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Author: Westenberger, Michael R.

Title: The Relationship between Extracurricular Activities and Academic

Achievement in American High School Students
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Westenberger, Michael R. The Relationship between Extracurricular Participation and

Academic Achievement in American High School Students

Abstract

A comprehensive literature review was conducted to examine the relationship between academic

achievement and extracurricular participation. Three main “schools of thought” were found to

exist with regard to the merit of extracurriculars: The Negativist, the Positivist, and the Optimist.

Historically, the emergence of public education through around the 1960s was predominately

Negativist. The prevailing view up until recently was Positivist, but research has indicated

support for both positions and a new theory, The Optimist, is emerging as an evidence based

perspective on extra-curricular activity and positive student outcomes.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................2

Chapter I: Introduction ................................................................................................................4

Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................6

Purpose Statement ...........................................................................................................7

Research Questions .........................................................................................................7

Definition of Terms .........................................................................................................7

Assumptions and Limitations of Research .......................................................................8

Chapter II: Literature Review .................................................................................................... 10

The Negativists .............................................................................................................. 11

The Positivists ............................................................................................................... 12

The Optimists ................................................................................................................ 15

Chapter III: Summary, Critical Analysis, and Recommendations ............................................... 17

Summary ....................................................................................................................... 17

Critical Analysis ............................................................................................................ 17

Recommendations for Practice....................................................................................... 18

Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................................... 19

References ................................................................................................................................ 21
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Chapter I: Introduction

Extra-curricular activities (ECAs) have long been an integral part of the high school

experience for many American students. Prior to 1900, however, ECAs were a rare part of a

student’s life. Educators were skeptical of their purpose, believing that schools ought to focus

primarily on predetermined academic outcomes. Because all non-academic activities were

viewed as being a distraction, they were perceived as being detrimental to a student’s

achievement and were consequently discouraged (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). Toward the end of

the 19th century, however, Harvard and Yale helped to popularize ECAs with their book club

programs and by the beginning of the 20th century, open-mindedness to the idea of ECAs grew

and other American schools initiated athletic clubs.

The prevailing view up until around the 1960s was that extracurricular activities (ECAs)

would hinder a student’s ability to perform academically. This view was also supported during

this time period, at least in the limited availability of literature on the topic. The Journal of

Educational Psychology wasn’t published until the early 1960s, so there is a limited scope of

information on the effects of ECA involvement during that time period. Nearly all the research

on the topic that does exist focused solely on athletic participation. This was because there

weren’t nearly as many types of ECAs in schools as there are today. Today, it’s more common to

have many options to choose from no matter what school you attend, where in the 1960s the

opportunities were mostly restricted to athletics (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

By the late 1920s, schools had started adding clubs such as journalism and newspaper

(Pinto & Ramalheira, 2017). Furthermore, in the 1960s, college wasn’t as prioritized as it is

today. A decent job could still be found with a high school education. This was in part due to a

booming economy and a less modernized nation. As more technological skills are required and
 5

less well-paying jobs available for high school graduates, higher education is considered more

important than it was during that time period (Menand, 2011). With increasing amounts of

students applying to college, the admission process is more selective. In effect, there is a greater

emphasis on students to not only separate themselves from others by excelling in academics, but

also to strengthen their resumes by balancing it with a display of developing skills, as shown

through their extracurricular involvement.

Furthermore, before Title IX was added to our Educational Amendments in 1972, there

were very few sports offered for women. Title IX states that no person in the United States, on

the basis of gender, will be excluded from participating in educational programs, including

ECAs. These changes across American high schools have encouraged more students to join

ECAs, resulting in a growing and more diverse percentage of student participation (Menand,

2011).

As the field of educational psychology expanded and the accessibility of ECAs grew, the

effects on academic achievement were able to be more thoroughly investigated. The relationship

of extracurricular participation on academic achievement is an area that has been thoroughly

investigated and supported across many studies. Since the 1960s, there have been few studies

replicating the negative effects of participation in ECAs on academic achievement. Much of the

research that exists demonstrates the benefits that come along with ECA participation. Based

upon a literature review and an analysis of best practices from studies dating back to the 1960s,

it’s almost self-evident that extracurricular activities have at least some positive impact on

academic performance (Wang & Shively, 2008).

Research has indicated that students placed under too much stress will have a more

difficult time in school and with learning. Few would disagree that students today, more than
 6

ever before, have jam-packed daily schedules. Trying to tackle post-school activities while

balancing it with work and solid grades has become the norm and not the exception. Presently,

todays college students may historically make up some of the most talented, accomplished yet,

but it doesn’t come without its cost. Kids today may have access to more resources and

opportunities than their predecessors, but the demand and potential side effects that comes with

these opportunities is potentially overlooked. (Green, Johnson, Dunn, Lindsey, Xuan, &

Zaslavsky, 2014).

A trending perspective in the last decade has been the idea that there is an “optimum”

level of ECAs for a student. Credence to the idea that there exists a point in which a student is

“spreading themselves too thin” has recently garnered support across the most recent literature.

(Seow & Pan, 2014).

Statement of the Problem

As the struggle for economic security increases in the United States, funding for

important resources to learning is often challenged. It is becoming more and more important that

districts streamline the increasingly limited educational budget to make the most effective use of

school resources. Extracurricular activities are often the first to be criticized for being too

expensive and not worthwhile. This deepening budget crisis across the nation has pressured

schools into cutting costs. Previous funding used to come from tax money, but lawmakers have

continuously cut taxes as the national debt rises. The effects have trickled down into military

spending, social security, science and medical programs, and education (Green et al., 2014).

The budget cuts on schools have been frustrating to see. Along with increasing class sizes

from not hiring enough teachers and/or replacing teachers who retire, reduction of foreign-

language, vocational, and technology programs, and, in some states like Oklahoma, shortening the
 7

school week from five days to four, extracurricular activities have often been the first to go

(Vaughan, 2010). Although some extracurricular programs, such as the debate team and student

government, do not require as much funding, other programs like athletics, clubs that make use of

technology (i.e. the Student Newspaper), and organizations that require the use of materials to

function (i.e. the Student Newspaper, Band, etc.) have been deemed too expensive and, in some

states, completely eliminated. Schools that eliminate them to save money may end up paying an

unintended price.

Purpose Statement

This paper seeks to review and analyze the effects of ECA participation currently seen

across American high schools on students’ academic and social achievement. In exploring the

possible upsides and downsides to continued ECA funding through such an investigation, this

paper can be used as a starting point to better help aid the budget issue in education. This

analysis will be done through a review of the literature surrounding the effects of extracurricular

involvement on academic achievement. Studies from a variety of ethnic backgrounds and

locations will be analyzed.

Research Questions

This literature review will address the following questions:

1. Are there any relationships between participation in ECAs and academic

performance?

2. Are the continued costs of ECAs justified, both from a student and system-wide

standpoint?

Definition of Terms

The following is a list of terms that are commonly used in reference to the topic of
 8

extracurricular participation in a school setting, and will be used throughout the literature review.

Academic achievement. Academic achievement will be measured by multiple, broad,

and general areas that contribute to a student’s performance, development, and improvement in a

school setting. Strictly measuring by grades would only provide a limited scope on some of the

factors that contribute to a student’s success in school. Things like awards, publications, and/or

contributions to an academic field can also factor in, as well as markers like class rank, college

acceptance, honor societies, scholarships, etc. Other variables, like social skills, friendships,

emotional stability, behaviors, motivation, etc. are all targeted areas that are considered in the

mission of virtually every school across the country. Every student learns at different rates, so

measuring academic performance specifically across the standard academic markers, like GPA,

etc, would fail to consider the students who have made significant improvements in their own

personal performance and development in a school setting, but still demonstrate low relative

performance in relation to a curriculum and/or peers.

Extracurricular activity (ECA). ECAs are school-related and do not involve a grade or

academic credit and participation is optional on the part of the student (Bartkus, Nemelka,

Nemelka, & Gardner, 2012). While some studies have considered certain activities, like

videogames, sports and clubs organized outside of school, and even watching television to be

ECAs, this paper will only focus on the activities that are organized by the schools to be ECAs,

since that is the definition most commonly applied in the literature (Bartkus et al, 2012).

Assumptions and Limitations of Research

The focus of this paper was a review of the previously published literature, electronic and

paper resources available through UW-Stout’s Library System, and through search engines

including PsycINFO and PsycARTICLES. It is assumed that each resource used throughout this
 9

paper is valid, reliable, and has been peer-reviewed. It is also assumed that this literature review

encompasses comprehensive research.

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Chapter II: Literature Review

This chapter will review the relevant literature and research on the topic of ECAs. Today,

it’s rare to find a person who believes ECA participation has adverse effects on academic

performance. Consequently, the vast majority of schools’ support and encourage their students to

participate in ECAs. This perspective hasn’t always been the trend however, as prior to the 1960s

schools had the opposite mindset, believing that ECAs were a distraction, rather than a

facilitator, to academic development.

Historically, three main theoretical frameworks have existed with regard to the benefits

of ECA participation: the Negativists, the Positivists, and the Optimists, respectively. Together,

these three distinct “schools of thought” form a spectrum. On the far left, you have the

Negativists, or the ones that view ECAs as being detrimental to a student’s academic success. On

the far right, you have the Positivists – the ones that say ECAs can only contribute positively to

academic performance. Then, somewhere near the middle the Optimists – the group that says

ECAs have positive influences on the academic performance of students, but only up to a certain

point before they start working against a student’s learning.

The emergence and development of these distinct “schools of thought” can be understood

best by viewing the school system as a part of a larger cultural system (Lynch, Lerner, &

Leventhal, 2013). As the climate, economy, and pressures of a culture shift, so too does the

school curriculum. Advancements in technology have contributed to the hollowing out of the

middle class. More flexibility and creativity in thinking is required by employers than it was in

the 1960s. School curriculum now places less emphasis on reading and memorizing and more

emphasis on understanding, discovering, and questioning. Conformity through school uniforms

has given way to individuality through an admiration of diversity and uniqueness. An

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appreciation of the utility of ECAs have thus correspondingly grown with expanding educational

objectives.

Along with changes in the economy, science has improved our understanding of

evidence-based approaches to enhancing the academic development of students. This chapter

will provide an overview of the three distinct “schools of thought”, as well as some of the

science and evidence that supports each of these varying perspectives.

The Negativists

James Coleman is believed by many to be the first within the educational literature to

suggest a theoretical perspective on ECAs with his Zero-Sum Model in 1961: “The earliest

theoretical framework in the general education literature is the zero-sum framework, which

arises from Coleman’s (1961) seminal study” (cited in Seow & Pan, 2014, p. 4). In fact,

Dunkleberger in his 1935 study describes a similar theoretical framework. Dunkelberger (1935)

questioned whether ECA participation in college negatively influences academic performance.

Coleman’s Zero-Sum Model stated that time spent on non-academic coursework would take

away from time spent on academic coursework and thus would negatively impact a student’s

achievement in the classroom.

During the 1960s, there were in fact a few studies that agreed with Coleman and showed

academic performance and extracurricular participation were negatively correlated. One team of

researchers reviewed over 40 studies from the 1960s and concluded that non-athletes performed

slightly better in academics than students participating in athletics (Stephens & Schaben, 2002).

Even today, some note the possible consequences of ECA participation. Thompson

(2008) cited three potential negative effects of student involvement in activities outside the

classroom. The first is that it adds to the student’s pressures. Having to focus on more than one
 12

thing at once requires more attentional resources and dedicating more attentional resources

demands more emotional energy. Secondly, it can negatively influence the time students have for

their families, which has been shown to strongly relate to academic performance in the

classroom. Most high school students are required to be in school for six to nine hours Monday

through Friday. Many ECAs can significantly add to that amount of time spent away from home.

The question then is raised, how much time away from family is too much time? Lastly, learning

is negatively influenced by tiredness. It stands to reason that if a student has to deal with

studying in addition to after school activities, learning can take a toll when students become

sleep-deprived.

The Negativist perspective takes an unfavorable view towards ECA participation.

Proponents of the Negativist view would argue that any time spent away from academics is

counterproductive to learning. The only way a student is able to learn is through explicit academic

instruction. Presently, the Negativist perspective is by and large virtually nonexistent. Nearly every

school across the country has at least some form of ECAs available for its students.

The Positivists

The Positivists believe in a favorable perspective on the benefits of ECAs. Essentially,

it’s the opposite perspective held by the Negativists. Those who adhere to this view would hold

the viewpoint that when a student participates in ECAs their academic performance will

inevitably improve. This is by far the most popular perspective. This perspective focuses mainly

on the importance of how connecting with an activity could benefit students. The impact of ECA

participation on students’ development has been widely examined in the literature (Broh, 2002;

Marsh & Kleitman, 2002; Mahoney, Cairns, & Farmer, 2003; Feldman & Matjasko, 2005, 2012;

Shulruf, 2010).
 13

Finn (1989) was a Positivist who is recognized as one of the first to theorize a model

which helps to explain why students might benefit from ECA participation. His Participation

Identification Model states that as students engage in ECAs they are more likely to perform

academically since they feel more connected, or able to identify, with their school. His study

showed positive psychological outcomes and other benefits ECA participation had on academics,

such as “taking advanced courses, time spent on homework, postsecondary aspirations, GPA,

and college attendance” (p. 121). These results give reasons to believe that commitment to

school leads to academic success.

Finn’s Model has served as a tipping point for many studies to come. Eccles et al.

(2003) found that participation in voluntary, school-based, extracurricular activities increased

school participation and achievement by facilitating the acquisition of interpersonal skills and

positive social norms, membership in pro-social peer groups, and stronger emotional and social

connections to one’s school. Olson (2008) demonstrated that participation in a school’s music

program lessened students’ feeling of alienation, promoted individual growth, and provided a

common bond between home and school. Positivists don’t just stop at the possible upside of

athletic participation, Olson (2008) found that students enrolled in fine arts activities had

significantly lower absentee rates than those students who did not participate at all.

Marsh (1992) tested the Participation Identification Model outlined by Finn (1989)

against the Zero-Sum Model outlined by Dunkelberger (1935) and Coleman (1961) by looking at

a nationally representative data sample of students over their last two years of high school. A

statistical analysis of certain characteristics (i.e. coursework selection, absenteeism, GPA,

college attendance, social self-concept, educational aspirations) indicated that the majority of

students who were involved in some sort of ECA had positive increases in these qualities.
 14

Marsh’s large data research supported a Participation Identification Model and contradicted a

Zero-Sum Model.

Several studies have examined participation in athletics specifically, and concluded,

contrary to the Negativist notion that athletics harm students by taking away time that could have

been otherwise spent in a classroom, that student athletes interact with peers, work for the best

interest of the team, and learn to follow instructions of the team leader. These types of

interactions may actually contribute to the student athlete’s development of self-identity and

contribute to higher expectations of themselves in the classroom (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). A

student’s identification and involvement with school sports creates a social network for these

student athletes that emphasizes the value of the school, academics, and continuing their

education after high school (Smith, 2008).

Daley and Leahy (2003) conducted a study involving 126 randomly selected children

who were 8 or 9 years old, who participated in physical extracurricular activities. All of these

participants were involved in some form of physical extracurricular activity organized by the

school at least once per week. The second group consisted of 63 additional children who did not

participate in physical activities. The researchers found a positive association between

participation in various form of physical activity and positive self-perception.

A longitudinal study conducted by Darling, Caldwell, and Smith (2005) provided further

support for the benefits of athletic participation on various aspects of development. Through a

survey, students were asked to check which ECAs they participated in that year, as well as what

their academic goals and grade point average were. Results indicated that students who

participated in ECAs had higher grade point averages, fewer disciplinary referrals, lower

absentee rates, and a decrease in dropout rates than students who didn’t. Additionally, these
 15

students showed a stronger commitment to the school, had more demanding coursework, and

higher full-time college attendance rates.

Participation in sports may also provide students with unique development opportunities

that positively impact their self-concept. This may lead to higher academic

expectations and therefore better academic outcomes for student athletes (Smith, 2008).

Adolescent students who do not have opportunities to identify with a particular group or who are

affiliated with delinquent social groups are more likely to suffer negative repercussions,

including dropout, suicide, substance abuse, or discipline problems (Smith, 2008).

The Optimists

Similar to the Yerkes-Dodson Law, which states that performance is best when arousal or

stimulation is not too high, nor too low, the Optimists take a middle ground, acknowledging both

the possible downsides and upsides of ECA participation, and seeking balance as the solution.

This emerging perspective seen in the literature in the last decade is becoming the more popular

viewpoint. Studies have shown that students who take part in more than 17 hours of

extracurricular activities a week could be harming their educational prospects (Marsh &

Kleitman, 2002). Positive effects of one to 13 hours of weekly extracurricular activities were

clear in children’s exam performance, but for students taking part in more than 13 hours per

week of ECAs, their grades and overall well-being notably dropped. Parents typically seek to

create balanced children through enrolling their children in ECAs. Instead of filling free time

with extracurricular pursuits, families have been urged to encourage an equal amount of “free

play” as well.

A study was done after the Young and People’s Learning Agency announced it was going

to cut its “entitlement funding”, which pays for extracurricular activities, from 114 annual hours
 16

per student to 30 (Thomson, 2010). The concern was that the reduced opportunities would have a

negative impact on the students’ efforts to get into higher education and high paying

occupations. Above a certain level, a decline was seen in grades and achievement. 10,000 15 and

16-year old students monitored across the U.S. were found to have an optimum amount of

extracurricular activities. These students who took part in 5 hours of activities a week scored

higher on math exams than their classmates who had fewer than 5 activities per week, but for

students spending time in more than five activities, exam results were found to fall. Additionally,

a study found that students with more than ten ECA activities a week had a 4% lower GPA than

normal and achieved worse results than their friends who had no ECA involvement.

There are a number of theories related to the risks and benefits of ECAs. We’ve recently

evolved from the idea that ECAs are exponentially beneficial. The prevailing theory for our time

is the Optimistic Theory, which still supports the notion of ECAs as beneficial, but acknowledges

that there is a point where too much is too much and balance in a student’s life is the most

important. Historically, we’ve come a long way in getting to that point. Schools once saw ECAs

as being completely counterproductive to education. As culture changes, we may see additional

frameworks emerge.
 17

Chapter III: Summary, Critical Analysis, and Recommendations

In this chapter, a summary of key points from chapter two will be discussed, a critical

analysis of three positions will be compared and contrasted, and recommendations for practice,

as well as possible areas of future research, will be mentioned.

Summary

Prior to the 1960s, there was little research that investigated the relationship between

academic achievement and performance. Those studies that did exist, focused mainly on a

student’s academic performance in relationship to their involvement in athletics. The results

during this time period supported the Negativist notion that a student’s involvement in

extracurriculars will take away the time they could spend on academics.

Around the 1960s, more research was collected on the possible benefits of a wide array of

extracurricular involvement. The vast majority of research supported a positivist perspective

when researchers linked ECA involvement to positive academic and social outcomes, including

individual growth, better GPA, lower absentee rates, increased self-confidence, and higher social

emotional test scores.

With the high expectations placed on students and mental health becoming more and

more of a priority in schools, a new viewpoint seen in the last decade has increased in popularity.

The Optimist viewpoint that ECA involvement positively influences students up to a certain

point, before waning off and negatively influencing positive academic and social outcomes in

students, is a perspective garnering more and more support in the literature.

Critical Analysis

Although the dearth of replicating studies since the 1960s weakens the negativist

perspective, it’s important to mention the studies in the 1960s do lend credence to a non-causal
 18

relationship between ECAs and academic performance. Just because a student is participating in

an ECA does not necessarily mean they will benefit academically. Had there been causation,

students participating in athletics would have performed better academically; however, the

opposite was demonstrated. Conversely, some of the confidence in the positivist notion is

brought into question with both older and more recent studies reporting negative influences of

ECA involvement on student outcomes.

The major criticism of the negativists perspective is that it completely fails to take into

consideration certain skills that may be learned through ECAs, like acquisition of interpersonal

skills and positive social norms, membership in prosocial peer groups, and strong emotional

connections to one’s school that increase a student’s motivation. The Negativist approach is

much too simple in this regard, suggesting there is no other activity aside from what’s taught in

the classroom that encourages a student to perform better. The major criticism of the Positive

perspective is that it doesn’t limit itself to a certain amount of involvement, nor take into account

the overall health of students. Perhaps positive outcomes are the immediate result, but what

about the long-term effects of overextending schedules so young in a student’s career.

Recommendations for Practice

The ample amount of research showing the positive influences of ECAs on academic

performance supports the idea that ECAs do in fact have a place in schools. Despite the potential

upsides of ECA involvement, however, students ought to be encouraged to prioritize a healthy

school-life balance. Maintaining that is paramount for virtually every area of academic

performance, including personal, mental, social, and physical well-being. High school is a

stepping stone to into further life satisfaction, but if students are pressured into taking on too

much, too quickly then they risk emotional burnout, poor high school performance, and a healthy
 19

work-life balance that is crucial at this period of their lives. As adults, it’s important to develop

the skill of having a healthy work-life balance. Studies have linked a healthy work-life balance to

lower levels of cancer, long life-spans, and lower rates of suicide and depression (Haar, Suñe,

Ollier-Malaterre, & Jayabarathan, 2015). Despite that, this important skill isn’t being addressed

in our students. Perhaps all the focus surrounding our development of functional skills has

pushed the development of other important skills, like creating a healthy work-life balance, to the

side. As parents, educators, teachers, and support staff, there are things we can do in order to

encourage healthy ECA choices in the students we work with.

The seemingly obvious “fix” is to limit the number of ECAs a student is allowed to

participate in, but this creates a new problem in figuring out who should be held responsible for

making this choice. If parents, individual schools, districts, or even states create regulations and

restrictions, then it could put students at a disadvantage against other college applicants attending

schools without restrictions. Another way to address the issue might be to to educate students

directly about the potential risks and rewards of ECA involvement, encouraging participation,

while at the same time making sure not to overpressure those students who are already heavily

involved, and encouraging students to identify their own limits.

Recommendations for Future Research

Future research should investigate what if any long-term relationships exist between ECA

involvement and future outcomes. Do these students have the same levels of mental health as

other students less involved? Do these students have higher risks of suicide? Or are these

students reporting higher levels of life satisfaction, social relationships, and success than their

counterparts? Answering some of these questions would help shine the light on the validity of

this new emerging perspective on the benefits of ECA involvement on academic performance.
 20

Whether the cultural climate is what’s ultimately responsible for the resources available

to students or not, the benefits of student involvement in ECAs have been supported and

documented in the literature for several decades. Consequently, dedicating a portion of the

school budget for funding ECAs is justified. Yet, the same cultural climate may be pressuring

students by raising the expectation to the point that it’s negatively influencing their physical and

mental well-being. As educators, parents, and lawmakers we should be more cognizant of the

demands placed on students. The recommendation should be a more balanced approach.

Supporting the development of academic knowledge through meeting in-class objectives, while

realistically still taking advantage of the ECAs that schools offer, seems to be the healthiest most

holistic approach towards education.

 21

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