
of lowest degree which may b e sat is fi ed b y a dyadi c is called

its c h a ra c te ris tic equation Th e follo wing pos sibilit ies occur
. .
( O — a I) -( O — b I) o
( O
2 —
( O — a I) o
( O 2p c os q
( O — a I) -( O — b I) 2
( O — a I) -( O
(O
( O
(O
R OTA TI ONS AND S TRA INS 3 67
In the fi rst c a se the dyadic is a tonic and may b e reduced

to the form ’
O= ’ ’
a a a + bb b + c c c .
In the second case the dyadi c is a c y l o to n i c

c and may be
reduced to the form
In the third case t h e dya di c is a simple shearer and may be
reduced to the form

O= a a a
’
+ b( b b ’
+ c c
’
) + c b ’
.
In the fourth case the dyadic is again a tonic Two of the .
ratios of elongation are the same Th e following reduction .
may b e accomplished in an in fi nite numbe r of ways .
O= a s a ’
+ b( bb
’
+
In the fi fth case the dya di c is a complex shearer and may be

so e xpressed that
T :
Inthe six th case the dyadic is again a simple shearer which

may be reduced to the form
O= a I + c b ' —
.
a
( a s
'
+ bb
'
+ c c
'
) + c b ’
.
In the seventh case t h e dyadic is again a tonic which ma y be

reduced in a doub ly infi nite numb er of ways to the form
These
seven are the only essentially di fferent form s which a
dyadic may take There are then only seven really different
.
kinds of dyadi cs three tonics in which the ratios of elonga

tion are all difi e re n t two alike or all equal and the cyclo
li
, , ,
tonic toge t her wi t h thr ee mi t ing cas es the two simple and ,
the one complex shearer .

Su mm a ry o f Ch a p te r VI
r
t ansformation due to a dyadic is a linear h o m o ge n e o u
Th e
strain Th e dyadic itself gives the transformation of the
.
points in space Th e second of the dyadic gives t h e trans

y i
.
form ation of plane areas Th e third of the d ad c gives the

.
ratio in which volumes are changed .
D
l
= ¢ 3
1k
necessary and suffi cient condition that a d adic re p re

Th e y
sent a rotation about a de fi nite ax is is that it be reducible to
the form
or tha t O-O0 = I O3 = + 1
or th a t T T0 = I
0 T3 > 0
Th e y
necessar and suffi cient condi tion that a d adic repr o y
sent a rotation combined with a transformation of reflection
y
b which each fi gure is replaced by one symme t rical to it is
that
O= + k k)
’
or th a t O-OC = . O3 — 1
or that O O0 O3 0 . 3
( )
A dyadic of the form ( 1 ) is called a ve sor one of the form r
a perversor
r
.
If the a x is of rotation of a ve sor be chosen or the i-a xis

the versor reduces to
O = ii + cos q (jj+ k k ) sin - k
q ( j j)
k ( 4)
O = ii + cos q (I 5
( )
If an y unit vector 9. is directed along the ax is of rotation
O= a a + c os q (I
Th e r
axis of the ve sor coinc des in i di rect i on wi h t Ox
.
y
duct of two c clic dyadics whi ch have the same antecedents
b c and consequen ts a b c is obt ained b y adding their
’ ’ ’
a , ,
angles q A cyclic dyadi c may b e regarded as a root of the

.
idemfactor A dyadic reducib le to the form

.
O= a ii + bjj+ c kk
where a b c are positive scalars is called a right tensor It

j
.
, ,
represent s a stretchin g along the principal a xis i k in the

b
, ,
ra t io a to 1 to 1 c to 1 which are called the principal rati os

, ,
of elonga t ion Thi s transformat ion is a pure strain

. .
A n y dyadic may b e e x pressed as the product of a versor ,
a right tensor and a positive o r n e ga t ive sign

, .
.
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
O (a ) (i
’
i i b jj k k i + jj k k)
’
: i c
or ( 1 9)
Consequently any linear homogeneous strain may be regarded
as a comb ination of a rota tion and a pure strain accompanied
or unaccompanied b y a perversion .
Th e immediate generali z atio n s of the right te nsor and the

cyclic dyadic is to the tonic
and c y c l o t o n ic
O a a a
’
b bb ’
c c c
’
— b c ) ( 23 )
or — b c
’
) ( 2 5)
p
— b
where = and l q
Vb +
—
P + z
c
z ta n
2
p + b
An y y
d adic in general may be reduced either to the form
and is therefore a tonic or to the form and is
y
,
t herefore a c c l o t o n ic Th e con di tion that a d adic be a

y .
tonic is that the cubic equati on

x 3
«9s + a ,, x a8 = o
R OTA TI ONS AN D S TRA INS 371
shall have three re a l roots Special cases in whi ch the

r
.
eduction may b e accompl ished in more ways than one arise

when the equation has equal roots Th e condi t ion that a .
dyadi c b e a c y c l o t o n ic is that this cubic equation shall ha ve

only one real root There occur two li mitin g cases in which
.
the dyadi c cannot b e reduced to c y c l o to ni c form In thes e

y
.
cases it ma be written as
O = a a a
’
+ p + c b ’
and is a simple shearer or it takes the form ,
( )
3 8
and is a comple x shearer Dyadics ma be c a ssi fi ed accord . y l

in g to their characte ri stic equa t ions
( O — a I) -( O — b I) o
( O — c I) = O tonic
(O — a l) g
(O
2
y
c cloto mic
( O a I) ( O b I) 2
0 simple shearer
( O— a I) -( O — bl) = 0 special tonic
( O a I) 3 0 complex shearer
(O a I) 2
0 special simple shearer
( O a I) 0 pecial tonic
S .
C H A P TER VII
M ISCELL AN E OU S A PPLI CA TIO NS
Qu a dric Su rfa c e s
If O y
be an constant dya di c the e uat on q i
r O r const .
is quadratic in r Th e constant in case it be not z ero ma y

q
.
, ,
be divided into the dyadic O and hence the e uation takes

the form
r O r 1 ,
r -O - r = 0 2
( ) .
Th e y
dyadi c O ma be assumed to be self-conj u gate Fo r if .
T is an anti- self-conjugate dyadic the prod u ct r T r is ,
identicall y z ero for all values of r Th e proof of this state .
ment is left as an e x ercise B y Art 1 1 6 any self-conjugate

. .
dyadi c is reducible to the form

i i jj k k
O_ i i i .
2 ,
a b c
a a
m y
Hence the equation r O r 1
represents a quadric surface real or imaginar y .
Th e dif
ferent cases which arise are four in number If the .
signs are all positive the quadric is a real elli psoid If one
, .
sign is negative it is an hyperboloid of one shee t ; if two are

Hence the most general quadratic e xpression may be reduced
to
r -O
where O is a constant dyadic A a constant vector a nd C ’
y
, ,
a constant scalar Th e d adic may b e regarded as sel f

.
conjugate if desired
r ii
.
To be rid of the linear term A make a change of or g n

y
,
b replacing r b y r t
’
.
’ — ’ — t + ’ —
A+
( r t) O ( r ) ( r t) o
r
’ o O o
’
r — t o O o
r — ’
r
’ -O o
t + t -O o
t
’
+ r o A— t
Since O l
is se f-conjugate the second and thi rd terms a e r
equal . Hence
r
' . O -A
If now O is complete the vec t or t may b e chosen so that

1 l -A
§
A= O o t or t —
Q
O 1 .
Hence the quadric is reducible to t he central form

r ’
O r
’
const .
In case O is incomplete it is u n iplanar or u n ilinear

O is self -conjugate If A lies in the plane of O or in
.
of O as the case may be the equation

1
2
A= w o
t
is solub le for t and the reduction to central form is still pos

sib le B u t unless A is so situated the reduction is impossib le
. .
Th e quadric surface is not a central surface

i
.
Th e discussion and classi fi cation of the var ous non-central

quadri cs is an interesting e x ercise It will not be taken up .
he re Th e present ob ject is to develop so much of the theory

.
Q UADR I C S URFA CE S 3 75
of quadr ic surfac es as will be useful in applications to mathe

m a ti c a l physics wi t h especial reference t o non -iso t ropic media
q i
.
Hereaft er therefore the central u a dr cs and in parti cul ar the

ellipsoid will be discus sed
y
.
Th e tangent plane may be found b di f ferentiation .
r o O -r = 1 .
dr o O o r + r o O o dr = 0 .
Since O is self conjugate these two terms are e qual and

-
dr O r O .
Th e increment d r is perpen di cul a r to O r Hence O r is

L
.
normal to the surfac e at the e x tremity of the vector r et .
this norm a l be denoted b y N and let the u nit normal be u .
N = T ~ r
L et be the vector dr awn fr om the origin perpendicular to

p
the tangent plane p is parallel to n Th e perpendicular
.
distan ce from the origin to the tangent plane is t h e square

root of p p It is also equal to the squ are root of r p
. .
r o
p = r c os
Hence r o
p = p
o
p .
P '
P P
_
P ‘
P P ‘
P
B ut r -O -r r -N z l .
H ence inasmuch as p and N are parall el the are e ual , y q .
O -r = N
On page 1 08 it was seen t hat the vecto r which ha s the dire c
tion of t h e normal to a plane and which is in magnitude equal
to t h e reciprocal of the di stance from the origin to the plan e
may be ta ken as the vector co ordi nate of that plane Henc e .
the above equation shows th at O r is not merely normal to

the t angent plane b u t is also the co ordi nate of the p lane
,
'
That is the length of O r is the reciprocal of the distance

,
from the origin to the plane tan gent to the elli psoid at
the e xtremity of the vector r
y
.
Th e equation of the ellipsoid in plane c o tirdin a t e s ma be

y
found b eliminating r from the two e uations q .
r o O -r z l,
O o r =N .
r = “
l o
N -O z N
-l
Hence r -O -e -O ‘
I -O -O I -H ‘
. O 1 .
q
Hence the desired e uati on is
N o O
‘
I -N = 1 .
5
’
+
b
— 2
a ii + s j+ 0
2
kk .
Let
and
where a v w are the reciprocals of the intercept s of the
j
, ,
plane N upo n the ax es i k Then the ellipsoid may be

, , .
written in either of the two forms famili ar in Cartesian

geometry .
3 78 VECTOR ANALYSIS
Th e vecto s r b, are changed into O O b, O b y
Let
a, c a, c
th e dyadi c O .
=O b = O
' ’
a
’
o a ,
o h, c
Th e r
vecto s a
’
, b
’
, 0
’
form the system reciprocal to a, b, c .
Fo r a o O o a = 1,
c -O -c = 1 ,
-b = 0, b -0 ’
=b o O o c = 0,
c o a
’
c o O o
a = O .
Th e dyadic O may be therefore e x pressed in the forms

’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
O a s b b c c
—l —
O a a + b b c c .
Iffor convenience the three directions a b c be called a , , ,
system of three conjugate radii vectors and if in a si m ilar ,
manner the three tangent planes at their e x tremities be called

a system of t hree conjugate ta ngent planes a number of ,
geometric theorems may b e ob tained from interpreti ng the

invariants of O A system of three conjugate radii vecto s r
y
.
may be obtained in a doubly infi nite number of wa s .
Th e volume of a parallelopiped of which three concurrent

edges con sti t ute a system of three conjugate radi vectors is i
constant and equal in magnitude to the rectangular p arallelo
piped constru cte d upon the thr ee semi -ax es of the ellipsoid .
Fo r let a b c be any system of three conjugate ax es

, , .
Th e determ inant or third of O is an in variant I
pendent of
‘
th e form in which O is e xpressed .

Q UA DR I C S URFA CES 3 79
B ut if
1 2 2 ”
O3 b
“
a c .
Hence [ a b c
] a b c.
This demons trate s the theorem In l ike manner by inter .
re t in O O 1
and O it is possi b le to show that
q
“
p g 3 S , S ,
Th e sum of the s uares of the radii vectors drawn to an

ellipsoid in a system of three conjugate di rections is constant
and equal to the sum of the Squares of the semi-ax es .
Th e volume of the parallelopipe d whose three concurrent ,
edges are in the di rections of the perpe n di culars u pon a system

of thr ee conjugate tangent planes and in magnitude equal t o
the reciprocals of the d stances of those planes from the i
center of the ellipsoid is constant and equal to the reciprocal
d
,
of the parallelopiped co n structe upon the semi -ax es of the

ellipsoid .
Th e sum of the squares of the reciprocals of the thre e per

e n di c u l a rs dropped from the origin upon a system of three
p
conjugate tangent planes is constant and equal to the sum of
the squares of the reciprocals of the semi -ax es
j y
.
If i , k b e three mutuall perpen di cular unit vectors

,
aa , O l
i + j-O 1 -
j+ k O 1
k
‘ " '
o o o
L et be th ree radii vectors

b, in the ellipsoid drawn
y j
a, c
respectivel parallel to i k , , .
a -O o
a =b
Hence i
a
o
-O
O o
o
i
a
+
j
b
o O
-O -b
-j
+
k
c
.
-O
O -k
o
c
B the three terms in this e xpression are the squares of the

ut
reciprocals of the radii vectors drawn respectively in the i j

i
k d rections ence : . H , ,
Th e sum of the squares of the reciproca s of three mutuall l y
perpendicul ar radii vectors in an ellipsoid is constant An d .
in a similar manner : the sum of the squares of the p e rp e n

dic u l a rs dropped from the origin upon three mutuall p e rp e n y
di c u l a r t angent planes is constant
i
.
Th e equation of the polar plane of the po nt deter

mined b y the vector is a 1
s -O- a = 1 1
( )3 .
Fo r let s be the vector of a point in the polar plane Th e .
vector of any point upon the line which joins the termin u s of
s and the termin u s of a is
y s + :c a
a + g
/
If th is point lies upon the surface

y s + ma
ar t y
2 s
w l
w
a ' z
-
If theterminus of s lies in the polar plane of a the two values

of the rati o m y determined b y this equation must be equal
in magn it ude and opposite in Sign Hence the term in m y .
vanishes .
Hence s O a = 1 o o
is the desired equation of the polar plane of the terminus

of a
L
.
et a be replaced by z a Th e polar plane becomes .
s -O -z a z l ,
1
s -O o a
z
re a
1 It is
l or i mg
a
ev mm
id e n t ly i a t e ri a l wh e t h e r t h e
ina ry e llip so id o r h ype rbo lo id
, .
c e n t ra m
l qu a dri c d e t e r i n e d by 4»b e
If Ais any point outside of the qu a dric and f all the tangent i
pla nes which pass t h rough A are drawn these pla nes envelop ,
a cone This cone touche s the quadric along a plane curve

.
the plane of the curve bein g the polar plane of the poin t A .
Fo r let a be the vector dr awn t o the point A Th e equation .
of any tangent plane to the quadric is

8 0 0 r 1 .
If thisplane contains A its equation is satis fi e d b y a Hence

, .
the condi tion s which must be satisfi ed by r if its tangent

plane passes through A are
a. T o l
‘
1,
r O r 1 .
Th e points r therefore li e in a plane r ( O a ) 1 whi ch

on comparison with ( 1 3 ) is seen to be the polar p ane of A l .
Th e quad ric which passes through the curve of intersection

of thi s polar plane with th e given quadric and whi ch touches
the quadric along that curve is
( r e T o
r O -r
If this passes through the point A ,
( a O o s O -a
Hence ( r O -
r — 1
) ( a -O -a — 1
) —
( a o O a r
By transforming the origin to the point A this is easily seen

to be a cone whose verte x is at that point
L y i
.
et O be an self-conjugate dyad c It is e xpres .
sible in the form

O= A ii + B jj+ Ckk
B ,
’
C are positive or negative scalars . Further
A < B < 0
O— B I= ( 0— B ) kk — ( B — A ii
) .
Q UADR IC S URFA CE S 3 83
’
Then O B I=c c — a a + a )(o
c + a =p and c — a = q .
1
O= EI+ ( )
1 4
2
Th e dyadi c O has been ex press ed as the sum of a constant

multiple of the idemfactor and one ha l f the s u m
p q + q p ~
Th e reducti on has assumed taci t ly tha t the cons tants A B C , ,
are different from each other and from z ero .
This e x pression for O is closely rela ted to the circular

sections of the quadric sur fa ce
r - O - r = 1 .
Substituting the value of O, r O r 1 becomes

B r -r -i- r -p q o r = l
L et
.
r p n
be any plane perpendi cular to p . By substitution

B r o r + n q o r — 1 = O .
This is a sphere b ecause t h e te rms of t h e second order a ll

have th e same coe ffi cient B If the equation of thi s sphere
.
be sub tracted from that of the given quadri c th e resul ting ,
e q uation is that of a quadric which passes through the inte r

section o f the Sphere and t h e given q u adric Th e difference .
18
q o r ( r o
p
Hence the Sphere and t h e qu a dric intersect in two plane

y
c u rves l i ng in the planes
q r = 0
. and r p n o z .
Inasmuch
as these curves lie upon a sphere the are circles y
i
.
Hence planes perpendi cula r to p cut the quadr c in circles .
In like manner it may b e shown that planes perpendicular to

q cut the quadric in circles Th e proof ma be conducted as
. y
follows :
B r r + r - o
p q -r = 1 .
If r is a radi us vector in the plane pas s ed through the center

of the quadric perpendi cular to p or q t h e term r p q r van
i
,
ishes Hence the vector r in thi s plane sat s fi es the equati on

.
B r o
r =1
and is of constant length Th e section is therefore a ci cular r

i
.
section Th e rad us of the section is equa l in length to the

.
mean semi—axis of the quadric .
Fo r convenience let the quadric be an elli psoid Th e con

dy
.
s ta n t s A B C are then p ositive Th reciprocal di c O l
y
‘
, , e a .
ma be reduced in a simila r manner .
k and d
Then
-l
O I = ff— d d — d
)
+ ( f
i
the rotat on the section is a circle In li ke manner consider .
the projection or shadow of the ellipsoid cast upon a plane

parallel to the mean ax is b y a point at an infi ni te dis tance
from t hat plan e and in a direction perpendi cular to it A s the .
elli p s oid is rotated ab out it s mean ax is from t h e position in ,
whi c h the major a xis is perpendi cular to the plane of p ro j ec
tion to t h e position in which the mi nor ax is is perp endi cul ar

to t ha t plane the Sh a d ow and the projecting cylinder have t h e
,
mean ax is of the elli psoid as one axis Th e other axis cha nges .
from the min or ax is of the ellipsoid to the major and hence at

some stage of the rotation it passes through a value equ a l to
the mean ax is At thi s stage t h e shadow and projecting
.
cylinder are circul ar .
Th e nece s sary and s u fii c ie n t condi tion that r be the major

or mi nor s emi-axi s of the sec t ion of the ellipsoid r O r 1
b y a plane passing through the center and perpendi cular to a
'
is that a r and O r be coplanar

, , .
Let r 0 w o r 1
and r a O
r
.
Difi e re n t ia t e d O r 0,
Furthermore
if r is to be a major or minor ax is of the section ; for is a r

max imum or a m in in u m and hence is perpendic ul ar to d r
r
.
These three equations show t hat a r and O are all ortho , ,
gonal to the same vector d r Hence they are coplanar . .
[a r O r] O .
C onversely if [a r O r] 0,
dr may be chosen perpendicular to t heir common p ane l .
Then
d r o r 0 .
Q UA DR I C S URFA CE S 3 87
'
Hence r is a maximum or a m in in u m and is one of the prin

c ip a l semi -
axes of the section perpendi cula r to a .
It is frequently an advanta ge to write the equati on

of an elli psoid in the form
t o Tz o r z l,
in s t e a d o f r o O o r z l .
This y
ma be done ; becaus e if
ii jj kk
’
z
c
ii ii kk
+
a b 0
is a dyadic such that T is equal to O T may be re garded as

3
q
.
a s u are root of O and written as O i B u t it must b e re .
memb ere d that there are o t her square roots of O for
i i jj kk
i i jj kk
Fo r y
thi s reason it is necessar to bear in mi nd that th e square
y i
root whi ch is meant b O 5 s that particular one whi ch has
bee n denoted by T
Th e equation of the e lli psoid may be wr tte n in the form i
t o T o T o
r z l ,
L et r be the radius vect r of a unit

’
o S phere . Th e q
e uation of
the sphere is
r r
’ ’
1 .
38 8 VECTOR ANAL YSI S
If r ’
T r it becomes ev dent that an ellipsoid ma y be
o i
transformed into a unit sphere by applying the operator T
to each radi us vector r and vice ver s a the unit sphere may
, ,
b e transformed into an elli psoid b y applying the inverse O per .
ator T I to each radi us vector r Furt hermore if a b c a re ’
y
‘
.
, ,
a s ste m of three conjugate radii vectors in an ell ipsoid

a . w
z o
a z z b o w z o
b z c o W O
C Z I,
a T
Z -b z b o Tz o c = c o T2 0
a = 0 .
If for the moment a ’

, b ’
, 0
’
denote respectivel y T a ,
T b,
T -c ,
’
a
’
c
r
Hence the th ee radii vectors a b c of the unit sphere into ’
,
’
,
’
which three conjugate radii vectors in the ellipsoid are trans

formed b y the operator T 1
are mutually orthogonal They “
form a right-handed or left-ha nded system of three mutuall y

perpendic ul ar unit vectors
y
.
Th e o re m : A n y elli psoid may b e transformed into an other

elli psoid b y means of a homogeneous strain
L q
.
et the e uations of the ellipsoids be .
r -O -r - z l,
and r
By means of the strain O i the rad vectors of the fi rst ii r

ellipsoid are changed into the radii vec t ors r of a un it sphe e ’
r
r
’
= O4 o
r,
By means of the strain T the radii vectors r of thi s unit ’
i ’
sphere are transformed in like manner into the radii vectors r

of the second elli psoid Hence b y the pro uct r is changed
. d
r= .
T
-
i Ti 0 r .
( 1 9)
Iftwo l
confoca quadrics intersect the do so a t ght a n g es , y ri l .
L et the quadrics be r O r 1,
and r T r 1
Let
.
s = O -r a n d s ’ = T-r,
r = O "
1 o s an d r = T “
1
Then q
the uadr ics may be written in terms of s and s ’
as
s O
‘
I -s = 1,
and s
’
T
"
I
s
’
1,
y
where b the confocal property ,
—1 — I
p
Ifthe quadrics inte sect at the condition for perpendicularity r r

is that the normals O r and T r b e perpend cular That is i . ,
B ut o
s = ( T
—1
+ a 1) o s
T 1
‘
o 8 + 9c s ,
:c S o
s
’
s
’
o T
‘
l o
s
’ —
s T
‘
l o
s
’
=1 — s T
‘
l o s
’
.
In like manner
r — O
‘
I -S = T
“
I o
s
’ —
(O
“
I
ml) s
’
= O ‘
1 o s
’
x s
'
o
s
’
s -O "
1 o
s
’
s -O ‘
1 a
s = s -O ‘
1 o s —
’
1 .
2 ’
(O
l
T 1
)
’
‘ “
s s s
'
a s o s o a o .
and the theo rem is proved

y
.
If the parameter n b e allowe d to var from c o to c th e o
resultin g confocal qu a drics will consist of three fam ili es of

which one is ellipsoids ; another hyp erb oloids of one sheet ; ,
a n d the third h
yp erb oloids of two sheets
, B y the foregoing .
Q UADR I C S URFA CE S 391
theorem each su rface of any one fam il cuts ever surface y y

of t h e o t her two orthogo n ally Th e sur fa ces form a triply
.
orthogonal system Th e lines of intersection of two famili es

.
( say the family of one-sheeted and t h e fa mi ly of two-shee t ed
hyperb oloids) cut orthogonally t h e other family — the family

of ellipsoids Th e points in which t wo ellipsoids are cut b y
.
these lines are called corre s pondi ng points upon the two e llip
s o ids It may b e Shown t ha t the ratios of the components of
.
the radi us vector of a point to the ax es of the ellipsoid

thr ough that point are the same for any two corresponding
points .
Fo r let any elli psoid b e given by the dyadic
ii kk
a
.
$
71:
Th eneighb o rin g elli psoid in the family is represented by the

dyadic
i i
Z — 2 —
a dn 6 dn
1
T I
O I dn
“ "
Inasmuch as O and T are homologous ( see Ex 8 p 3 30) .

,
.
dyadics they may b e treated as ordin a ry scalars in algeb ra .
Therefore if te rms of order higher tha n the fi rst in d n b e

o m l t t e d’
T O I dn .
Th e two neigh boring ellipsoids are then

r O r 1,
( O + I ci n
-
g 5 Oi -r ,
O dn) i
‘
o r,
O d n) o r = r
Th e vectors f and r differ by a mul tiple of O r whi ch is
perpendicular to the ellipsoid O Hence the te rmi ni of f and .
r are correspon di ng points for they lie upon one of th e lines

,
which cut the famil y of ell ipsoids orthogonally Th e com .
o n e n t s of r and i in the direction i are r i :c and

p
at n
a: r Q 1 1 0 0 r T:
L a:
2
dn
Th e rati o of these components is
2
2 a
Th e ax es of the ellipsoids in the direction are Va i 2

dn an d
a . r
Thei ratio is
V a
z —
dn
a
V _ V0 2
b
2
b dn _ 2 dfl
In lik e manner
3/ 0
Hence t h e ratios of the components of the vectors 1 and r "
drawn to correspondin g points upon two neighboring e lli p

s o ids o nl y di f
fer at most by terms of the se cond order in al n
from the ratios of the ax es of those ell ip s oi ds It foll ows .
immedi ately that the ratios of the components of th e vectors

drawn to corresponding poin ts upon any two elli psoids sepa
y
,
rated by a fi n i t e variation in the parame t er n onl differ at

fi
,
most b y terms of the rs t order in d n from the ratios of the

ax es of the ellipsoids and hence must b e identical with them .
Thi s completes the demonstration .
Th e P r op a ga t io n f
o Ligh t in Cry s ta ls l
1 43 ] electromagneti c equations of the ether or of any

Th e
in fi ni t e i s o tropic medi um whi ch is transparent to e l e c tro ma g
ne t ic waves may be wri t t en in the form
1
To t re a t
Th e g m m
t h e s u bj e c t fro
g
fo llo wi n d i sc u s s io n u s t b e re a rd e d a s a t h e
t h e s t a n d po in t o f p h y s i c s wo u ld b e
m m a t ca
o ut o f
i l not p h ys i c a l
pla c e he r
e .
.
Then D= A c os (m o r — n t)
where A and m are cons t ant vectors and n a constant scalar

represen t s a train of waves Th e vi b ra ti ons ta ke place in .
the direction A That is t h e wave is plane polari z ed Th e

y
.
.
,
wave advances in t h e direct ion m Th e velocit v of that a d .
vance is th e quotient of n b y m the magni tude of t h e vector ,
m . If this wave is an elec t romagnetic wave in t h e medium

considered it must sat isfy the two equa tions of that medium .
Sub s ti t ute t h e value of D in those equations .
Th e value of V D V V O - D and V V O -
o
, D ma y b e
o
,
obtained most easily b y assum ing the direction i t o b e c o in c i

dent wi t h m m r then reduces to m i r which is equal to
.
mx . Th e variables y and z no longer occur in D Hence .
B = A c os ( m a:
9D
V o n z l o — i -A m s in ( m x
a x
V o V O o D — m2 O o A c os (m zc
V V -O -D — m 2
i i -O -A c os ( m x
Hence V o D — m -A sin ( n -r
V -V O -D — m e
m O o D
V V -O -D — mm O -D
J
o .
M oreover n
2
D .
Hence if t h e harmonic vib ration D is to satis f the equa y

tions ( 4 ) of the medium
n
2
D=m o m O -D — mm o O -D
m -A = O .
THE PR OPA GA T ON OF L GHT
I I IN CR YS TAL S 39 5
Th e latter equation states at once tha t the vib ra tio n s m us t

be t r a n s ve rs e to the direction m of propagation of the waves .
Th e former equation may be put in the form

m o m mm
2
n
Introduce
Th e vector 8 is in the direction of ad vance m Th e magni t ude .
of s is the quoti ent of m b y n Thi s is the reciprocal of the

y
.
velocit of the wave Th e vector 3 may therefore be called

.
the wave-slowness .
D= S s O D— s e - o O -D o .
This may als o be written as

D=
Dividing b y the scalar factor cos (m x

-A) x s s s O -A — o
s s -O -A .
(7)
evident tha t t h e wave slowness 3 depends not at all
It is
upon the phrase of the vib ration b u t only upon its directi on
y
.
Th e motion of a wave not plane polariz ed may b e discussed b

decomposing the wave into waves whi ch are plane polari z ed
L
.
et a b e a vector drawn in t h e di recti on A of the

displacement a n d let the magni tude of a be so determin ed
t hat a -O -a = l .
( 8)
Th e equation ( 7 ) t hen b ecomes reduced to the form
a s s O s s s -O s o o o
(9)
a c O -a z l ( 8)
y
.
These are the equations b y which the discussion of the velocit

or rat her t h e s lowness of propagation of a wave in different
directions in a non-isotropic medi um may b e carried on .
a -a = s s a -O a = 3 s
o o o .
Hence the wave slowness s due to a displacement in th e
direction a is equal in magni tude ( b u t not in di rection) to the
radius vector drawn in the elli psoid a O a 1 in that
direction .
a x O s — a x s s - O s o o
0 s z -a ) -a S O s o o .
B ut the fi rst term contains O a i

tw ce and van shes i . Hence
a x s -O o
s [a s O ( )
1 1
Th e wave-slowness 8 therefore lies in a plane wi th t h e

direction a of displacement and the normal O a drawn to the
ellipsoid a O a 1 at the terminus of a Since 8 is p e rp e n
y
.
dic ul a r to a and equal in magnitude to a it is evidentl com
p l e t e ly determined e x cept as regards Sign when the d rection i

a is known G iven the direction of displacement the line of
.
advance of the wave compatib le with the di splacement is com

p l e t e ly determined the velocity
, of the a d vance is likewise
known Th e wave however may advance in either direction
.
along that line B y reference to page 3 8 6 equation ( 1 1 ) is seen

.
,
to b e t h e conditi on that a shall b e one of the principal ax es of

th e ellipsoid formed by passing a plane through the e ll ipsoid
perpendicular to 8 Hence for any given direction of advance
.
there are two possib le lines of di splacement These are the .
principal ax es of the elli pse cut from t h e ellipsoid a O a 1

b y a pla ne passed through the center perpendicular to the
line of ad vance To these statement s concerning the de t er
.
mi n a t e n e s s of s when a is given and of a when s is given just

such ex ceptions occur as are ob vi ous geometrically If a and .
O a are parallel 8 may have any di rection perpendi cul ar to a .
Th is happens when a is directed along one of the principal

ax es of the ellipsoid If s is perpendicular to one of the
yi
.
c ircular sections of t h e ellipsoid a may have an d recti on in the

l
p ane of the sectio n .
L et x i + y j+ z k and 3
2
x
2
+ y +
2
z
2
.
Then the equation of the surface in Ca tesian co ord nate s r i is
equation in
Th e Cartesian i
coord nates ma be obta ned y i
i
d rectly from
O l —
I+ _- O
( )8
‘
s o s s s .
determinant of this d adic is y

z
a x y
2 — z -
b s l y e
By means of the relation 3

2
y
2
z
2
this assumes the
forms
y z
2
+ 2 — 2 + 2
a 3 b 8
2 2 a s
b y
2 + 2 — z +
— a 3 b s
This equation appears to be of the six th degree It is how .
ever of only the fo u rth Th e terms of the six th order cancel

.
out .
Th e vector s represents t h e wave-slowness Suppose that a

p i
.
plane wave polariz ed in the di rection a asses the orig n at a

THE PR OPA GA T ON OF L GHT
I I IN CR YS TAL S 399
certain instant of time wi th this slowness At the end of a .
unit of t ime it will have travelled in the di rection 3 a distance ,
equ a l to the reciprocal of t h e ma gni t ude of s Th e plane will .
be in this position represented b y the vector 3 ( page

If s n i + v j+ w k
th eplane at the ex piration of the unit time cuts o ffintercepts
upon the ax es equal to the reciprocals of i t v w These , , .
quantities are therefore the plane co ordinates o f the plane .
They are connecte d with the co ordi na t es of the points in the

plane b y the rel ation
c y + w z = L
If di fferent plane waves po la riz ed in all possible di fferent

directions a be supposed to pass through the origin at the
same instant they wi ll envelop a surface at the end of a unit
of time This surface is known as the wave -surface Th e
. .
pe rp endic ul a r upon a tangen t plane of the wave-surface is the

reciprocal of the slown ess a n d gives the velocit with which y
the wave travels in that direction Th e equation of the wave .
su rface in plane co ordi nates u v w is identical with the eq u a

, ,
tion for the locus of the terminus of the slowness vector s .
Th e equati o n is
2
3
1
2
b
where 3 2
n
2
O
2
w This may be wri tten in any of the
z
.
forms given previously Th e su rface is known as Fre s n e l s

.
’
Wa ve -Su rfa c e Th e equations in vector form are given on

.
page 3 9 7 if the variab le vector 8 be regarded as determi ning a

plane instead of a point .
In an isotropic medium the di rection of a ra y of

li ght is perpendi cular to the wave-front It is the same as
y y
.
the di rection of the wave s ad vance Th e velocit of the ra

’
.
is equal to the velocity of the wave In a non isotropic .
-
medium this is n o lon ger true Th e ray does not travel per .
p e n di c ul a r to t h e wave -front — that is in t h e dir ection of the

,
wa ve s advance A n d the velocity with whi ch t h e ray travels

’
y
.
is greater t ha n the velocit of the wave In fact whereas the .

,
wave -front travels o ff a l ways tangent to the wave -surface the ,
ray travels along the radi us vector drawn to the point of tan
g e nc
y of t h e wave -plane Th e wave -planes .envelop th e
wave-surface ; the termini of the rays are situated upon it .
Thus in the wave-sur face the radi us vector represents in mag

n i t u de and direction the velocity of a ray and the p e rp e n
dic ul ar upon the tangent plane represents in magnitude and

direction the velocity of the wave If instead of the wave
y
.
surface the surface which is the locus of the e x tremit of the

wave slowness b e considered it is seen that the radius vector
represents t h e slowness of the wave ; and the perpendicular
upon the tangent plane t h e slowness of the ray
L y
, .
et v be the velocit of the ray Then s v 1 because

’
.
’
the ext rem ity of v lies in the plane denoted by 8 Moreover

’
.
the condi tion t h at v b e the point of tangency gives d v per

’ ’
p e n di c u l a r to s In like manner if s b e the slowness of the ’
i
.
ray and v the velocity of the wave 8 v 1 and the cond tion ,
’
of tangency gives cl s perpendi cul ar to v Hence

’
.
and s v v ’
o d s = 0, s
’
o d v = 0,
’
y
v ma be e xpressed in terms of a , s, and O as follows .
a = 8 0
8 ¢ 0
a — 8 8 0 ¢ 0 a’
da = 2 s o
ds O -a — S o O o
a ds + s -s O -d a
— s ds o O -a = s s -O -d a .
M ultiply b y a and take account of the relations

‘
a s O and
a O -d a = 0and a a s s Then o o .
402 VECTOR ANA L YSI S
and the normal to the elli psoid the wave -slowness and the , ,
ellipsoid O
—
1
on the other .
It was seen t hat if s was n ormal to one of the cir

c u la r sections of O the displacement a coul d take place in any
direction in the plane of that section Fo r all directions in .
t hi s plane the wave -slowness had the sa me direction and the

s ame magnitude Hence t h e wave-surface has a singular
.
plane perpendi cular to s Thi s plane is tangent to th e surface

.
along a curve instead of at a single point Hence if a wave .
travels in the di rection 8 the ray travels along the elements of

t h e cone drawn from the cen t er of t h e wave-surface to this
curve in whi ch the singular plane touches the s urface Th e .
t wo directions 3 whi ch are normal to the circ ul ar sections of O

are called the p rim a ry Op tic a xe s These are t h e ax es of equal
.
wave velocities but un equal ray velocities .
In like manner v b eing coplanar with a and O a

’
’
[ O o a v a ]
Th e last equation states that if a plane b e passed through
the center of the ellipsoid O 1
perpendicular to v then a
“
’
,
’
which is equal to O a will b e di rected along one of the prin

c ip a l a x es of the section Henc e if a ray is to take a de fi n i t e
i
.
di rection a may have one of t wo d rections It is more con

’
.
ve n ie n t however to regard v as a vector determining a plane

’
.
Th e fi rst equation
[ O a v a] 0 ’
stat es that a is the rad ius vector drawn in the ell ipsoid O to
the point of tangency of one of the principal elements of t h e
cylinder circumscribed ab out O parallel to v if b y a principal ’
element is meant an element passing through the e xtremi ties

of t h e major or mi nor ax es of orthogona l plane sections
of th at cylinder Hence given the di rection v of the ray the
.
’
,
t wo possib le directions of displacement are those radi i vectors

VAR IA B LE DYADICS 4 03
of the ellipsoid whi ch lie in the principal planes of the c ylin

der circumscrib ed ab out t h e elli psoid parallel to v ’
If the cylinder is one of the two circula r cylinders which

may b e circumscrib ed ab out O t h e direction of displ a cement
may be any di rection in t h e plane passed through the center
of t h e elli psoid and containing the common curve of tangency
of t h e cylinder wi t h t h e elli psoid Th e ray-velocity for all
.
these directions of di splacement has the same di rection and

the same magni tude It is therefore a line drawn to one
.
of the sin gular points of t h e wave -surface At this singular

p
.
oint there are an in fi nite num b er of tangent planes envelop

ing a cone Th e wave -velocity may be equal in magni tude
.
and direction to the perpendicular drawn from the o ri gin to

any of these planes Th e directions of the ax es of the two
.
circular cylinders c irc um s c rip t ib l e ab out the ellipsoid O are

t h e di rections of eq ua l ray-velocity b u t unequal wave velocity - .
They are t h e radii drawn to the singular points of the wave

surface and are called the s e c o n da ry op tic a xe s If a ray .
travels along one of the secondary optic ax es the wave planes

travel along the elements of a cone .
Va ri a ble Dy a dic s . Th e Dife re n tia l a nd In t egra l Ca lc u lu s
Hi t herto the dyadi cs considered have b een constant .
Th e vectors which entered into their make up and t h e scalar

coe ffi cients which occurred in the e x pansion in noni on form
ha ve b een const ants Fo r t h e elements of the theory and for
.
elementary applications the s e constant dyadi cs suffi ce Th e .
intro ducti on of variab le dyadi cs however leads to a s im p lifi c a

, , p
tion and uni fi cation of the di fferent ia l and integral calculus of

vectors and furthermore variab le dyadi cs b ecome a necessity
,
in t h e more advanced applications for instance in the theory ,
of the curvature of surfaces and in the dynamics of a rigid

body one point of which i s fi x ed .
Let W be aector function of position in space et r b e L
y
v .
the vector drawn from a fi x ed origi n to an point in space .
x i + y j+ z k,
OW SW SW
Ol ly — M '
9 x sy s z
9W 9W
Hence d W= d r o
ly
E Oz
Th e expression enclosed in the braces is a dyadi c It thus .
appears that the di fferential W is a linear function of d r the

differential change of position Th e antecedents are i k .
,
,
j , ,
and the consequents the fi rst partial derivatives of W with re

spect of x y z Th e ex pression is found in a manner precisel
, , . y
analogous to de l and will in fact be denoted by V W .
9 W O W OW
VW— 1
( )
,
r '
9 m 9y Oz
Then W d r VW d 2
( ) .
This equation is like the one for the di fi e re n t ia l of a scalar

func t ion V .
dV dr V V :
It may be regarded as de fi ning VW . If e xpanded into

nonion form V W b ecomes
9X OY
VW —
. .
rr
a x 9 x
M eg
”
sy
.
aX .
aY
a z
4 06 VECTO R A NAL YSIS
an attempt were made t o appl the operator V s ym b o li
If y
cally to a scalar function V th re e times the result would be a ,
sum of twenty -seven terms l ike

,
9 V 3
9 V
3
9 x ” 9 x 9 y 9 z
This is a tria dic Three vectors are placed in jux taposition

y
.
wi thout an Sign of mul tipli cation Such e x press ions will .
not b e discussed here In a similarmanner if the operator V

.
b e applied twi c e to a vector function or o n c e to a dya d ic func ,
tion of posit ion in space the result will be a triadic and hence
,
ou t s ide the limit s set to t h e di scussion here Th e operators

y y
.
V x and V may however be appli e d to a d adic O to ield

respectively a dyadi c and a vector .
9 a: Qy
9 O OO
V o ¢ = l o
+ 1 0
a x 9y
If
where u, v , w are vector functions of position in space ,
V o O=V o u i + V o v j+ V -w k .
CW 9 17 a n OW
v X O
9g Oz Oz 9 a:
9 a a v 9 W
v . O + ( 8)
9 w 9 y Oz
In r
a similar manne the scalar operators ( 3 V) a n d ( V V)
may be applied to O Th e resul t is in each case a dyad c
. i ,
VA RI AB LE D YA DI CS 4 07
9 a) a T 9 (17
2 2
O 2
9 O 9 9 O
( V . V) O + + '
9 x
2
9 y2 9 z
2
Th e operators a V and V V as applied to vector func

tions are no longer necessaril y to be regarded as sin gle Oper
a t o rs Th e individual steps ma be carried out by means of
. y
the dyadi c V W .
( -Va) W = a
(V -V) W = V -V W .
B ut when applied to a dyadi c the operators cannot b e inte r

re t e d as made up o f two successive steps wi t hout ma k ing u se
p
of the triadi c V O Th e parent heses however may b e removed
.
wi t hout danger of confusion just as they w ere removed in

case of a vector function b efore the introduc t ion of the dyadi c .
Formul ae sim ilar to those upon page 1 76 may b e given for

di fferentiatin g products in t h e case that the di fferentiation
l e a d t o dya di c s .
x w) w -V v — V -Vw — v -V w -l- V w v o
,
V ( V o
w) = V v -w + V W o
v,
V -v w + v -V w .
V x V x O : VV -O — V -V O, e tc .
Th e principle in these and all similar cases is that enun

cis ted before nam ely : Th e operator V ma be t eated s m
, y r y
4 08 VECTOR A NAL YSI S
as a vector Th e differentiations which it implies
b o lic a lly
p
.
must b e carrie d out in turn upon each factor of a roduct

to which it is appli ed Thus .
— v w
.
Hence
A gain
Hence
1 48] was
It seen ( rt 7 9) that if C denote a curve of
A
i
.
whi ch t h e initial point is t and the fi na l point s r the li ne in

o
te gra l of t h e deri vative of a scalar function taken along the

curve is equal to the di fi e re n c e between the va ues of tha t l
function at r a nd r o
.
f
a r V V = V ( r) V ( ro ) .
In like manner
f a r V W= W ( r) W(t ) o ,
f dr o V W= 0 .
It may be well to note that the integrals
f
dr -V W and
are b y no means the same th ng V W is a dyad c Th e i i

y d
. .
ve ctor al r cannot be placed arbitraril upon either si e of it .

Th e surface integrals are taken over the complete bounding
surface of t h e region t hroughout whi ch the volume integrals
are taken .
N u merous form ul ae of integration by parts li ke those upon

page 2 5 0 might b e added Th e reader wil l fi n d no di ffi cul t y in
y
.
ob t ain ing them for himsel f Th e integrating operators ma

.
also b e e x t ended to other cases To the potentials of scala r

.
and vec t or functions the pote ntial P o t O of a dyadi c may b e

L
, ,
added Th e N ewtonian of a vector function and the apla

.
c ia n and Max wellian of dyadics may b e de fi ned .
r W(x 9
N ew W rs
r3
2, 2,
d 17 2 ,
x $ 0132 , z
a ) d 1)
3
r
12
r Q ( x2 , y”
Ma x O dc 2
Th e analytic theory of these integrals may be developed as

b efore Th e most natural way in which the demonst rations
.
may b e given is b y considering the vector function W as the

.
sum of its components ,
W= X i + Y j+ Z k
and the dyadi c O as e x pressed with the constant conse uents q

, j
i k and variab le antecedents u v w or vic e ve rs a
, , , , ,
Thesematters will b e left at thi s point Th e object of e u .
te ring upon th em at all was to in di cate the natural e x t ensions
whi ch occur when variab le dyadi cs are considered These e x .
te nsions di ffer so sli ghtly from the simple cases which have
THE CUR VA TURE OF S URFA CES 41 1
gone before that it is far better to leave the details to b e worked

out or assumed from analogy whenever they may be needed
rath er than to attempt to develop t hem in advance It is su fh
y
.
cient merely to mention what the e x te ns ions a re and how the

may be treate d .
Th e C u rva tu r e f
O Su rfa ces
]
There
are t wo difi e re n t methods of treati ng the cur
va t u re of surf a ces In one the surface is e x pressed in pa ra
.
met ic form by three equations

33 = fr ( “a v )
, y = f2 z = fs ( u ,
= f u,
r
( r
) .
This is analogous to the method followed ( Art 5 7) in dealing .
wi t h curvat ure and torsion of curves and it is the meth od

employe d b y Fehr in the b ook to whi ch reference wa s made .
In t h e second method t h e surfa ce is e x pressed b y a single

equation connecting the variab les a y z — thus '
, ,
F ( as,
y, z ) 0 .
Th e latte r method of treatm ents a ffords a simple applicat ion of

t h e differen t ial cal c ul us of variab le dyadi cs M oreover the .
,
dyadi cs le a d naturally to th e most important resul t s connected

wi t h the elementary t heory of surfaces
L
.
et r be a ra di us vector drawn from an arb itrary fi x ed

origin to a variab le point of t h e surface Th e increment d r .
lies in the surfac e or in the tangent plane drawn to the surface

at t h e terminus of r .
s dl '
O VF Z - O.
‘
Hence the derivative V F is collinear with the normal to th e

surface M oreover inasmuch as F and the negative of F when
m
. ,
1 M uc h o f wh a
e s pe c ia ll y t ru e
t
o ft h e
fo ll o ws
t re a t m g
is p ra c t i c a lly fre e fro
e n t o f e o d e t ic s A rt s , .
the u se
1 55-1 5 7 .
of dy a di c s . Th is is
equated to z ero give the same geometric surface V F ma be , y
considered as t h e normal upon either side of the surface In
y
.
case the surface belongs to the famil de fi ned b y

F ( a
'
, y ,
z
) const .
l
the norma V F lies upon that side upon which the consta nt
inc reases
. L r
et V F be epresente d b N the magn i tude of y
which may b e denote d b y N and let n be a uni t norma l drawn
,
in the direction of N Then .
N e N = N 2 =
VF o V F,
If s is the vector drawn to an point in the tan gent p ane at y l

the te rminus of r s — r and n are perpend c u la Conse uentl
, i r . q y
the equation of the tangent plane is
6 —
fl -V F = &
and in like manner the equation of the normal ne s li i

(s )
r X VF O,
s = r + kVF
where k is a variable parameter These e ua tions ma y be q

r
.
translated into Cartesian form and give th e famil iar esul t s .
Th e variation d n of the un i t normal to a su rface

plays an important part in the theor of cu vatu re d a is y r .
perpendic ul ar to 11 because 11 is a unit vector .

41 4 VECTOR A NA LYSIS
the surface . It is possib le ( Art . 1 1 6) r
to educe O to the
form
( )
5
j
where i and are two perpendi cula r unit vectors l ing in the
’ ’
y
tangent plane and a and b are positive or negative scalars .
a n = d r o
( a
’
fi + b
’
Th e vectors i ’
, j and the sc
’
ars a b vary from point t o point
al ,
of the surface Th e dya dic O is variab le

. .
Th e conic r O r 1 is called the in di catri x of the

surface at the point in question If this conic is an ellipse .
,
that is if a and b have the same Sign the surface is convex at

, ,
the point ; b u t if t h e conic is an hyperb ola that is if a and b , ,
ha ve opposite signs the surface is concavo-convex Th e curve .
r O r 1 may b e regarded as approx imately equal to the

intersection of t h e surface with a plane drawn parallel to the
tangent plane and near to it If r O r be set equal to z ero .
the resul t is a pair of s t ra ight lines These are the a s ym p .
totes of the conic If they are real t h e coni c is an hyperb ola ;

.
if imaginary an ellipse Two directions on the surface which

, .
are parall el to conjugat e diameters of the conic are called con

j u gate directions Th e directions on the sur fac e which coin
j
.
cide with the directions of the principa l ax es i of the ’

,
’
indi c atrix are known as the principal di rections They are a .
spe c i a l case of conjugate directions Th e directions upon the .
surface which coincide with the direc t ions of the asymptotes

of the indi catrix are known as as ymptotic directions In case .
the surface is conve x t h e indicatri x is an ellipse and th e

,
asymptotic direc t ions are imagina ry .
In Special ca s es the dyadi c O may b e such that the c o e f fi

ciente a and b are equal O may then be reduced to the .
form
¢ = a
a f+ rn
THE CUR VA TURE OF S URFA CE S 41 5
in an in fi nite num b er of ways Th e directions i and may b e

.
’
j ’
any two perpendi cular di rections Th e indi catrix b ecomes a

.
circle A n y pair of perpendicular di ameters of thi s circle

.
give principal directions upon the surface Such a poin t is .
called an u m bili c Th e surface in the neighb orhood of an

.
um b ili c is convex Th e asymp t otic directions are imaginary

. .
In another special case the dyadi c O becomes lin ear and redu
Cib le t o the { 0 1 m f f
a i i .
Th e indicatrix consists of a pair of parallel lines perpendicular

to i Such a point is call ed a parab olic point of the surface
’
. .
Th e further di scussion of these and other special cases will b e

omitt ed .
Th e quadric surfaces afford e x ample s of t h e vari ous kinds

of points Th e ellipsoid and the hyperb oloid of two sheets
.
are conve x Th e indicatri x of point s upon them is an ellip s e

. .
Th e hyperb oloid of one sheet is concavo -convex Th e in

l
.
di c a t ri x of points upon it is an hyperb o a Th e indicatri x .
of any point upon a sphere is a circle Th e points are all .
u m b ilic s Th e indicat rix of any point upon a cone or cyli nder

.
is a pair of parall el lines Th e points are parab olic A sur

. .
face in general may have upon it points of a ll ty pes — ell iptic ,
hyperb olic parab olic and um b ilical

, , .
1 52 ] A li ne of princ ipal curvature upon a surface is a

curve whi ch h a s at each point the dire c tion of one of t h e prin
c ip a l ax es of the indi catri x Th e direction of the curve at a
.
point is always one of the principal direc t ions on the surface at

that point Through any given point upon a surface two per
.
n di c u l a r lines of prin c ip a l curvature pass T hus the lines

p e .
of curvat ure divide the surfac e into a system of in fi ni te s i

mal rectangles A n asympt o t ic line upon a surface is a curve
.
which has at each poin t the direc t ion of the asym ptotes of the
indicatri x Th e direc t ion of the curve at a point is al ways
y
.
one of the as mptotic directions upon the surface Th rough .

any given point of a surface t wo asymp t otic lines ass These p .
lines are imaginary if the su rface is convex Even when real .
they do n o t in general intersect at righ t an gles Th e angle .
between t h e two a s ymptotic lin es at any point is b isected by

the lines of curvature which pass through tha t point .
Th e necessary and su ffi cient condition that a curve upon a

surface b e a line of principal curvature is that as one advances
along that curve the increment of d n the uni t normal to the
, ,
s u rface is parallel to the line of advance Fo r .
d n = O -d r = ( a -d r
dr a:
Then evi dently d n and d r are parallel when and onl when y
d r is parallel to i or j Th e state ment is therefore proved
’
’
r
. .
It is frequen t ly taken as the de fi n i tion of lines of curvatu e .
Th e di fferent ial equation of a li ne of curvature is
a dr = 0 .
( 6)
A nother method of statement is that the nor mal to the surface ,
the increment d n of t h e normal and the element d r of the ,
surface li e in one plane when and only when t h e element at r

is an element of a lin e of principal curvature Th e differential .
equa tion t hen b ecomes

[ 11 a n d r] = 0 .
( 7)
Th e y
necessar and su ffi cient condi tion that a cur ve upon a
surface be an asym ptoti c l ine is that as one advances a l ong
,
t hat curve the increment of the unit norm al to the surface is
perpendic ul ar to the line of ad vance Fo r .
dn = d r o O
da -d r z dr O -d r .
If t hen d n dris z ero d r O d r is z ero Hence d r is an .
asymptotic direction Th e state ment is t herefore proved It

. .
a r 2 )
a
e
0: + b
d
a t dr dr -d r
Hence C a cos ( i
2 ’
, d r) b cos (j 2 ’
, d r) ,
C a cos ( i
2 ’
, d r) b sin ( i 2 ’
, d r) . 1
( )0
Th e interpretation of this formula for the cu vature of a r

normal section is as follows : When the plane p turns about
the normal to the surface from i to the curvature C of the ’
j ’
,
plane section varies from the value a when the plane passes
through the principal direction i to t h e val ue b when it
’
i j
,
passes through the other principa l d rection Th e val ues ’

.
of the curvature have algeb raically a max imum and minimum

in the directions of the principal li nes of curvature If a and .
b ha ve unl ike signs that is if the surface is concavo -conve x

, ,
at P there ex ist two di rections for whi ch the curvature of a

y
,
normal section vanishes These are the as mptotic directions

. .
Th e sum of the curvatures in two normal secti ons

at ri ght angles to one another is const ant and independent of
the actual position of those secti ons Fo r the curvatu e in . r
one section is
C1 a (308
2
(i
’
, d r) b sin ( i 2 ’
,
d r) ,
and in section at right angles to th is

C2 a sin ( i 2 ’
, d r) b cos ( i 2 ’
, d r) .
Hence
which proves the statement
q l
.
It is easy to show that t h e invariant O s is e ua to the pro

z
duc t of th e curvatures a and b of the lines of principal c urv
ature .
a b
q
Hence the e uation x2 O, a: O2 5
THE CUR VA TURE OF S URFA CES 41 9
is the quadratic equation whi ch determines the principal c u rv

atures a and b at any poin t of the surface B y means of this
i
.
equation the scalar quantit es a and b may b e found in terms

of F ( x y z )
, , .
VVF —
n n ) o
( I n u )
N
VVF — 2 n n VVF+ n n o VVF o n n
( n u -V V F -n n -V V F ) S = ( n n . v
( V V F )S ( n u V V F)S
Hence
N
( v v r m z v o V F,
( n n -V V F ) S n n : VVF= n -
VVF o u .
H ence V . VF VF VF
N 3
z VVF
-V F - -
X
V VF V F VF
J
Th ese r y
ex p e ssions ma be written out in Cartesian co ord na tes i
y y
,
but the are e x tremel long Th e Cartesian ex pressions for

r
.
O2 5 are even long er Th e vector e x p ession may be o b tained

.
as fo ll o ws :
(I “
11 1 02 ( V V F )2 ( I — un
g )
2
A7
— nn
( I )2
Hence
VF .
( V V F )2 . VF VF VF : ( V V F) 2 .
4
N 4 N
G iven
an curve upon a surface y et t be a unit L
r
.
tangent to the curve n a unit norma l to the su face and m a

,
vector de fi ned as n x t Th e three vectors n t m constitute
j r
.
, ,
an i k system Th e vecto r t is para l lel to the element at

i
. .
, ,
Hence the cond tion for a line of curvature becomes

t x d n = 0 .
Hence m o d n z o
-a n + n o a m .
n o a n = 0 .
m -d m = 0 .
t x d m = 0, 1
( )6
d m x dn = 0 .
Th e increments of m and of n and of r are all arallel in case of p

a line of principa curvaturel .
A geodetic lin e upon a surface is a curve whose osc ul ating

plane at each point is perpendicular to t h e surface That the .
geodetic li ne is the shorte st line whi ch can be drawn b e t ween

t wo points upon a surface may be seen from the follo wi ng
considerations of mechanics L
et the surface be smooth and
.
let a smooth elastic string which is constrained to lie in the

surface b e st retched between any two points of it Th e string .
actin g under its own tensions will take a position of e q u ili

b rium along the shortest curve which can be drawn upon the
surface between the two given points Inasmuch as th e .
string rs at rest upon the surfac e the normal rea ctions of the
s u rface must lie in the osculating plane of the curve Hence
y
.
t hat plane is normal to the surface at ever point of the curve
and the curve it self is a geodetic line .
Th e vectors t and d t lie in t h e osculati ng pla ne and deter

mine that plane In case the curve is a geodetic the normal
y
.
,
to the osculating plane lies in the surface and consequentl is

perpendicul ar to the norm al n Hence .
i
given surface is la d o ff Th e te rmin us P of this normal lies
.
’
upon the surface of a sphere If the normals to a sur face at all .
points P o f a curve are thus const ructed from the same origin ,
the points P will trace a curve upon the surfa ce of a unit

’
Sphere This curve is called the spherical image of the given

y
.
curve In like manner a whole re gion T of the surface ma

.
b e mapped upon a region T the sphere Th e region T upon ’

.
’
the sphere has b een called t h e ho do g a m of the region T upon r
the su rface If d r b e an element of a re upon the surface the

.
correspondin g element upon the uni t sphere is

dn T o dr .
If d a be an element of area upon the surface the corre ,
s p o n din
g element upon the sphere is d a where ( Art ’
.
d a = O2’ o da .
O= a
O2 = ’ ’ ’
=
’
a b i x j i x j a b n u .
Hence d a
’
a b n n -d a .
Th e ra tio of an element of surface at a point P to the area of

its h o do gra m is equal to the product of the principa l radii of
curvat ure at P or to the reciprocal of the product of the prin
c ip a l c urvatures a t P .
It wa s seen t hat the measure of t urning to t h e right or left

is m d t If then C is any c u rve drawn upon a s u rface the
.
total amount of turn ing in advancing along the curve is the

inte gral .
m dt . 2
( 0)
Fo rany closed curve thi s integral ma y b e evaluated in a

manner analogous to that employed ( page 1 9 0) in the proof
of Stokes s theorem C onsider two curves C and C near
’
.
’
TH E C UR VA TURE OF SU RFA CES 42 3
to ge t her Th e variation which the inte gral u ndergoes when

.
t h e curve of inte gra tion is changed from C to C is ’
B
f m -d t z
f 8 (m o d t)
f em -d t +
f m . 8 dt
d ( m -8 t) = dm -8 t + m o d 8t
8
f m -d t =
f 8m o dt —
f dm o 8t +
f d (m -8 t) .
Th eintegral of the perfect di fferential d ( m St ) vanis hes

when taken around a closed curve Hence .
S
f m -d t z
f dm o dt —
f dm o dt .
Th e ide m fa c t o r is
Sm o dt = 8m o l o d t = 8m o n n o dt
for t cl t and 8 m m vanish . A similar transformation ma y

be effected upon the term at m 8t .Then
-B t )
S
f m o dt=
f ( 8 m o n n -d t — dm o u n .
B y di fi e re n t ia t in g the relations m n 0 and n t 0 it is

seen that
-Sn )
Hence
f -d t =
f ( m -3 n -d n m du t
—
8 m t o
S
f m —
f o dn x d n .
ferential 8 n
Th e di f x
represents the element of a ea
dn r in
the h o do gra m upon the unit sphere Th e inte gra . l
f n o dn x d n
epresents the to ta l area of the h o do gra m of the s tri p of

L
r
surface which li es between the curves C and C et t h e ’

.
curve C start at a point upon the surface and spread out t o

any desired siz e Th e total amount of turni ng whi ch is re
i p
.
qu red in making an infi nite simal circuit about the oint is

2 Th e to tal variation in the integral s i
ff d m o dt z
f m -d t — 2 7r.
’
n da H ,
B ut if H denote the total area of the h o do gra m .
H ence f m -d t = 2 7r — H ,
H = 2 7r
H +
fm o dt = 2 rn
area of the h o do gra m of the region enclosed

Th e
closed curve plus the total amount of turning along that curve
is equal to 2 7r If the surface in ques t ion is convex t h e area
.
upon the sphere wil l appear positive when the curve upon the
"
surface is so describ ed that the enclosed area appears positive .
If however the surfac e is concavo-convex the area upon the

, ,
s phere will appear negative Thi s matter of the sign of the

.
h o do gra m must be taken into accoun t in the state ment made

above .
H a rm o n ic Vibra tio n s a nd B ive c to rs
Th e differential equation of rectilinear harmonic

motion is
— n
z
z .
Th e integral of this equation may be reduce b a suitab e d y l

choice of the constants to the form
mz A sin n t .
This represents a vibration back and forth along the X-axis

ab out t h e point x 0 L
et the displacement be denoted b
. y
D in place of :c Th e equation may b e written
.
D= i A s in n t .
C onsider D i A sin n t cos m x

.
This is a displacement not merel near the point y se 0

2 h rr
but along the entire ax is of a . At poi nts x , where
m
k is a positive or negative integer the di splacement is at a ll
y
,
t imes equal to z ero Th e equation represents a stationar

y
.
wave with nodes at these points A t points midwa between.
these t h e wave h a s points of max imum vib ration If th e .
equat ion b e regarded as in three variables x y z it re p re , ,
sen t s a plane wave the plane of which is perpendi cular to

the ax is of the variab le x .
Th e dis placement given by the equation
D1 = i A l cos ( m ac — n t) (1)
is likewise a plane wave perpendicular to the axis of a but
not stationar y Th e vib ration is harmonic and advances
y q
.
along the direction i with a velocit equal to the uotient of

HAR M ON I C VIB RA TI ONS A N D B I VE C TORS 42 7
n by m . If c be the velocity ; p the pe ri o d ; and l the wav e

length ,
2 W
a
m
Th e displacement
cos ( m a — n t )
D2 = j A 2
differs from D1 in the partic ul ar that the displa cement ta kes

j
pl a ce in the direction not in the di rection i Th e wave as
, .
b efore procee ds in the di rec t ion of x with the same veloci t y .
This vibration is t rans verse instead of longitudi nal By a .
simple e x te nsion it is seen that

D=A c os (m ax— n t)
is a displacement in the di rection A Th e wave advances .
along the dir ection of c Hence the vib ration is ob lique to

. .
the wave -front A still more general form may be ob tained

y
.
b substituting m r for m 93 Then .
D= A c os (m o
r
This is a displacement in the direction A Th e maximum

i
.
amoun t of that d splacement is the magni tude of A Th e .
wave advances in t h e direction In ob lique to the displace

ment ; the velocity period and wave-length are as b efore
, ,
.
So much for rectil inear harmonic motion Elliptic ha r .
monic motion may be de fi ned b y the equation ( p .
cl
2
r 2
n r.
z
d i
Th e general integral is ob tained a s

r = A c os n t + B s in n t .
Th e discuss ion of waves may b e carried thr ough as pre

vi o us ly Th e general wave of ellipti c harmonic motio n
di
.
adva ncing in the recti on m is seen to be

D = A c os (m o r — n t) — B s in (m o r — n t). 4
( )
D
i
(I
— n A s in
dt
(m o r — n t) ( 5)
y
is the velocit of the displ a ced point at an moment in t h e y
ellipse in which it vib rates This is of course entirely differ
.
ent from the velocity of the wave .
An interesting result is obtained by subtracting the dis

placement from the velocity multipli ed b the imaginar y y
unit V 1 and d vided by n i .
—
A cos ( m -r — n t) — B sin ( m -r — n t)
n dt
6
( )
+ V — 1
jA s in
(m -r — n t ) + B s in (m -r
V: r— u
“
9 + V— l n .
.
n d.
Th e e xpression here obtained as far as its form is concern ed

y
, ,
is an imaginar vector It is the sum of two real vectors of

y
.
whi ch one has be en m ul tiplied by the imaginar sc a lar V 1 .
Such a vecto r is called a bi ve c to r or i m a gin a ry vector Th e

y y
.
ordinar imaginar scalars may be called bisc a la rs Th e use

y
.
of b ive c t o rs is foun d ver convenient in the discussion of

el lipti c ha rmonic motion Indeed any undamped ellip t ic har
.
m o n rc plane wave may be represented as above by the pro

duct of a b ivector and an e xponenti al fac tor Th e real part .
of the product gives the displ a cement of any point and the
pure imaginary part gives the velocity of di splacement
reversed in Sign and divi ded b y n
r
.
1 59 ] Th e analyti c theory of b ive c t o rs di f

fe s from that of
real vecto rs very m uch as the an a lyt ic theory of b is c a l a rs
differs from t hat of real scalars It is unnecessar to have y
y i r
.
an dist nguis hi ng cha a cter for b ive c to rs jus t as it is need

r o s ( rl
1
‘
X S= ( 1
'
1 x s
r
— l
a
'
'
X 3
2 + r
z X 3
1 )
8
1
5
2)
i ( 1
1
8
2
r
s
”
1 )
Two b ive c t o rs or b is c a la rs are said to b e conjugate when

their real parts are equal and their pur e imaginar parts y
difi e r only in Sign Th e conjugate of a real scalar or vector
y
.
is equal to the scalar or vector its elf Th e conjugate of an .
sort of product of b ive c t o rs and b is c a l a rs is equal to the pro

duct of the conjugates taken in the same order A similar .
statement may be made concerning sums and di fferences .
) = 2 i r
2
x r1 ,
( fr + i r
2 ) r1 1 “
r
e
i l 1
' "
l
'
If the bivector r rl i r2 be multiplied by a root of unit y

or cyclic factor as it is frequently called that is by an imag , ,
i
nary sc al ar of the form
where a
2
O 2 : 1,
the conjugate is multiplied by a i b, and hence th e four

products
'
12 X 1 1a
'
1
3
1
2 4 "
e ra rl "
are unaltered by m u ltiplying the bivector r by such a fa cto r .
Thus if
I I I I
HA RIlI ON I C VIB RA TI ONS AND B I VE C TOR S 4 31
closer e xami nation of t h e e ffect of multipl ing a

A y
y
bivector b y a cyclic fac t or ields inte resting and import ant
geometric results et . L
i ( cos q i sin q) ( r
1
i 8
( )
r
1 cos q r
2
sin q,
r, cos q r
1
sin q .
B y reference to Art 1 29 it will be seen that the change pro

.
du c e d in the real and imaginary vector parts of a b ive c to r by ,
m u ltiplication with a cyclic fac t or is precisely the same as ,
would be produced upon those vectors by a cyclic dyadi c

O= a a
’
+ c os q
— sin g (c b ’ — b c
’
)
used as a prefac tor b and c are supposed to be t wo vectors
.
collinear respectively with r1 and r, a is any vector not in .
their plane Consider the elli pse of whi ch rl and r2 are a

.
pa ir of conjugate semi -diameters It then appears that rl .

’
and r2 are a lso a pair of conjugate semi-di ameters of that

’
ellips e They are rotated in the ellipse from r1 toward r2 b y

.
,
a sector of whi ch the area is to the area of the whole ellipse

as q is t o 2 Such a change of position has been called an
elliptic rotation through the sector q .
Th e ellip s e of which r and r are a pair of conjugate semi

l 2
diameters is called t h e dire c tio n a l e llip s e of th e bi ve c to r r .
When the b ivector has a real direction the di rectional ellipse

reduces to a right line in that direction When the b ivec t or .
has a comple x di rection the ellipse is a true ellipse Th e .
angular direction from the real part r1 to the complex part r2

is considered as the positive direction in t h e dir ec t ional
el lipse and m u st al ways b e known If th e real and imagi
, .
nary parts of a b ivector turn in the positive dir ection in the

ellipse they are said to be advanced if in the negative dirc o
tion they are said to be retarded Hence mu ltip lic a tio n of a.
bi ve c to r by a c yc lic f a c to r re t a rds i t i n i ts direc tio n a l el lip se by
s e c to r e q u a l t o th e l f the c y c li c fa c t o r
y
a n e o
a g .
is always possib le to multiply a bivector b such a cycli c

It
factor that the real and imaginar parts become coincident y
with the ax es of the e llipse and are pe rp endi cular .
To accomplish the reducti on proceed as follo ws Form
r o
r
Ifa o b = 0,
r -r — b o b) .
r o r a + i b,
b
tau 2 q
a
With this value of q the ax es of the d rectiona elli se i l p a re
given by the equation

a + i b = ( cos q
— i s in q) r
.
In case the real and imaginar par t s a and b of a b ivector y

are equal in magnitude and perpendic ul ar in direction b oth a
and b in the e x pression for r r vanish Hence the angle .
q is indeterminate T h e di rectional
. ellipse is a circle A .
b ivector whose di rec t ional ellipse is a circle is called a c i rc u

l a r bi ve c to r Th e necessar and s u ffi cient con di tion that a
. y
non-vanishing bivector r be circular is
r r r circular .
r o r
Th e condition r r which for real vecto rs implies

O, r
is not su ffi cient to ens u re the vanishing of a bivector .
Th e fi rst equation shows that r2 and 3 2 are perpendicular a n d
hence s 1 and 8 2 are perpen di cular M oreover the second .
,
shows t hat the angular direc t ions from r1 t o r2 and from 3 1 t o

8
2
are the same and that t h e a x es of the direc t ional ellipses
,
of r and s are propor t ional .
Hence t h e conditions for perpendiculari t y of t wo b ive c t o rs

whose planes coincide are that their direc t ional el l ipses are
similar the angular direction in b oth is t h e s ame and t h e
, ,
major ax es of the ellipses are perpendicular Ifb o t h vectors

1
.
have real directions the condi t ions degenerate into the per
n di c u l a rit of hose directions T h e conditions t herefore
y
p e y t .
hold for real as well as for imaginar vectors

L
.
et r and s b e t wo perpendicular b ive c t o rs the planes of

which do not coincide Resolve r1 and r2 ea c h in t o t wo com
.
pone nte respectively parallel and perpendicular t o the plane

of s Th e components perpendicular to that plane contrib ute
.
nothing to t h e value of r 3 Hence the components of r1 .
and r2 parallel to t h e plane of 8 form a b ivector r whi c h is ’
perpendic u lar to 8 To thi s b ivector and s t h e conditions

.
stated ab ove apply Th e di rectional ellips e of t h e b ivector r

.
’
is eviden t ly the projection of the directional ellipse of r upon

the plane of 3 .
Hence if two b ive c t o rs are perpendicular the di rectional

,
ellipse of either b ivector and the dire c tional ellips e of the

other projected upon t h e plane of that one are similar have ,
the same angular direction and have their major ax es per ,
p e n di c u l a r .
C onsider a bivector of th e type

n A ( )
9
where A and m are b ive c t o rs and n is a b is c a la r r is the

.
position vec t or of a point in space It is t herefore to b e con
mm g
.
m
It s h o ul d be d t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n o f p e rp e n di c u l a ri t y o f a j o r a x e s is n o t
1 no te
t he sa e as t he c o n di t i o n o fp e rp e n di c ul a ri t y o f re a l p a rt s a n d i a in a ry p a rt s .
HARM ONI C VI B RA TI ONS AND B I VE C TOR S 4 35
si as real t is the scalar variable time and

de re d
L
.
be considered as real et .
A AI i A
m m1 i m2 ,
n = n i n
1 g,
( mx o + t mg — n1
I) A
( I i Aa ) e
' r a r t
- m
m —mt)
D ( I
A i A2 ) r ua rd
'
e
e e g
As has been seen b efore the factor ( AI + i A2 ) ,
represents a t rain of plane waves of ell ip t ic harmonic vi b ra

tions Th e vib rations ta ke place in t h e plane of AI and A2
.
,
in an ellips e of which AI and A2 are conjuga t e semi di am -
e t e rs. Th e di s placement of t h e vi b ra t ing poin t from t h e

cente r of t h e ellipse is given b y the real part of t h e fac t or .
Th e veloci t y of t h e poin t reversed in di rec t ion and divided

b y u 1 is given b y the pure imaginary par t Th e wave a d .
vances in t h e direction m l Th e other fac t ors in t h e e xpre s

.
sion are dampers Th e factor e .

m
is a damper in t h e
‘
" r
di rec t ion m2 A s the wav e pro c eeds in t h e direc t ion 1112 it

.
dies a way Th e fac t or e is a damper in time If n 2 is

.
" "
.
negative the wave dies away as time goes on If n 2 is posi .
tive t h e wave incre a ses in energy as time increas e s Th e .
presence ( for un limi t ed t ime ) of any such factor in an e x

pre s sion which represents an ac t ual vi b ra t ion is c learly inad
missib le It con t radic t s t h e law of cons erva t ion of energy
. .
In any physical vi b ra t ion of a con s erva t ive s y stem n 2 is n e

c e s s a ril y nega t ive or z ero .
Th e general e x pression ( 9 ) t herefore represents a train of

plane waves of ellipt ic harmonic vib ra t ions da mped in a
de fin ite direc t ion and in t ime Two such waves may b e com .
pounded b y addi ng t h e b ive c t o rs which represen t t hem If .
the e x ponent m r n t is t h e same for b o t h the resul t ing

train of waves advances in the same direction and has t h e
same period and wave -length as the individual waves . Th e
vib rations however take place In a di fferent ellipse
, , . If the
waves are -— — um a
a nd
t)
A r
B un t a t)
n
g g
—nc
the resultant is (A B) e
flm r .
By comb i n i ng two t rains of waves which advance in opposite

direc t ions b u t wh ich are in other respects equal a system of
sta t ionary waves is ob tained .
— mc 011 1 r — n t) — mg i ( — m1 -—
A f
A r r t)
. 3 .
' n
e 6 e e
— mz { ml - mz
Ae (m 1 )
'
o r o
r d
e .
r e 6
Th e theory of b ive c t o rs and their applications will not be

carried furt her Th e ob ject in entering a t all upon t his very
.
shor t and condensed dis cus sion of b ive c t o rs was fi rs t to show

t h e reader h o w t h e s imple idea of a di e c ti o n has to give way r
to t h e more complicat ed b u t no less useful idea of a dire c tio n a l

e l li s e when t h e generali z ation from real to imagi n ar
p ve c tors y
is made and second t o set fort h the manner in which a single
,
b ivector D may be employed to represent a train of plane

waves of elliptic harmonic vi b ra t ions This application of b i
L
.
vec t ors may b e used to gi ve the Theory of ight a wonderfully

simple and elegant trea t ment 1
.
1
Su c h
e
us e o
e c ro
f bive c t o rs is
a ne c e r
m dL by
P ro fe s s o r Gibb s in h is c o u rs e o f l e c t u re s o n
a e
Th E l t m g t i Th o y of ight d e l i ve re d bi a n u a ll y a t Ya l e Un i ve rs i t y ,
n .
B ive c t o s we re n o t u s e d in t h e s e c o n d p a rt o f t h i s c h a p t e
m
r
o f t h e p re s e n t a u t h o r t h e y p o s s e s s n o e s s e n t i a l a dva n t a
b e c a u s e in t h e O pi i o n
e o ve r re a l ve c t o rs u n t il g r, n
mg
t he o re a d va n c e d p a rt s o f t h e t h e o y
a n e t s a n d c ry s t a ls t o t a l a n d
, m
ro t a t i o n o f t h e pl a n e o f p o la ri a t i o n by
e t a ll ic re fle c t i o n e t c
r ,
a re re a c h e d ,
.
, .
z

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VE C T O R AN A L YSIS

In s t ru c t o r i n M a t/i n n a t ic s in Ya le Un ive rs ity

SIN C E the printing of a short pamphl et on the E le m e n ts of

somewhat widely circulated among those who were known t o

tise perhaps in fuller form should be made accessib le t o

the pub lic

very glad to have one of the hearers of my course on Vec t or

I have not desired t hat Dr Wilson should aim simply .

at the reproduction of my lectures but rather that he shoul d ,

use his own judgment in all respects for the production of a

adequat e numb er of e x amples as to meet the wants of s t u

WH EN I undertook to adapt the lectures of P rofessor G ibbs

engaged upon his work to appear in the same series E le m e n t a ry ,

P r in c ip les i n St a ti s ti c a l M e c h a n ic s that it w a s understood no

material assistance in the composition of this book could b e

entirely free to use my own di scretion ali ke in t h e selection

It has been my endeavor to use the freedom thus granted

B y far the greater part of the material used in th e follow

chapters on V ector A nalysis in Mr O liver H e a vis ide s E le c

t ro m a gn e tic Th e o ry ( Electrician Series 1 8 9 3 ) and in P rofessor

Fop p l s lectures on D ie M a xwe ll s c h e Th e o ri e de r E le c t ric i t ci t

also b een of great assistance .

Th e m aterial thus o b t ained has been arranged in the way

Those Arts whi ch it seemed b est to incorporate in the

te x t b u t which for various reasons may well b e omitted at

mechani c s and physics Indeed a large part of the te x t has

to do wi t h applications of the met hod These application s .

have not been set apart in chapters b y themselves b u t have ,

b een distributed throughout t h e b ody of the book as fast as

has b een t a k en in avoidi ng t h e introduction of unnecessary

to mak e its necess it y evident and its meani ng easy to grasp .

Thus t h e b ook is not intended as a complete e x position of

so much of t h e sub jec t as may b e required for practical a p p li

of t h e more important formul ae and a num b er of e x erc ises

have b een placed a t t h e end of each chapter and many less ,

e s sen t ial points in the te x t have b een indica t ed rather t han

de t ails Th e sum mary may b e found useful in revie ws and

Th e s ub ject of Vector A nalysis naturally divides i t self into

the scalar and vector produc t s of vectors Second that which .

concerns the differential and i ntegral calculus in it s relations

the theory of the lin ear vector function Th e ﬁr st part is .

a necessary introdu c t ion to b oth other parts Th e second .

and t hird are mutually independent Ei t her may be taken .

up ﬁ rst Fo r practic al purposes in mathema t ical physics the

second must b e regarded as more elementary than the t hird .

B u t a studen t not prima ri ly in t ereste d in physics would nat

pro b ab ly ﬁ n d more attrac t ive and easy than the second .

Follo wi ng thi s division of t h e sub ject the main b ody of ,

the b ook is divided into s ix chap t ers of which two deal wi t h

t h e scalar and vector products of vectors Th e e x po s i t ion.

h a s b een made quite elementary It can rea di ly b e under

stood b y and is especially suited for such readers as have a

or allied sub jects may perhaps need to read only t h e s u m

those topics in Vecto r A nalysis which t hough of les s value ,

to the studen t s of pure mathematics are of the utmost impor ,

t a nce t o students of physics Chapters V and VI deal wi t h

the linear vector function To s t udents of physics t h e linear

vector function is of particular importance in the m a t h e m a t i

media ; and to the student of pure ma t hemati cs t his part of

t o the fact tha t it lea ds to M ulti ple A lge b ra or the Theory

development of cert ain hi gher parts of the theory a num b er ,

of applica t ions and a short sketch of imaginary or comple x

vectors has b een added