SOCIAL SCIENCE &

PHILOSOPHY DEIRDRE E. BLANCAFLOR

Instructor
Email Address:
deirdreblancaflor17@gmail.com
Contact Number:
0946 764 2843

GE011
Defining Social Sciences

Pre-Assessment

Take a tour around your community and list down at least three (3) social problems that you can
observe. Afterwards, write down the actions that the government had taken to address the
problems.

Social Problems in the Community Actions taken by the Government

Analysis
1. Based on the activity, how did you consider a problem as a Social Problem?
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2. Why do you think studying human behavior be integral in addressing Social Problems
encountered in the community?
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3. How is the Scientific Method integrated in Social Sciences and the quest to answer societal
problems?
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Origin of Social Science
The great Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote that “man is a social animal.” We are all
born and raised in a society. We belong to a particular group and we share a certain territory. We
interact with one another and build relationships in the hope of pursuing a better life. We may
share a distinct culture, same political dynamics, or similar institutions. As rational animals, we
use reason in order to satisfy our curiosity and discover the how and why of so many things
around us. When questions present themselves, we try to find answers deepening on different
modes of inquiry. It is quite obvious that there is a need to study society in order for us to provide
explanations on its workings and to understand a wide array of phenomena that baffles the human
mind. In this way, observable results may help in predicting human behavior and guide people in
formulating the necessary measures that could solve societal problems. This lesson will help us
understand the social sciences, its importance, and its differences from the field of the natural
sciences.

The Human Knowledge

The four categories of human knowledge are Natural Sciences, Social Sciences,
Humanities, and Applied professions. It is said that each discipline has its own history,
agreements, and disputes about subject matter and methods as well as its own community of
scholars interested in teaching and learning in that field (Repko, 2008).

The Natural Sciences aims to explain and predict various phenomena in nature.
Examples of disciplines under the natural sciences include:
• Biology
• Chemistry
• Earth Sciences
• Physics

The Social Sciences attempts to explain and describe human behavior in a society.
Examples of disciplines under the social sciences include:
• Anthropology
• Economics
• Psychology
• Sociology

The Humanities is the study of human culture. It is a branch of learning that investigates
human constructs and concerns as opposed to natural process and social relations. Examples of
disciplines under the field of Humanities are:
• Art
• Music
• Literature
 The field of Applied professions pertain to the application of scientific knowledge to
practical problems. Some examples include:
• Nursing
• Medicine
• Education
• Law

The Definition of Social Science

Social Science is the study of society and human behavior. Actually, there are several
social sciences, which this course will enumerate and discuss in detail, each specializing in a
particular aspect of human behavior and each using different concepts, methods, and data in its
studies. Anthropology, sociology, economics, psychology, political science, and history have
developed into separate “disciplines” but all share an interest in human behavior (Harrison &
Dye, 2008).

According to Seligman, “social sciences as those mental or cultural sciences which deal
with the activities of the individual as member of the group. The term social sciences thus embrace
all those subjects which deal with the relationship of man to the society.”

According to Mitchell that “the term social science is loosely applied to any kind of study
concerning man and society. In the strict sense it should refer the application of scientific method
to the study of the intricate and complex network of human relationship and the form of
organization designed to enable people to live together in societies.”

Meanwhile, as mentioned by Fairchild, “social science as a general term for all the
sciences which are concerned with the human affairs.”

Lastly, as Peter Lewis cited that “social sciences are concerned with the laws that govern
society and the social department of man.”

So, we can say that social sciences embrace all those subjects which deal with the human affairs.
The social sciences overlap each other.

The Historical Development of the

Social Sciences
In the early stages of the development of human civilization, the people’s primary concern
was to work for their own survival. The common desire to survive and provide for each other’s
subsistence was the basis for the establishment of society (Jison & Ponsaran, 2018).
 As time progressed, people’s knowledge became more refined and developed. Individuals
then sought to know more about their world and learned to ask questions in the process.
What is the nature of life?
What is the cause of conflict in this
world? Why do inequalities exist?
Why are laws instituted?
What must be done to ensure peace and safety in a community?

These questions fall within the purview of the social sciences, which are group of academic
disciplines that deal with the human aspects of the world (Jison & Ponsaran, 2018).

The term social sciences was coined by William Thompson in his book An inquiry into
the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness in 1824.
Since then, the term social science has been used to refer generally to all fields of study that
analyze society and culture.

The focus of the social sciences is on the study of the following:

1. Change in human relationship and reinterpretation between the present and past
events.
2. Human activities and spatial distributions an interaction of culture, biological and
physical elements.
3. Basic social systems, institutions and processes.
4. Relationships between individual and institutions; and among political economic
and social institutions.
5. The nature of societies and authors; and the interactions of people with each
other and also their social and physical environment.

The study of the social sciences can be complex, given society’s ever-changing nature.
Human and social behavior are ever-changing as they dependent on specific circumstances.
However, the study of the social sciences can be fruitful, as it is vital in addressing some of the
fundamental problems that confront us today (Jison & Ponsaran, 2018).

The social sciences boast of a long and interesting history – one that is shaped by the
individual’s inherent desire to find answers to unresolved questions, study the rise and fall of
institutions, and understand the socio-political circumstances of particular historical periods, as
well as the people’s increasing awareness of the variety of the human experience (Jison &
Ponsaran, 2018).

1. The Need to Explore the World

Systematized human knowledge is rooted in our curiosity to learn about the world around us.
In ancient history, this entailed exploring our physical surroundings and examining various aspects:
What are the trees, rocks, mountains, oceans, and rivers made of, and what makes them
different from one another? Why do seasons change? What is the nature of the sun, the moon,
and the stars?

Later on, the curiosity expanded to conclude not only the natural world, but also the
human-made world: Why do different people believe in different Gods? Why are some people rich
while others are poor? Do kings truly have a divine right to rule, or are there other ways to organize
and govern society?

Ancient Greece and Rome played a vital role in the development of an approach to answer
such questions about the world in a systematic and rational manner.

Plato’s The Republic laid down some of the earliest thoughts on the foundations of the
society. Aristotle’s Politics marked the first comprehensive attempt to come up with the most ideal
way of distributing power in a community (Jison & Ponsaran, 2018).

2. The Rise of Medieval Scholasticism

The works of the Greek philosophers served as the foundation on which the
various forms of rational inquiry were built. British mathematician and philosopher Alfred North
Whitehead (1861 – 1947) is often quoted for asserting that the “safest general characterization of
the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes of Plato.” The ideas
put forth by these ancient scholars formed the basis for the development and growth of the various
disciplines existing today (Jison & Ponsaran, 2018).

In Medieval Europe, the works of Plato and Aristotle enjoyed a resurgence of

popularity among scholars’ centuries after their time. Initially, the academe held the teachings of
the Greek philosophers at arm’s length, as they were not Christian. However, through the
recommendations of scholars such as Peter Lombard and Peter Abelard to adopt Aristotelian
reasoning and argumentation, Aristotle’s teachings came back into favor among increasing
numbers of academics. In particular, medieval philosopher-theologians saw in Aristotle’s
metaphysics new ways to logically argue for the existence of God (Jison & Ponsaran, 2018).

Thus, any unease over Aristotle’s pagan background disappeared, and his
teachings became an indispensable tool in the basic tenet underlying all scholarly activity during
this period: THE MARRIAGE OF FAITH AND LOGIC. This marriage of reason and religion as
method of learning is known as scholasticism.

3. Science, Secularism, and Society

In the 15th and 16th centuries, during the Renaissance, scholasticism fell out of favor with
philosophers and scholars who criticized it for being too rigid, formalistic, and outdated. It thus gave
way to humanism, a philosophical movement which placed the human being’s capacity for reason
and rationality at its center, affirmed the dignity and worth of all people, advocated secularism,
distanced learning from religion, and rejected the supernatural and belief without
reason. Humanism also encouraged skepticism and the use of the scientific method in obtaining
knowledge.

Prominent names whose works exemplified Renaissance humanist ideals include:

- Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) – whose approach to art reflected his investigation off the
hidden mechanics of nature;
- Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) – whose rejection of the geocentric model of the universe and
affirmation of the heliocentric model angered the Catholic Church;
- Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626) – whose Baconian method, a systematic way of testing hypotheses
through observation and collection of data, helped develop and refine the scientific method.

The move toward the secularism also set the stage for the next philosophical period, the Age of
Reason. The Age of Reason was characterized by the academe moving further away from theology and
faith-based approaches to knowledge in favor of schools of thought such as rationalism, exemplified by
Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650), and empiricism, as represented by John Locke (1632 – 1704).

The period followed, known as the Age of Enlightenment, was both an extension of and a
reaction to the Age of Reason. The scholars of the period continued advocating reason and rationality,
and rejected superstition, leading to further decline of the Church’s influence in society (Jison &
Ponsaran, 2018).

Influenced by the likes of John Locke, the thinkers of this period also questioned the arbitrariness
of the power of the State, and advocated democratic rule and greater rights for the common people.

Important figures from this period include:

- Voltaire (real name Fracois – Marie Arouet; 1694 – 1778) of France, whose writings and
advocacy of social reforms influenced important figures in the American and French Revolutions;
- Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) of Germany, who sought to merge the debating of schools of
rationalism and empiricism; and
- Adam Smith (1723 – 1790) of Scotland, whose work, The Wealth of Nations, led many to call
him the “Father of Modern Economics”.

The Late Modern Period and

Disciplinization
The era from the late 18th century to the mid-20th century, known as the Late Modern Period,
was a time of much change, feature a flurry of scientific, social, artistic and political developments. The
Industrial Revolution and the rise of middle-class entrepreneurship led to drastic changes in the way
wealth was created and circulated, and in the way society was organized (Jison & Ponsaran, 2018).
 Amidst a rapidly changing world, scholars such as Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Max Weber, and
Herbert Spencer each asserted their respective visions for a unified social science. In particular, Comte
(1798 – 1857), introduced the theory of Positivism, which asserters that knowledge is authentic only if it
is affirmed through empirical evidence and strict adherence to the scientific method. In his book, Cours
de Philosophie Positive (Course of Positive Philosophy), Comte described a science which would
encompass all other social sciences (Jison & Ponsaran, 2018).

The Scientific Method

1. Topic – the researcher selects a particular subject matter depending on his or
her interest.

2. Problem – the researcher defines the nature of the problem where a theory can
be develop along the way; this is the most important phase of inquiry.

3. Hypothesis – the researcher formulates a general statement of the problem that

could give him or her idea on what data to gather or omit. An idea or theory that is not proven
but that leads to further discussion.

4. Methods of Inquiry or Data Gathering – this is the stage of empirical research

involving the use of senses and/or precision instruments; phenomenon must be carefully and
accurately described and recorded.

5. Analysis – the researcher may find patterns and relationships that could help in
the analysis of gathered data; this the stage of classifying and organizing data.

6. Conclusion – the researcher formulates a scientific theory after a thorough

analysis of data; a theory can be changed or revised depending on the result of future research
projects.

The Importance of Social Sciences

- The social sciences may help us to figure out the complexities of human behavior and relations
as it attempts to solve the aforementioned societal problems.
 - Social science is significant in the society as it may help researchers solve the complexities of
human behavior in order to help alleviate problems and improve human condition.

Assessment
Create a Concept Map that distinguishes Social and Natural Sciences and Humanities. After
which, explain how each sciences can be a factor in addressing Social Problems in the
community. Cite examples if necessary. You can use any form of media in submitting this
activity.

Criteria for Grading

Accuracy of Information – The output provides accurate information: 50%
Organization of Ideas – The output exhibits clear and organized presentation of thought:
30%
Creativity – The presentation of the output is unique and aesthetically pleasing: 20%

I. Classification
Determine which Sciences the disciplines in the box belongs to.

Music Biology Education Physics

Literature Psychology Nursing Anthropology

Chemistry Law Sociology Art

II. Essay.
1. Why is man considered as a rational animal?
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2. What is the importance of studying social sciences in making the country prosper?
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Summary
Social Science basically means the study of the society. It deals with the changes in

human relationship and reinterpretation between the present and past events. It also deals with

human activities including basic social systems, institutions and processes.

On the other hand, Natural Sciences aims to explain and predict various phenomena in

nature. While Humanities studies human culture.

Social Sciences helps in figuring out the complexities of human behavior and relations in

the attempt to solve societal problems.

Disciplines in the Social
Sciences
Read about the Disciplines in Social Sciences: Anthropology, Economics, Geography, History,
Linguistics, Political Science, Sociology, Psychology, and Demography. Then, cite some societal
problems in the community wherein each discipline is related to, and explain how such discipline
can help in addressing the problems.

Discipline in Social Science Societal Problem Explanation

1. Anthropology

2. Economics

3. Geography
4. History

5. Linguistics

6. Political Sciences

7. Sociology

8. Psychology

9. Demography
Analyzation
By the use of a Venn Diagram, compare Social Sciences with Natural Sciences and Humanities

Social Sciences

Natural Sciences Humanities

Let’s Analyze
1. How does each of the discipline of Social Sciences relate to one another?
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2. Why is there a need to study each of the Discipline of Social Science? Explain the particulars
of each discipline.
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Content of the Lesson
We have learned from the previous lesson that social sciences are bodies of organized
knowledge and thought about human affairs and activities. The social sciences systematically
attempt to discover and describe the different behavior patterns of people in a society. This lesson
will help you understand the different disciplines within the social sciences wherein life and
activities of people, including their motives and values, provide the subject matter of the study.
Moreover, this lesson will familiarize you with the emergence of each discipline and how these
important disciplines compare and contrast with one another. (Jose & Ong, 2016)

The Disciplines of the Social Sciences

1. Anthropology
a. It is the study of humankind.
b. It is derived from the Greek words Anthropos meaning ‘human’ and logos
meaning ‘word’ or ‘study of’.
c. This field of study is an amalgamation of a branch of the natural sciences
(biology) and social sciences.
d. Hence, Anthropology is partly a natural sciences and partly social sciences.
e. Anthropologists attempt to find answers on so many questions involving humans.
i. Where, When, and Why humans appeared on Earth?
ii. Concerned with various physical changes humans have undergone in the
past.
iii. Reasons why their physical features vary from one place to another.
iv. Trying to describe the norms and practices of our human ancestors.
f. It contributes in understanding the society by integrating the research findings of
most disciplines like sociology, history, psychology, and biology.
g. Anthropology is wider in scope.
h. Anthropologists travel far and wide to every corner of the earth that has
supported human population.
i. They also excavate numerous places for fossils and other material remains that
once belonged in the past. (Jose & Ong, 2016)
j. Branches of Anthropology
i. Physical or Biological Anthropology
1. Is the study of human biology within the milieu of evolution.
2. This subfield centers primary on human biological origins and the
variations in human species.
3. Physical Anthropologists search, excavate, and study these
hardened remains as they try to formulate theories on the origin of
humans and their subsequent variations.
ii. Cultural or Social Anthropology
1. Involves the study and comparative analysis of pre-literate
societies, including all aspects of human behavior.
 2. Aspects of human culture include religion, ritual, myth, technology,
gender roles, kinship forms, economic and political structures,
music, and folklore.
3. Cultural Anthropologists employ ethnography as a means to study
and record the different ways of life of human societies.
4. Ethnography provides descriptive accounts which form the basis for
comparative studies of many culture. Oftentimes, ethnographers
spends a long period of time in a community under study while he
or she talks to people, observes theirs ways and thoughts, and
records these observations afterwards,
iii. Archeology
1. Involves the study of earlier cultures and ways of life by way of
retrieving and examining the material remains of previous human
societies.
2. While archeologists attempt to reconstruct the everyday life and
customs of early people, they also seek to explain the different
cultural changes that happened over time.
3. Instead of focusing on people as their objects of study, they rely
mostly on artifacts and other material remains left behind by
previous societies.
4. Materials from the past may help in understanding the nature of that
society, including the non-tangible aspects of culture, such as
religious practices, political institutions, and ancient languages.
iv. Linguistic Anthropology
1. It is the study of human speech and language as well as the
various changes that have taken place over time.
2. It tries to comprehend different processes in human
communication, language variation, and language use.
3. One related field of study, historical linguistics, attempts to explain
how numerous languages have changed in the past and their
possible links to one another.
4. Historical linguists deal with languages that usually go unrecorded
unlike the archeologists that utilizes materials remains in order to
reconstruct early human societies.
2. Economics
a. It is a discipline that concentrates on how a particular society solves its problem
of scarcity of resources.
b. The term originated from the Greek words oikos meaning ‘house’ and nomos
meaning ‘custom’ or ‘law’. The term oikonomia literally translates as ‘management
of a household’.
c. Economists seek to understand people’s activities concerning production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
d. They analyze key concepts pertaining to supply and demand, savings and
investments, cost and price, economic fluctuations, value of work and natural
 resources, money as a medium of exchange, banking and finance, capital and
wealth, and the different principles employed by government institutions to
rationalize their means of distribution of goods and services.
e. It is said that the ultimate goal of economics is to develop better policies in order
to minimize problems and maximize the benefits of everyday work.
f. Economists study how different societies utilize scarce resources in order to
produce valuable goods and services and then allocate them to the people
g. Branches of Economics
i. Macroeconomics
1. Analyzes how the economy functions as a whole or its basic
subdivisions, such as the government or business sectors.
2. Experts investigate how levels and outputs are established by
nation-states.
3. They also study inflation and unemployment, inquire about supply
of money, and explore possible explanations why some nations are
well-off while some others are under huge debt.
4. Examples of economic measures within the macroeconomic level
include total output, total employment, total income, and general
level of prices.
ii. Microeconomics
1. Focuses on the behavior of individual agents, like households,
industries, and firms.
2. Economists evaluate how prices of goods and services are usually
pegged and what factors determine the value of land, labor, and
capital.
3. Experts measure price of specific product, number of workers
employed by a single firm, or expenditures of a certain family.
3. Geography
a. Is the study of the features of the earth and the location of living things on the
planet.
b. This term is derived from the Greek word ‘geographia’, from geo meaning ‘earth’
and ‘graphe’ meaning ‘to describe’. A literal translation would be ‘to describe the
earth’.
c. Aside from studying rivers, mountains, and plants, geographers also deal with
different human activities. They examine where and how groups of people live and
what adaptions they usually undertake in order to subsist in certain regions of the
earth.
d. Geographers deal not only with the description of the earth’s physical features but
also on the distribution and interaction of humans with the natural environment.
e. The 5 Themes of Geography
i. Location – Most geographic studies begin by learning the location of
places. Location can be absolute or relative.
1. Absolute location: Provides a definite reference for locating a
place. The reference can be latitude and longitude, a street
 address, or even the Township and Range system. For example,
you might be located at 183 Main Street in Anytown, USA or you
might be positioned at 42.2542° N, 77.7906° W.
2. Relative location: Describes a place with respect to its
environment and its connection to other places. As an example, a
home might be located 1.3 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, .4 miles
from the town's elementary school, and 32 miles from the nearest
international airport.
ii. Place – describes the human and physical characteristics of a location.
1. Physical characteristics: Includes a description of such things as
mountains, rivers, beaches, topography, climate, and animal and
plant life of a place. If a place is described as hot, sandy, fertile, or
forested, these terms all paint a picture of the location's physical
characteristics. A topographical map is one tool used to illustrate
the physical characteristics of a location.
2. Human characteristics: Includes the human-designed cultural
features of a place. These features include land use, architectural
styles, forms of livelihood, religious practices, political systems,
common foods, local folklore, means of transportation, and
methods of communication. For example, a location could be
described as a technologically advanced French-speaking
democracy with a Catholic majority.
iii. Human-Environment Interaction
1. This theme considers how humans adapt to and modify the
environment. Humans shape the landscape through their
interaction with the land, which has both positive and negative
effects on the environment. As an example of the human-
environment interaction, think about how people living in cold
climates have often mined coal or drilled for natural gas in order to
heat their homes. Another example would be the massive landfill
projects in Boston conducted in the 18th and 19th centuries to
expand habitable areas and improve transportation.
iv. Movement
1. Humans move—a lot! In addition, ideas, fads, goods, resources,
and communication all travel distances. This theme studies
movement and migration across the planet. The emigration of
Syrians during war, the flow of water in the Gulf Stream, and the
expansion of cell phone reception around the planet are all
examples of movement.
v. Regions – divide the world into manageable units for geographic study.
Regions have some sort of characteristic that unifies the area and can be
formal, functional, or vernacular.
 1. Formal regions: These are designated by official boundaries, such
as cities, states, counties, and countries. For the most part, they are
clearly indicated and publicly known.
2. Functional regions: These are defined by their connections. For
example, the circulation area for a major city area is the functional
region of that paper.
3. Vernacular regions: These include perceived regions, such as "The
South," "The Midwest," or the "Middle East"; they have no formal
boundaries but are understood in mental maps of the world.
f. Branches of Geography
i. Physical Geography is geography from the perspective of earth sciences
and as a branch of the natural sciences. It includes the study of soil,
landforms, water, vegetation, minerals, and climate.
ii. Human Geography focuses on the human aspect of geography that is
marked by a strong commitment to the concept of culture. This particular
branch of geographic study is interested in determining humankind’s role
in changing the environment as well as the different processes that help
shape human society, including migration and settlement patterns.
4. History
a. It is a branch of knowledge that attempts to ascertain, record, and explain facts
and events that happened in the past.
b. It originated from the Greek word historia meaning ‘inquiry’.
c. It is one of the oldest social sciences tracing its origin in the myths and traditions
of early people that were passed from generations.
d. It is very ambitious on the part of the historians to unfold, discover, and interpret
human thoughts and actions that are ever changing while relying mostly on written
accounts that may have incompletely survived from the past.
e. It also pertains to systematic written account or narrative of facts with the aim of
discovering meaningful relationships among them.
f. Branch of History
i. Political History: Political History is the narration of the evolution of the
political related matters of the past. This branch of history deals with the
analysis of political leaders, ideas, events, movements, activities and so
on, along with the making of government policies (constitutions etc). This
branch of history focuses on the study of normative beliefs as it is believed
to be the reason behind the historical changes.
ii. Diplomatic History: Considered to be started in the nineteenth century,
Diplomatic history is the branch of history that focuses on the study of
international relations between nations (between states). This history tends
to be more concerned with the history of diplomacy and the ideas of
diplomacy and much more.
iii. Cultural History: Cultural history is the branch of history that deals with the
traditions and cultural interpretation of the past. It is a study of various facets
of human and history. Simply, cultural history records and interprets
 various past events involving human beings like literature, sport, and
entertainment and much more.
iv. Social History: The history which focuses on the study of various societal
norms like ways of living, standard, customs, disciplines, status and so on
of the people, alongside the demography. Simply, it is a branch of history
which looks at the lived experience of the past. Today, social history is
otherwise called the New Social History.
v. Economic History: Economic history is the branch of history that focuses on
the study of economies as well as economical phenomena of the past. Simply,
the study of the pattern of the production, consumption alongside industry,
market and so on concerning the past, economic history aims to understand
the historical events of the economical processes.
vi. Intellectual History: The history which aims to understand the ideas
(ideology and philosophy) by understanding the political, cultural,
intellectual, and social context of the past. Intellectual history is about the
human (historians) actions and how they developed history.
5. Linguistics
a. It is a field of knowledge involving the scientific study of language as universal
and recognizable aspect of human behavior and capacity.
b. It is the scientific study of human language. It tries: first, to observe languages and
to describe them accurately, then, to find generalizations within what has been
described, finally, to draw conclusions about the general nature of human
language.
c. Applied Linguistics
i. Applied linguistics attempts to make practical use of the knowledge derived
from general linguistic research – in order, for example, to: improve the
ways in which a student’s native language is taught, help people learn
foreign language more efficiently, write better dictionaries, improve therapy
for people with language problems, and search the Internet more efficiently
and successfully.
d. Language is a system that associates sounds (or gestures) with meanings in a
way that uses words and sentences.
e. Grammar is a language system, a set of principles (rules) that underlie a language.
f. Grammar can be described as having different parts:
i. Phonetics
ii. Phonology
iii. Morphology
iv. Syntax
v. Semantics
vi. Pragmatics
vii. Since linguists study all of these, the terms are also used to refer to
subfields of linguistics.
g. Phonetics – the production and perception of speech sounds as physical entities.
 i. E.g., [v] is pronounced by bringing the lower lip into contact with upper teeth
and forcing air out of the mouth while the vocal folds vibrate and nasal
cavity is closed off.
h. Phonology – the sound patterns (the sound system of a particular language)
and of sounds as abstract entities.
i. In Czech, a word never ends with a voiced obstruent (e.g., zubu [zubu]
‘toothgen’ but zub [zup] ‘toothnom’).
ii. In English, a word never starts with [kn] (note that knife starts with [n] not
[k]), while in German it is possible (e.g., Knabe ‘boy’).
iii. In Setswana (a language of southern Africa), a consonant is always
followed by a vowel – when the speakers adopted the word Christmas from
English, they pronounce as kirisimasi.
i. Morphology – the word structure and of systematic relations between words.
j. Morpheme – the building-blocks of words, the smallest linguistic unit which has a
meaning or grammatical function.
i. Words are composed of morphemes (one or more).
ii. Sing-er-s answer-ed un-kind-ly
iii. uˇc-i-tel-k-u ‘she-teacheracc’
iv. In comparison with many other languages, English has rather simple
morphology.
k. Syntax – phrase and sentence structure.
i. Syntacticians try to discover rules that govern:
1. word order: The book is on the table. *Table book on is the
the.
2. agreement: I am here. *I are here.
3. subject/object forms (cases): I like her. *I like she.
ii. Note: In linguistics, placing an asterisk (*) before a sentence marks that
sentence as ungrammatical, i.e., not of the kind normally used by most
speakers of that language.
l. Semantics is the literal meaning of sentences, phrases, words and morphemes.
i. E.g., What is the meaning of the word vegetable?
ii. E.g., How does the word order influence meaning of sentence in English?
How about Czech?
m. Pragmatics studies language usage, especially how context influences the
interpretation of utterances – the same sentence can be used to do different things
in different situations.
i. E.g., Gee, it’s hot in here! can be used either to state a fact or to get
someone open a window.
ii. Simply put: semantics is the literal meaning and pragmatics is the
intended meaning
6. Political Science
a. Political Science is the study of politics, power and government.
b. The word politics come from the Greek word “politea”, or a person who
participates in the polis (city-state).
c. Engagement in the polis means taking part in its decision-making, which normally
takes place in the “agora”, or the market place, where new laws are passed or
disseminated under scrutiny of the entire community.
d. It has to be noted though that the engagement in the political decision-making in
the polis is only limited to Greek men.
e. Key Concepts in Political Science
i. Power is the ability to influence or control other.
ii. State is a community of persons permanently occupying a definite territory,
having a government of their own to which the members render habitual
obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control.
iii. Sovereignty is the power and authority of a state to govern itself.
iv. Legitimacy is the attribute states possess when their citizens view their
sovereignty as appropriate, proper, or acceptable.
v. Nation is a group of people with a sense of unity based on shared traits,
customs, or culture.
vi. Government is the formal and institutional process that operate at the
national level to maintain public order and facilitate collective action.
vii. Governance is the various ways through which social life is coordinated.
f. Branches of Political Science
i. Comparative politics involves the study of the politics of different
countries.
ii. International relations is the study of the interactions between nations,
international organizations, and multinational corporations. There are two
traditional approaches used by international-relations scholars—realism
and liberalism.
1. Realism emphasizes the danger of the international system, where
war is always a possibility and the only source of order is the
balance of power.
2. Liberalism is more idealistic and hopeful, emphasizing the
problem-solving abilities of international institutions such as the
United Nations, NATO, and the World Trade Organization.
iii. Political theory is concerned with the fundamental questions of public life.
It addresses such issues as the nature of political authority, the relationship
of the state to the individual, and citizens' obligations and responsibilities
to one another.
iv. Public administration is the art, science, and practice of effectively
managing government.
1. Public administration includes the study of public financing and
budgeting systems, public management, human resources, public-
policy analysis, nonprofit management, and urban planning.
v. Public policy involves the study of specific policy problems and
governmental responses to them.
vi. Political behavior involves the study of how people participate in political
processes and respond to political activity. The field emphasizes the study
 of voting behavior, which can be affected by social pressures; the effects
of individual psychology, such as emotional attachments to parties or
leaders; and the rational self-interests of voters.
7. Sociology
a. The first social scientist to use the term sociology was a Frenchman by the name
of Auguste Comte who lived from 1798-1857.
b. As coined by Comte, the term sociology is a combination of two words. The first
part of the term is a Latin, socius- that may variously mean society, association,
togetherness or companionship.
c. The other word, logos, is of Greek origin. It literally means to speak about or word.
d. However, the term is generally understood as study or science (Indrani, 1998).
e. Thus, the etymological, literal definition of sociology is that it is the word or
speaking about society.
f. Sociologists are primarily interested in human beings as they appear in social
interaction and the effects of this interaction on human behavior.
g. Sociologists are interested to know what processes lead to these interactions, what
exactly occurs when they take place, and what their short run and long run
consequences are.
h. Fields of Specializations in Sociology:
i. Micro-sociology is interested in small-scale level of the structure and
functioning of human social groups; whereas macro-sociology studies the
large-scale aspects of society. Micro-sociological level of analysis focuses
on social interaction. It analyzes interpersonal relationships, and on what
people do and how they behave when they interact. This level of analysis
is usually employed by symbolic interactionist perspective.
ii. Macro-sociology focuses on the broad features of society. The goal of
macro-sociology is to examine the large-scale social phenomena that
determine how social groups are organized and positioned within the social
structure.
iii. Some writers also add a third level of analysis called meso-level analysis,
which analyzes human social phenomena in between the micro- and macro-
levels. Reflecting their particular academic interest sociologists may prefer one
form of analysis to the other; but all levels of analysis are useful and necessary
for a fuller understanding of social life in society.
8. Psychology
a. It is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
b. It derives from the Latin word psychologia combining psych meaning ‘spirit’ or
‘soul’ and logia for ‘ study of’, psychology literally means ‘study of soul’.
c. Psychology concentrates on individuals and the various forces that mold them.
d. Physical Sciences, it draws out knowledge on the physical structure of humans,
including their nervous system and stages of maturation.
e. From the social sciences, it obtains information about the social world, such as
motivation, emotions, behavior, and attitude.
f. The Goals of Psychology
 i. Description: Identifying and classifying behaviors and mental processes
as accurately as possible
1. Example: Calculate average video game scores for males and
females.
ii. Explanation: Proposing reasons for behaviors and mental processes
1. Example: Propose that males score higher on video games
because they practice more than females do.
iii. Prediction: Offering predictions (or hypotheses) about how a given
condition or set of conditions will affect behaviors and mental processes
1. Example: Hypothesize that males and females will obtain
equivalent video game scores if they practice the same amount of
time.
iv. Influence: Using the results of research to solve practical problems that
involve behavior and mental processes
1. Example: Use the results of video game practice studies to develop
games that can enhance females’ achievement in math and
science.
g. Major Fields of Psychology
i. Clinical Psychology
1. It assesses and finds treatment for people with psychological
disorders.
ii. Developmental Psychology
1. It studies the intellectual, social, emotional, and moral
development across lifespan.
iii. Experimental Psychology
1. It studies most basic concepts of psychology like cognition,
perception, memory, and learning but mostly conducted on animals
instead of humans.

9. Demography
a. Demography has been defined as the scientific study of human populations.
b. Demography has also been defined as the study of the growth, structure, and
composition of human populations.
c. The term came from the French word demographie derived from Greek word
demos meaning ‘people’ and French word graphie.
d. Population studies is often concerned with the consequences of demographic
processes, while demography is more concerned with the causes of those
processes.
e. Demography studies the following:
i. Population size: the number of people in a country, a state, a city, a
region, or the world at a given time
ii. Population growth or decline: changes in the number of people in a
given geographic area over time
iii. Population processes: fertility, mortality, and migration
 iv. Factors related to population processes: diseases and socioeconomic
characteristics related to mortality, family formation, labor force
participation, and government policies related to fertility, differences in
income and opportunities in various areas, war and immigration policies,
and economic conditions motivating migration
v. Population distribution: geographic distribution, such as among states
or between rural and urban areas
vi. Population structure: age and sex composition, the growing proportion of
the population at advanced ages, the sex ratio at birth, and the increasing
proportion of the population that is female with increasing age
vii. Population characteristics: education, income, labor force participation,
marital status, and race or ethnic group membership—anything that has a
value for each member of the population and does not have the same value
for everyone
f. Two types of Demography:
i. Formal Demography deals with fertility, marriage/union formation and
dissolution, mortality, and migration, using specific demographic methods and
measures. It also focuses on relations within the demographic system.
ii. Social Demography uses demographic data in explaining and predicting
social phenomena. It examines the population’s social status composition.

Emergence of the Social Sciences

The following are the historical foundations and social contexts that led to the
development of each discipline:

1. Anthropology
a. The rise of Western imperialism in 18th and 19th centuries prompted interest in
the study of culture of the colonies.
b. Key Personalities: Franz Boas, and Bronislaw Malinowski
2. Economics
a. Became a separate discipline with the publication of Adams Smith’s The Wealth
of Nations in 1776.
b. Key personalities: Adams Smith and Karl Marx
3. Geography
a. Became academic discipline in Europe during 18th and 19 centuries while many
geographic societies were founded in the 19th century.
b. Key personalities: Immanuel Kant, Alexader von Humboldt, and Carl Ritter
4. History
a. The Greeks were the first writers of history is one of the oldest of the social
sciences.
b. Key Personalities: Herodotus (the father of History), Thucydides, and Leopold
von Ranke
5. Linguistics
a. Modern linguistics started to develop in the 18 century with philology reaching its
zenith in the 19 century.
b. Key personalities: Ferdinand de Saussure, Jacques Derrida, Hans Georg-
Gadamer, and Jurgen Habermas
6. Political Science
a. As an academic discipline, Political Science is a relatively new field that was
principally worked on by American scholars in the 19th and 20th centuries.
b. Key personalities: Plato, Aristotle, Augustine of Hippo, Niccolo Machiavelli,
Thomas Hobbes, and John Locke
7. Sociology
a. As a formal academic field of study was founded by Emile Durkheim during late
19th century with establishment of the first sociology department in Europe
b. Key Personalities: Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, and Emile
Durkheim
8. Psychology
a. In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig
(Germany) thereby effectively making Psychology a formal field of study.
b. Key personalities: Wilhelm Wundt, G. Stanley Hall, John Dewey, Sigmund Freud
9. Demography
a. The 19th century saw the emergence of demography when it separated from
statistics as field of study.
b. Key personalities: Thomas Malthus, Adolphe Quetelet, and William Farr
Summary
o Anthropology is the study of humankind.

o Economics is a discipline that concentrates on how a particular society solves its problem
of scarcity of resources. It seeks to understand people’s activities concerning production,
distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

o Geography is the study of the features of the earth and the location of living things on the
planet.

o History is a branch of knowledge that attempts to ascertain, record, and explain facts and
events that happened in the past.

o Linguistics is a field of knowledge involving the scientific study of language as universal and
recognizable aspect of human behavior and capacity.

o Political Science is the study of politics, power and government.

o Sociology is a discipline that is primarily interested in human beings as they appear in social
interaction and the effects of this interaction on human behavior.

o Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processes.

o Demography is the study of human populations. It is also the study of the growth, structure,
and composition of human population.