GENERAL BIOLOGY ll

REVIEWER
MODES OF NUTRITION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
(Reporter: Kian Carl Torres)

MODES OF NUTRITION: Autotrophy and Heterotrophy

AUTOTROPHY - Produces organic nutrients from inorganic substances.

ROLE IN ECOSYSTEM: Producer
EXAMPLE OF AUTOTROPHS:
 Plants
 Algae (green and red algae)
 Bacteria such as cyanobacteria

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION - “a process where an organism prepares its own food

from a simple inorganic material like water, mineral salts and carbon dioxide in the
presence of sunlight.”
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS is the most common type of autotrophic nutrition, where
plants use chlorophyll to capture light energy.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS - a process to convert solar energy into chemical energy to

synthesize starch. 0
Different parts of a plant play different roles to complete this process:
 Leaves – They are considered as the food factories of the plant.
 Stomata – It is present in the lower epidermis of the leaf which uses carbon
dioxide from the air.
 Roots – They absorb minerals and water from the soil and transport it to
different parts of the plant.

CHEMOAUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION - In this process the organism can make their own
food with the help of chemical energy and they do not need sunlight. The oxidation
of chemical substances, whether organic or inorganic, produces chemical energy.
 CHEMOAUTOTROPHS - They prepare their own food by the process of
chemosynthesis I.e. the process of carbohydrate formation in which chemical
reaction is used to obtain energy from inorganic compounds.

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION - a mode of nutrition in which organisms depend upon

other organisms for food to survive. They can't make their own food like Green
plants. Heterotrophic organisms have to take in all the organic substances they need
to survive.
HETEROTROPHY - Obtains organic nutrients from performed compounds.
ROLE IN ECOSYSTEM: Consumer (another name for heterotroph)
EXAMPLE OF HETEROTROPHS: Animals and Humans

HETEROTROPHS - Organisms that CANNOT make their own food.

“HETERO” means OTHER.
A heterotrophs energy still comes from the sun but in an indirect way.
Heterotrophs eat autotrophs directly or heterotrophs eat autotrophs.

HOLOZOIC NUTRITION - -refers to a method of nutrition that is involved in the

ingestion and digestion of solid or liquid organic material and the absorption and
assimilation of nutrients by the animal body.
 Holozoic Nutrition - is involved in the uptake of complex substances, converting
them into simple substances.

5 STEPS OF HOLOZOIC NUTRITION

1. Ingestion 4. Assimilation
2. Digestion 5. Egestion
3. Absorption

CHEMICAL DIGESTION - breaks down different nutrients, such as proteins,

carbohydrates, and fats, into even smaller parts:
 Fats break down into fatty acids and monoglycerides.
 Nucleic acids break down into nucleotides.
 Polysaccharides, or carbohydrate sugars, break down into monosaccharides.
 Proteins break down into amino acids.
Without chemical digestion, your body wouldn’t be able to absorb nutrients, leading
to vitamin deficiencies and malnutrition.

 To obtain energy from sugar, including the sugar form the

Photosynthesis of plants, organisms process sugar through;
 Cellular respiration - a three-step metabolic pathway
that converts sugar to an energy molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) - which cells use for
all their processes.
The three metabolic pathways of cellular respiration are:
 Glycolysis
 Citric acid cycle and
also known as Krebs
cycle
 Oxidative
phosphorylation.
GLYCOLYSIS - is the first step in cellular respiration where sugar, usually in the form
of glucose, enters a series of steps to form two molecules of pyruvate.
- this process takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell.
 The pyruvate from glycolysis will be further ‘’digested’’ or broken down during
the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix. This process proceeds
repeatedly to produce the majority of molecules needed to transform usable
energy.
 Oxidative phosphorylation includes the electron transport chain and
chemiosmosis. The electron transport chain is a series of proteins and organic
molecules through which the electrons are passed on form one electron carrier
to another.
 Chemiosmosis is an energy-coupling mechanism employed by living organisms
to produce ATP. In respiring cells, it is one of the major steps of cellular
respiration.

INTERRELATIONSHIPS AMONG AUTOTROPHS AND HETEROTROPHS IN THE

ECOSYSTEM

 Autotrophs - are the primary producers and are placed first in the food chain.
 Heterotrophs - are the consumers and are placed at the secondary and tertiary
levels.
 Both are beneficial to maintain the energy flow in the ecosystem.

Living organism are connected in many ways in an ecosystem. One example of this
connection is the exchange of carbon between autotrophs and heterotrophs within
and between ecosystem.

Heterotrophs, especially plant-eating heterotrophs, obtain the high-energy sugars

from the autotrophs by consuming them (digestion), and breaking them down by
respiration (cellular respiration) to obtain cellular energy.
 Recall that aerobic respiration requires oxygen.

ADDITIONAL INFO:
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF HETEROTROPHS: animals, most bacteria and fungi
1. Animals 3. Herbivores - plant-eating animals
2. Humans 4. Carnivores - meat eating animals

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
(Reporter: John Patrick D. Tablo)

REPRODUCTION - is a biological process by which an organism reproduces an

offspring that is biologically similar to the organism.
 2 MODES OF REPRODUCTION
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - A mode of reproduction in which a new offspring is
produced by a single parent.
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - A mode of reproduction in which a new offspring is
produced by a single parent.

MITOSIS - a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

6 TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 BINARY FISSION/FUSION
 BUDDING
 SPORE FORMATION
 FRAGMENTATION
 VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
 PARTHENOGENESIS

BINARY FISSION - is asexual reproduction by a separation of the body into two new
bodies.
 The process of binary fission is an organism that duplicates its genetic
material, or deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA), and then divides into two parts.
- Applied only in plants.

BUDDING - is a form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a

part of a cell or body region leading to a separation from the original oragnism into
two individuals.
HYDRA - a genus of a invertebrate freshwater animal.

SPORE FORMATION - are haploid unicellular bodies that are produced as a result of
sexual or asexual reproduction in eukaryotic organisms such as algae, bacteria, fungi
and some plants.
- many spores are housed in sacs known as sporangia. The plants
produce hundreds of spores and the spore sacs burst.
 Sporangium - a case, capsule, or container in which spores are produced by an
organism.
 Spores - is a cell that certain fungi, plants, and bacteria produce.
 Hyphae- is a long branching, fillamentous structure of fungus.
 Food source - anything that has nutrients.

FRAGMENTATION - is the process by which a living organism split into parts that
later grow identical to the original organism.
 PARENT PLANARIA - can produce sexually and asexually.
- has one opening and exit called pharynx
- If sexually, it cannot produce without a partner but if
asexually it can produce (siya pag putol-putolon)
 BLASTEMA - white part of the parent planaria.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - is a form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants
in which a new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant .

PARTHENOGENESIS - is a form of reproduction in which an egg can develop into an

embryo without being fertilized by a sperm.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - the production of new organisms by the combination of

genetic information of two individuals of different sexes.

 MITOSIS - consist of two rounds of cell division, The daughter cells of meiosis are
called germ cells, which develop into gametes or sex cells.
2 TYPES OF GAMETES
 EGG (FEMALE GAMETES)
- usually LARGE and NONMOTILE
 SPERM (MALE GAMETES)
- generally much SMALLER and MOTILE

IN ANIMAL FERTILIZATION THERE ARE TWO TYPES:

 INTERNAL FERTILIZATION - is the process of fertilization that occurs inside the
body of an individual. Example: dog or cat
 EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION - usually occurs in water or in damp areas in a process
called spawning.

HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - is sexual reproduction that results in human

fertilization to produce a human offspring. It typically involves sexual intercourse
between a sexually mature human male and female.
COITUS - scientific name for sexual intercourse.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 SCROTUM - the bag of skin that holds and helps to protect the testicles.
 TESTIS - one of two egg-shaped glands inside the scrotum that produce sperm
and male hormones.
 EPIDIDYMIS - a narrow, tightly-coiled tube that is attached to each of the
testicles.
 VAS DEFERENS - this long muscular tube runs from the epididymis into the pelvic
cavity behind your bladder and connects to your urethra through a structure
called the ejaculatory duct.
 BLADDER-The organ that stores urine.
 SEMINAL VESICLE - are glands that produce the fluids that will turn into semen.
 PROSTATE GLAND - is to produce the fluid that nourishes and transports sperm
(seminal fluid).
 URETHRA- The tube through which urine leaves the body.
 Penis- is the male sex organ that leads the urine to leave the body.
 COWPER'S GLAND - are pea sized glands present inferior to the prostate gland in
the male reproductive system.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 VAGINA - is a muscular canal that extends from the vulva to the neck of the
uterus (cervix).
 CERVIX - the lower, narrow end of the uterus that forms a canal between the
uterus and vagina.
 UTERUS - the hollow, pear-shaped organ in a woman's pelvis.
 ENDOMETRIUM - the layer of tissue that lines the uterus.
 MYOMETRIUM - the muscular outer layer of the uterus.
 FUNDUS - is the top part of the uterus that is across from the cervix.
 UTERINE TUBE (FALLOPIAN TUBE) - female structures that transport the ova
from the ovary to the uterus each month.
 FIMBRIAE - are finger-like projections on the ends of your fallopian tubes closest
to your ovaries
 OVARY - one of a pair of female glands in which the eggs form and the female
hormones estrogen and progesterone are made.

REGULATION OF LIFE
NERVOUS CONTROL
(Reporter: Jhon Vincent Aguilar)

Neurons send what are known as electrochemical signals. Once a neuron has been
stimulated by some sort of stimulus, it generates an electric potential that travels
down the length of the cell. This is the 'electro' part of electrochemical.
The body function of all organism proceed through different modes of control and
coordination. Complex animals have evolved a system for coordinating, controlling,
and regulating the function of the different system in the body.

Nervous System - this system that controls all the activities of the body.
- It is made up of billion of nerves cells called neurons.
NEURONS - transmits nerve impulse to different part of the body allowing the
nervous system to control the body.
Nuerotransmitter - a car synaptic transmission (process at synapsis)

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IS DIVIDED INTO 2 PARTS

 Central nervous system ( CNS) - which consist of brain and spinal cord.
- do not spontaneously regenerate after injury
in adult mammals.
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - which consist of nerve and receptors.
- readily regenerate after injury in adult mammals.

NEURONS
- is the basic cell of the nervous system.
- transmit signal by electrochemical process.
- the cell body of a neuron contains most of its organelles including the nucleuses. It
has one part , several extension called dendrites and, on the other part one
extension called axon.

Dendrite - serve as the receiver of signal (receptor are dendrites)

Cell body or the soma
NUCLEUSES are found at the soma

Axon - serves as a carrier of signal to other neurons or cells (nerve are basically a
bundle of axon)
PARTS OF AXON:
 Node of Ranvier - sped up propagation of the potential along the atom via
saltatory conduction.
 Schwann Cell - protect the neuron.
- surround the neuron, keeping them alive.
- plays essential role in development, maintenance, function and
regeneration of peripheral nerves.
 Axon ternminals

PRESYNAPTIC CELL - cell membrane of an axon terminal that face the receiving cell.

Neurons communicate with one another at junctions called synapses.

At a synapse, one neuron sends a message to a target neuron—another cell.
Most synapses are chemical; these synapses communicate using chemical
messengers.
Other synapses are electrical; in these synapses, ions flow directly between cells.
Synaptic transmission is the process at synapses by which a chemical signal (a
transmitter) is released from one neuron and diffuses to other neurons or target cells
where it generates a signal which excites, inhibits or modulates cellular activity.

INFORMATION PROCESS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM TYPICALLY OCCURS IN THREE

STAGES: SENSORY INPUT, INTEGRATION AND MOTOR OUTPUT
 Sensory input - describes the response in a sensory organ when it receives
stimuli.

 Integration - stimuli that are received by sensory structures are communicated

to the nervous system where that information is processed.

 Motor output - is conduction of signals from the integration center, the CNS, and
is carried out by a group of effector cells, the muscle cells or gland cells, which
carry out body's responses to external stimuli.

Different shape of neurons based on their function:

 Unipolar neurons - are sensory neuron which react to stimuli.
- single elongated process, with the cell body locaed off the
side.

 Multipolar neurons - are motor neurons usually connected to muscle to make

the contract and move.
- have mpre than two processes, a single axon and multiple
dendrites.

 Bipolar neurons - on the other hand are interneurons that usually bridge and
process message from sensory neurons to motor neurons.
- two processes separated by the cell body.

THE HUMAN BRAIN AND THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM - controls all the process of an animal through chemical and
electrical impulse.
BRAIN - central to the nervous system is .
The brain has three major parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brain stem.

Chemical impulse - a nerve impulse can travel in only one direction.. Also, across a
chemical synapse, the impulse is transmitted with a 0.5-millisecond delay.

Electrical impulse - The electrical signal that travels down an axon is called a nerve
impulse. The electricity produced by our bodies is what allows synapses, signals and
even heartbeats to occur.

 Impulse is a certain amount of force you apply for a certain amount of time to
cause a change in momentum.
 Neurotransmitter is the car that send a message to the designated area.
Neurons communicate with one another at junctions called synapses.
 At a synapse, one neuron sends a message to a target neuron—another cell.
 Most synapses are chemical; these synapses communicate using chemical
messengers.
 Other synapses are electrical; in these synapses, ions flow directly between cells.
Synaptic transmission - is the process at synapses by which a chemical signal (a
transmitter) is released from one neuron and diffuses to other neurons or target cells
where it generates a signal which excites, inhibits or modulates cellular activity.

CEREBRUM - is the largest part of the brain. Its surface has numerous folds and
“wrinkles”.
- It is the center of sensory perception, memory, thought, and
personality.
2 PARTS OF CEREBRUM:
RIGHT CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE - controls right part of the body
LEFT CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE - controls left part of the body

THE CEREBRUM HAS FOUR LOBES:

 Frontal lobe (memory block) - are important for voluntary movement,
expressive language and for managing higher level executive functions.
 Parietal lobe - is vital for sensory perception and integration, including the
management of taste, hearing, sight, touch, and smell.
 Temporal lobe - is associated with processing auditory information and with the
encoding of memory.
 Occipital lobe - sit at the back of the head and are responsible for visual
perception, including color, form and motion.

CEREBELLUM - is also called the hindbrain because of it location.

- It comes from the Latin word “little brain” because it is separated
from the brain and located at the bottom back part of the brain.
- It controls motor function such as balance and body coordination.

BRAIN STEM - the brain stem connect the spinal cord and the brain together.
- It incudes the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata.
 Midbrain - is associated with vision hearing alertness, sleep –wake pattern and
temperature regulation.
 Pons - which literally means “bridge”, relay signal from the brain to the
cerebellum and the medulla and sensory signal to the thalamus.
 Medulla oblongata - is a cone shaped mass in the brain stem and is responsible
for individual movement including the control of basic anatomical process such
as breathing circulation and digestion.
SPINAL CORD - a tubular structure that extend from the medulla oblongata to the
vertebral area. The main function of the spinal cord is to send signal from the brain
to the rest of the body.

The central nervous system (CNS) is connected to the different organs through the
peripheral nervous system which send signals from the CNS to the different organ
through the nerves and ganglia.
(ganglia are clusters of nerve cell bodies found throughout the body.)

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consist of arising from the brain to spinal
cord.
There are two kind of pathways in (PNS) :
 afferent sensory pathway that receive signals or stimuli.
 efferent motor pathways that act on stimuli.
Motor oath may cause either voluntary movement or involuntary movement.

Voluntary movement is the expression of thought through action. Virtually all areas
of the central nervous system are involved in this process.
An involuntary movement occurs when you move your body in an uncontrollable and
unintended way. These movements can be anything from quick, jerking tics to longer
tremors and seizures.

ANY NERVOUS SYSTEM CANNOT FUNCTION WITH OUT THE NERVES.

THE NERVES ARE ENCLOSED CABLE LIKE BUNDLE OF NERVE FIBER THAT PROVIDES
COMMON PATHWAYS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL NERVE IMPULSE.

ADDITIONAL INFO:
MULTIPOLARR NERVES
-are the most common types of neurons in the CNS they form the automatic
ganglia.

BIPOLAR NERVES
- a type of neuron that has two extension (one axon and one dendrite) many
bipolar are sensory neurons. As such they are put in sensory pathway for smell,
sight, taste, hearing, touch, balance, and proprioception (to be able to sense the part
of your body without looking).

REGULATION OF LIFE PROCESSES: CHEMICAL CONTROL

(Reporter: Khendra Pancho)

All organisms have a chemical control system.

- dictates the direction of the different
processes performed by the different organ systems.
Even plants are controlled by chemical systems, from their germination to the
growth and development of their flowers and fruits.

Germination - is the sprouting of a seed, spore, or other reproductive body, usually

after a period of dormancy.

Most plants go into a state of dormanc.

DORMANCY or winter rest, as a result of the cold temperatures and shorter
daylight hours of winter. These sleeping plants lose their stems and leaves and are
dormant, not dead!

REGULATIONS OF PROCESESS IN PLANTS

Plants do not possess an endocrine system, but are able to regulate different
processes such as the ripening of fruits through plant hormones.
Plant hormones - also called phytohormones, are chemicals that regulate metabolic
processes in plants.

There are five major groups of plant hormones:

Auxin
Gibberellin
Cytokinin
Abscisic Acid
Ehylene
AUXIN
- Stimulates cell elongation in stems.
- It also plays a role in other processes, such as apical dominance, the control of the
shoot tip over axillary bud outgrowth.
- Indole-3-acetic or indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a naturally occurring auxin, but
synthetic auxins are also available in the market.

APPICAL DOMINANCE
- Occurs when the shoot apex inhibits the growth of lateral buds so that the plant
may grow vertically.
- It is important for the plant to devote energy to growing upward so that it can get
more light to undergo photosynthesis.

GIBBERELLIN
- Signals stem elongation and, in some plants, enhances other processes such as
seed germination and fruit set.
- Gibberellic acid (GA) is one of more than 60 naturally occurring gibberellins.

CYTOKININ
- Stimulates cell division.
- It also causes cell enlargement and regulation of senescence.
- Zeatin was the first naturally occurring cytokinin to be identified in Plants.

PLANT SENESCENCE
- Is the process of aging in plants. It involves all the changes occurring in plants
causing the death of tissues, cells and the entire plant body. This process takes place
in various ways which affects the entire plant or a part of a plant.

ABSCISIC ACID OR ABA

- Inhibits, rather than stimulates, many physiological functions.
- The effects of ABA include closure of the stomata, dormancy of axillary buds,
abscission of certain fruits, and inhibition of seed germination.

ETHYLENE
- Stimulates fruit ripening, accelerated senescence, and alters other processes, such
as bud growth in pea seedlings. Ethylene moves readily through plants by diffusion.

Humans, on the other hand, have an endocrine system that controls body processes.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS IN HUMANS

Regulation of body activities in the human body is controlled by the endocrine and
nervous systems.
In lesson 4, you learned that the nervous system uses electrical impulses to control
processes. These impulses are localized and are extremely fast.

Glands are grouped in an organ system called the endocrine system.

The endocrine glands produce chemical messengers that influence a wide range of
activities such as growth, development, and metabolic activities.

These chemical messengers called hormones regulate processes at a slower rate.

The hormonal effects last longer and are more widespread within the body.

The endocrine system is also a complex network of glands and organs. It uses
hormones to control and coordinate your body's metabolism, energy level,
reproduction, growth and development, and response to injury, stress, and mood.

PARTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Pituitary Gland
 Thyroid
 Parathyroid
 Adrenal Glands
 Pancreas
 Testes
 Ovaries
PITUITARY GLAND
- The major endocrine gland. A pea-sized body attached to the base of the
brain, the pituitary is important in controlling growth and development and the
functioning of the other endocrine glands.

THYROID GLAND
- A large ductless gland in the neck which secretes hormones regulating
growth and development through the rate of metabolism.
Makes two hormones that are secreted into the blood:
 Thyroxine (T4)
 Triiodothyroxine (T3)
- These hormones are necessary for all the cells in your blood to work
normally.

PARATHYROID GLAND
- A gland next to the thyroid which secretes a hormone ( parathyroid
hormone ) that regulates calcium levels in a person's body. Parathyroid hormone is
directly involved in the bones, kidneys, and small intestine.

ADRENAL GLAND
- A pair of ductless glands situated above the kidneys.
Each consists of a core region (adrenal medulla) secreting epinephrine and
norepinephrine, and an outer region (adrenal cortex) secreting corticosteroids.

OVARIES (FEMALE)
- One of a pair of female glands in which the eggs form and the female
hormones estrogen and progesterone are made.

TESTES (MALE)
- The testes are known as gonads In addition to their role in the male
reproductive system, the testes also have the distinction of being an endocrine gland
because they secrete testosterone.
TESTOSTERONE —a hormone that is vital to the normal development of male
physical characteristics/.

HOMEOSTASIS
- An important role of hormones is to regulate the internal body environment
of an organism and to maintain equilibrium amidst changing environments. The
tendency of a system to resist change and maintain a stable environment is called
homeostasis.
This process involves feedback controls, whether they are negative or positive
feedback loops.
A negative feedback loop keeps target values to a specific ideal level.
A positive feedback loop amplifies the starting signals.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP

 - A negative feedback loop occurs in biology when the product of a reaction
leads to a decrease in that reaction. In this way, a negative feedback loop brings a
system closer to a target of stability or homeostasis.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP

- A positive feedback loop occurs in nature when the product of a reaction
leads to an increase in that reaction. If we look at a system in homeostasis, a positive
feedback loop moves a system further away from the target of equilibrium.

Importance
 The life activity responsible for the control and coordination of all the various
activities of an organism is called regulation.
 The nervous and endocrine systems are responsible for regulation.
 Regulation - allows organisms to respond to changes in the environment.

HEREDITY
(Reporter: Reina Lorlin Pis-an)
HEREDITY - The transmission of traits or characteristics from parents to their
offspring.

GENETICS - Is a special field of biology that studies heredity and the factors that
affect heredity.

KEYWORDS
 Alleles - matching genes; one from our biological mother, and one from our
biological father.
 Dominant - an allele of a gene is said to be dominant when it effectively
overrules the other allele.
 Recessive - a type of allele that when present on its own will not affect the
individual.
 Homozygous - having two identical alleles of a particular gene.
 Heterozygous - having two different alleles of a particular gene.
 Phenotype - refers to the observable physical properties of an organism; these
include the organism's appearance, development, and behavior.
 Genotype -refers to the genetic makeup of an organism; in other words, it
describes an organism's complete set of genes.

Some early scientists in the 19th century, including the evolutionist Charles Darwin,
thought that traits from parents were submitted to their offspring by blood, and thus
came the blood theory of heredity. This theory gave rise to the expressions,
“bloodline”, “blue blood”, and “blood relative”.

Gregor Mendel (1822-1844)

- was an Austrian monk at the distinguished monastery of St. Thomas in the
town of Brünn, now Bruno, in the Czech Republic.
- He was a high school teacher of physics and natural history who spent his
free time conducting biological experiments in a small garden near the monastery.
- He carried out his famous experiments on crosses of garden peas from
1856 to 1863.

WHY MENDEL USED PEA PLANT?

 Already used in older research
 Grows easily
 Have male and female reproductive organ:
Female - carpel
Male - stamen

Pea plants normally self-pollinate, which means they reproduce by themselves.

By crossing two different varieties by deliberately transferring the pollen of one plant
to the pistil of another, Mendel was able to follow the inheritance of a single, easily
distinguishable trait.

An organism’s phenotype is its set of observable characteristics.

For example, the height of a garden pea can be phenotypically described as
either tall or short.

Its genotype for height refers to the genetic makeup pertaining to that trait.

For this purpose, consider the trait tall as denoted by allele(T) and the trait small by
the allele(t).
The allele(T) is dominant, which means it gets expressed whether another
allele coming from another parent is (T) or (t).
The allele(t) is recessive, which means its expression is masked when
combined with the dominant(T).
The phenotype tall could be produced by two possible genotypes: TT and Tt;
whereas, the phenotype short could only be produced by tt.

Organisms that have an identical pair of alleles for a trait such as TT(for tall)
or tt(for short) are said to be homozygous for the trait.
Organisms that have a mixed pair of alleles, such as Tt(also for tall) are said
to be heterozygous
A phenotypically tall garden pea may either be homozygous(TT) or
heterozygous(Tt) genotypically for tallness.

Based on the results of his experiments with peas, Mendel was able to make
the following basic observations:

•The F₁ generation showed only the dominant trait.

•In the F₂ generation, both dominant and recessive traits reappeared in the
offspring.
•In the F₂ generation, there were three times as many plants with dominant traits
than plants with recessive traits.

These basic observations led Mendel to discover the following principle and laws of
inheritance:
The Principle of paired unit factors
Law of Segregation
Law of Dominance
Law of Independent Assortment.
Principle of Paired Unit Factors
- The principle of paired unit factors states that characters are controlled by
hereditary particles, called unit factors, which come in pairs. When Mendel observed
that traits did not blend, he argued that some invisible factor must determine each
of the traits he investigated.
- He termed this factor as merkmal which is the German word for
“character”. Today the factor that determine traits is called a gene.

Law of Dominance and Recessiveness

- states that if an organism inherits different alleles for the same trait, one
allele may be dominant over the other.
- Why does a plant with two alleles for tallness grow to the same height as
the plant with only one allele for tallness? Mendel explained that the allele for
tallness is a dominant allele, while the allele for shortness is a recessive allele. Thus,
in pea plants that have both alleles, only the dominant allele-the allele for tallness is
expressed.

Mendel’s law of inheritance explains the process by which certain

characteristics, such as dominant and recessive traits, are transmitted from one
generation to the next.
Some easy to recognize characteristics in humans that can be distinguished as
dominant or recessive traits include:
earlobe attachment
hitchhikers’ thumb
widow’s peak
tongue rolling
 MENDEL'S LAWS OF HEREDITY
(Reporter: Ciara Saycon)
THE LAW OF DOMINANCE AND RECESSIVENESS
THE LAW OF SEGREGATION
THE LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

Alleles - are different variations of a gene.

Phenotype - physical properties of an organism.
Genotype - the genetic makeup of an organism or the complete set of genes.

TWO KINDS OF GENOTYPE

Heterozygous Genotype - the presence of two different alleles.
Homozygous Genotype - the presence of two identical alleles.

THE LAW OF SEGREGATION

- The Law of Segregation states that for each gene, the organism receives one
allele from each parent.
- The alleles separate from each other in a process called "segregation"
during which reproductive cells are formed.

THE PROCESS OF SEGREGATION

SEGREGATION
- Alleles separate into several haploid cells, which eventually give rise to
gametes.

FERTILIZATION
- During fertilization, the male and female gametes randomly combine with
each other.

THE LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

- The Law of Independent Assortment states that the segregation of the
members of any pair of alleles is independent of the segregation of other pairs in the
formation of reproductive cells.

MENDEL'S CROSSES

Monohybrid cross
- The cross between parents that differ in one contrasting trait

Punnet Square
- Designed by Reginald Punnett in 1900s
- A method of tabulation is used to predict the possible offspring of a cross
between two parents.

Dihybrid cross
- A cross between two different lines that differ in two observed traits.
 Mechanisms of Heredity
(Reporter: Jade Borromeo)

MOLECULAR BASIS OF HEREDITY

Genes which found on chromosomes,that are passed from parents to offspring must
contain information-a genetic material which-influences the biological makeup of an
organism.

EARLY STUDIES ON THE GENETIC MATERIAL

The first major experiment that led to the discovery of DNA as the genetic material
was performed in 1928 by the British scientist, Frederick Griffith
- He studied the two strains of the bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae, which cause
pneumonia.

OSWALD AVERY
- In 1944, Canadian-American physician and
medical researcher, Oswald Avery and his
colleagues, repeated Griffith'
s experiment.
- They made an extract of the heat-killed bacteria.
They initially treated the extract with enzymes
that digest proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, other
molecules, and ribonucleic acid (RNA) and
observed that transformation occurred. They
then tried treating the extracts with enzyme that
destroyed DNA, and transformation did not
occur.

- In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase performed

another experiment that further strengthened the conclusion
that genes are made of DNA. The experiments involved a
Bacteriophage, a type of virus that attacks bacteria. Hershey
and Chase were aware that a bacteriophage contains both
protein and DNA.

DNA STRUCTURE
Basic structure of the nucleotides that make up a DNA In the 1920s, P.A. Levene,- A
Biochemist.
There are two nucleic acids, A nucleotide is composed of a five-carbon sugar,
and a nitrogenous in all living cells, namely, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic
acid (RNA). DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose,a phosphate group and one of the
four nitrogenous bases Adenine,Guanine,Thymine and Cytosine.

A phosphate group and one of the nitrogenous basis Adenine (A) and
Guanine (G) are called Purine bases because of their double-ringed chemical
structures Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) are called Pyrimidine because of their
single-ringed chemical structure.

In 1950, American biochemist, Erwin Chargaff, disc that the amount of guanine is
almost equal to the amount cytosine, and the amount of adenine is almost equal to
the thymine. This was later known as
Chargaff’s rule: A=T and G=C

After Chargaff, the scientists who independently investigated the DNA

structure were:
Rosalind Franklin - an English scientist
Maurice Wilkins - a British physicist.
Francis Crick - a British physicist.
James Watson - an American biologist
Their findings provided information as to the structure
of DNA.

 The DNA molecule is often compared to a twisted ladder and described as a

double helix.
 The Two strands of DNA molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds
between base pairs. The base Form the steps of the ladder.
 A purine base always binds to a pyrimidine base. For instance, the purine
adenine always binds with thymine and vice versa (A-T), and guanine always
bind with cytosine.

DNA REPLICATION
After the discovery of the double-helix structure of DNA Watson and Crick
presented their model of the DNA and proposed, a possible process by which the
dna replicates the semiconservative replication. During the semiconservative
replication,the parental DNA strands seperate and serve as templates and produce
exact duplicates by following base pairing rules.

The Genetic Material and the Flow of Information in the Cell

The genetic material must be able to replicate, store facilitate variation

through mutation, and express information-all characteristics of the DNA molecule.

During information, the cell cycle the DNA may replicate through the process
of replication, doubling its amount, and is partitioned into two daughter cells.

DNA stores information that it may or may not for instance, hair and skin
color, height, predisposition to certain illnesses, and others.
 The genetic material is also a express; source of variation because of DNA
mutation - the change in chemical composition of DNA which results in variation
among organisms.

The expression of DNA follows the flow of information in the cell as described
by the central dogma of molecular biology.

The first event in the flow of information is transcription, Transcription,-

process which results in the synthesis of RNA molecules.

This is followed by translation, a process which adapts information in a

type of RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA) to the amino acids, which make up
proteins.

The central dogma of molecular biology can be summed up simply as

"DNA makes RNA makes proteins. "

• Messenger RNA (mRNA)- are long strands of RNA that are formed
complement one of the DNA strands They carry the instructions coded by the
DNA, and as the DNA' s messengers. From the nucleus, they travel to the
ribosome to synthesis of proteins.

• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- is a type of RNA that associates with proteins

fo ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Proteins are assembled in ribosomes.

• Transfer RNA - are smaller segments of RNA that transport one amino
acid after to the ribosome.

TRANSCRIPTION
- is the initial step in the flow of information in the cell.
- This process involve synthesis of mRNA from DNA.
- In transcription, the DNA code is transferred to mRNA the
nucleus. The mRNA then moves out of the nucleus through the nuclear pores
the cytoplasm for protein synthesis.

TRANSLATION
- Once the mRNA is in the cytoplasm, one end of the mRNA
connects to the ribosome code in the mRNA is then read and translated to
make protein in a process called translate.
- Another type of RNA called tRNA (transfer RNA) participates in
translation.
- A tepon RNA has a special triplet of bases called anticodon -
which is complementary with a codon triplet in mRNA. During translation, the
anticodon on the tRNA appropriate codon in the mRNA. The tRNA carries the
amino acid corresponding to the codon it base pairs with.
GENETIC CODE
- Note that more than one codon can specify the same amino acid.

For example, 6 different codons specify for the amino acid arginine, and 6 others for
serine and leucine.

In most mRNA molecules, AUG (codon for methionine) is the start signal for amino
acid when a polypeptide chain is assembled, while the three codons.

stop codons: UAA, UAG, and UGA

DNA base pair. Under normal circumstances, the nitrogen-containing bases adenine
(A) and thymine (T) pair together, and cytosine (C) and guanine (G) pair together.
The binding of these base pairs forms the structure of DNA

An RNA molecule has a backbone made of alternating phosphate groups and the
sugar ribose, rather than the deoxyribose found in DNA. Attached to each sugar is
one of four bases:
adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C) or guanine (G).
the base uracil (U) takes the place of thymine.
In RNA, uracil pairs with adenine.

Purines; Adenine and Guanine

Pyrimidines: Thymine and Cytosine

Purines and Pyrimidines are nitrogenous bases that make up the two The:
 two-carbon nitrogen ring bases (adenine and guanine) are purines,
 while the one-carbon nitrogen ring bases (thymine and cytosine) are pyrimidines.
Amino acid Three letter code One letter code
alanine ala A
arginine arg R
asparagine asn N
aspartic acid asp D
asparagine or aspartic acid asx B
cysteine cys C
glutamic acid glu E
glutamine gln Q
glutamine or glutamic acid glx Z
glycine gly G
histidine his H
isoleucine ile I
leucine leu L
lysine lys K
methionine met M
phenylalanine phe F
proline pro P
serine ser S
threonine thr T
tryptophan trp W
tyrosine tyr Y
valine val V
 APPLIED GENETICS
(Reporter: Keiron Fabillar)

CONCEPT MAP
GENETICS whose specific branch called GENETIC ENGINEERING involves the use of
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY which results in the creation of GENETICALLY
MODIFIED ORGANISM that are harnessed through BIOTECHNOLOGY

Genetics is applied in Animal and Plant Breeding

PLANTS AND ANIMAL BREEDING

Plant Breeding
- is the application of genetic principles to produce plants that are more useful to
humans.

What do farmers hope to achieve when breeding crops?

 They basically breed plans to increase crop yield and improve the quality of
crops produced.
 Plant breeders usually want plants that possess as many desirable
characteristics from the parent plants as possible.
 Plant breeders want to cultivate plants that do not have highly specific
environmental requirements for growth.
 The nutritional quality of plants can also be improved by breeding.

Methods of Plant Breeding:

(Types of Pollination)
 Self-pollination
 Cross-pollination

Self-pollination
- Occurs if the pollen transferred to a flower comes from a flower of the same plant.
Cross-pollination
- Happens if the pollen comes from a flower of a different plant.

Methods in Breeding Self-pollinating Plants

1. Mass Selection
2. Pure-line Selection
3. Hybridization
4. Development of Hybrid Varieties

Mass Selection
- is the process of choosing ideal plants from a large number of population to serve
as breeding parents.
Progeny Selection
- A procedure of mass selection.
- Involves collecting seeds from desirable, ideal plants, in a population and sowing
them to form the next generation.

Pure-line selection
- is selecting and reading progeny from superior organisms for number of generation
until a pure line of organisms with only the desired characteristics has been
established.

Hybridization
- is the process of crossbreeding between a genetically different parents to produce
a hybrid.

Development of Hybrid Varieties

- Differs from hybridization in that no attempt is made to produce a pure breeding
population.

Methods in Breeding Cross-Pollinating Plants

1. Mass selection
2. Development of hybrid varieties
3. Development of synthetic varieties

Mass Selection
- Approaches in mass selection for self-pollinating plant species also apply to cross
pollinating plants species.
- Desirable plants are chosen from population to become parent plants.

Development of Hybrid Varieties

- in cross-pollinated plant species is illustrated in the production of hybrid corn.

Development of Synthetic Varieties

- A variety develop by selecting a number of inbred lines with good general
combining ability (GCA), intercrossing them in all possible combinations and mixing
the seeds of all the crosses conducted, in equal quantity.

Animal Breeding
- is the process of selective mating of animals with desirable genetic traits, to
maintain or enhance these traits in the future generations.
- Basically follows the same procedures as plant breeding, that is, mass selection,
inbreeding and outbreeding.

Genetic Engineering
- is a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA make up of an
organism.
- Organisms which were altered through genetic engineering are referred to as
genetically modified organism GMO or transgenic organisms.
Genetically Modified Organism
- an organism which has foreign DNA integrated into its genetic material.

Recombinant DNA
- DNA made from two different organisms.

 Bacterial enzymes called restriction enzymes are used as “cutting tools”.

 Restriction enzymes makes staggered cuts that leave single stranded DNA
hanging off the ends of the fragments.
 This single-stranded portion of DNA, called “sticky end”, is available to find any
sequence complementary to it.
 Another enzyme called DNA ligase joins together the complementarity sticky
end of two DNA fragments.
 This “pasting” mechanism of sticky and repair the DNA backbone.

Uses of Genetic Engineering

 Making human insulin for diabetic people.
 Before human insulin;
insulin from cattle and pigs was used for many years to treat
diabetes and saved millions of lives, but it wasn’t perfect, as it caused
allergic reaction and many patients.

Application of Recombinant DNA Technology

- Is a method employed by genetic engineers in altering and modifying the
characteristics of microorganisms.
- Also applied in developing micro organisms for vaccines.
 A vaccine exposes a persons immune system to dead microbes or parts of
microbes. This enables the immune system to recognize and quickly defend the
body against later or actual exposure to the pathogens.
 For example, genes for proteins of the virus causing hepatitis B have been
cloned in yeast cells, and are used to make vaccines against this disease.

1. THE APPLICATION OF GENETIC PRINCIPLES TO PRODUCE PLANTS

THAT ARE MORE USEFUL TO HUMANS. (PLANT BREEDING)

2-3. WHAT ARE THE TWO METHODS OF PLANT BREEDING (SELFPOLLINATION AND
CROSS-POLLINATION)

4. OCCURS IF THE POLLEN TRANSFERRED TO A FLOWER COMES FROM

A FLOWER OF THE SAME PLANT. (SELF-POLLINATION)

5. IS THE PROCESS OF CROSSBREEDING BETWEEN GENETICALLY

DIFFERENT PARENTS TO PRODUCE A HYBRID. (HYBRIDIZATION)
6. IS THE PROCESS OF SELECTIVE MATING OF ANIMALS WITH
DESIRABLE GENETIC TRAITS, TO MAINTAIN OR ENHANCE THESE TRAITS
IN FUTURE GENERATIONS. (ANIMAL BREEDING)

7. IS A PROCESS THAT USES LABORATORY-BASED TECHNOLOGIES TO

ALTER THE DNA MAKEUP OF AN ORGANISM. (GENETIC ENGINEERING)

8. AN ORGANISM WHICH HAS FOREIGN DNA INTEGRATED INTO ITS

GENETIC MATERIAL (GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM OR GMO)

9. IT IS DNA MADE FROM TWO DIFFERENT ORGANISMS. (RECOMBINANT

DNA)

10. BACTERIAL ENZYMES CALLED BLANK ARE USED AS "CUTTING TOOLS".

(RESTRICTION ENZYMES)

11. IS A METHOD EMPLOYED BY GENETIC ENGINEERS IN ALTERING AND

MODIFYING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROORGANISMS. (GENETIC
ENGINEERING)

12. RESTRICTION ENZYMES MAKE STAGGERED CUTS THAT LEAVE

SINGLE-STRANDED DNA HANGING OFF THE ENDS OF THE FRAGMENTS.
THIS SINGLE-STRANDED PORTION OF DNA, CALLED BLANK. (STICKY
ENDS)

13. ANOTHER ENZYME CALLED ______ JOINS TOGETHER THE

COMPLEMENTARY STICKY ENDS OF TWO DNA FRAGMENTS, THIS
"PASTING" MECHANISM OF THE STICKY ENDS REPAIR (DNA LIGASE)
 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
(Reporter: Jemyre Cardosa)

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
VASCULAR PLANTS
- the vascular plants are well-developed and advance plants that include
ferns and seed plants.
- the vascular plants have vascular tissues,
including xylem and phloem for absorbing food and transporting water.

XYLEM
- is the tissue that transports water and nutrients from the soil to the stems
and leaves.
 One way flow  No end walls between cells
 Water and minerals  Stiffened with lignin

PHLOEM
- is a tissue in charge of the transport and distribution of the organic
nutrients.
 Two way flow
 Water and food
 End walls with perforations

TRANSPIRATION (XYLEM; evaporation)

- The upward movement of water and minerals through the xylem,
even if it is against the force of gravity, is due to transpiration pull.
 Transpiration is the process through which water evaporates from the stomata
or pores on the surface of the leaves.
 This evaporation process creates a kind of vacuum in the conduction tissues and
pulls up water through the xylem.

TRANSLOCATION (PHLOEM; photosynthesis)

- Translocation is the movement of materials in plants from the leaves
to other parts of the plant. Nutrients, mainly sugars, that are created in the leaves
during photosynthesis are then transported throughout the plant through phloem.
- Translocation refers to the transport of nutrients from leaves to
other plant part.
- With a specialized tissue called phloem, sugars and other food
molecules produced in the leaves are carried to other parts of the plant.

XYLEM
- transports and stores water and water-soluble nutrients in vascular plants
with the help of Transpiration pull.
PHLOEM
- is responsible for transporting sugar, proteins and other organic molecules
in from the leaves to other parts of the plants through Translocation.

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
(COMPLEX ANIMALS)

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN ANIMALS

 Complex animals like humans have distinct organ systems, such as nutrients,
wastes, and gases.
WE HAVE A:
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM for exchanging and transporting gases
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM to process and transport waste to organs of excretion, which
move them out of the body and into the environment.
All of these organ system work with the CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: BLOOD CIRCULATION

The circulatory system is a closed circulatory system which means that the transport
fluid (blood) is enclosed in vessels.

Veins - are vessels that carry blood to the heart.

- contains valves to prevent backflow of blood.
- carries blood to the heart.

Arteries - carry blood from the heart towards the rest of the body.
- thick, elasticated walls to withstand high pressure.
- carries blood away from the blood.

Capillaries - are tiny vessels that are usually involved in exchange of gas and
nutrients.
- thin, one-cell-thicked walls to allow gas exchange.
- very low blood pressure.

BLOOD IS COMPOSED OF 4 SEPARATE PARTS:

 RED BLOOD CELLS - contains a large amount of a protein called hemoglobin,
which can bind oxygen to produce oxyhemoglobin.
 WHITE BLOOD CELLS - Important for immune system.
 PLATELETS - or also known as thrombocytes , help in blood clotting.
 PLASMA - Take nutrients, hormones, and proteins to the parts of the body that
need it.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM: BLOOD CIRCULATION

 Atria - is thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins.
(upper chamber)

 Ventricles have thicker walls compared to atria.

(lower chamber)
The two ventricles are thick-walled chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the
heart then the atria refill and get ready for the next contraction.

There are two primary loops of the circulatory system:

1. Pulmonary Loop
2. Systemic Loop

HEART is a muscular pump that is responsible for pumping blood around the body.

Deoxynated blood is taken to the lungs to pic up oxygen.

Oxygenated blood is transported around the body.

PULMONARY LOOP
carries the deoxygenated blood from the right chambers of the heart to the
lungs to pick up oxygen and return to the left chambers of the heart.

SYSTEMIC LOOP
carries the oxygenated blood from the left chambers of the heart to the
different tissues of the body.

 waste is then filtered out in the excretory organs while the deoxygenated blood
returns to the right chambers of the heart.
 delivers the needed oxygen for cellular respiration, and also collects wastes from
respiration.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORT OF GASES

 When we breath there's a process which is the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
 The lungs and respiratory system allow us to breathe.
 INSPIRATION/INHALATION
- bring oxygen into our bodies
 INSPIRATION/INHALATION
- send carbon dioxide out of the body
 This exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is called respiration.

GAS EXCHANGE
The means and mode of gas exchange vary across species of organisms
depending on whether oxygen is dissolved in water or mixed with gases in the
atmosphere.
Aquatic animals have adaptations that enable them to get their supply of
oxygen from the dissolved oxygen in water.
Gas exchange in aquatic organisms varies from simple diffusion using
membrane skin to breathing through elaborate gill structures.

Complex animals that are adapted to terrestrial life have lungs which are localized
respiratory organs that are not in contact with other parts of the body. Despite this
non-contact, the lungs are bridged by the circulatory system which transports gases
between the lungs and the rest of the body.

ALVEOLI
- are tiny, balloon-shaped air sacs in your lungs.
The function of the alveoli is to move oxygen and carbon dioxide (CO2) molecules
into and out of your bloodstream.
 Endpoint of the respiratory system.
 Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide in the bloodstream.

Gas exchanges - takes place in the lungs between the alveoli and a network of tiny
blood vessels called capillaries, which are located near the walls of the alveoli.

3 Steps of Gas Exchange

1. VENTILATION - refers to the flow of air in and out of the alveoli.
2. DIFFUSSION - movement of gasses from the alveoli to plasma and red blood cells
3. PERFUSSION - refers to the of blood flow to tissues and organs.

Oxygen flows from the alveoli, where oxygen concentration is higher, to the
blood in the capillaries where oxygen concentration is lower.
Simultaneously, the diffusion of carbon dioxide also occurs in the opposite
direction, from the capillaries to the alveoli and out of the body.

THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

- is a vital biological system that removes excess and waste products from the
body to maintain homeostasis.
- most of these products are in fact used and broken down components of
metabolism that leave the body in the form of urine, sweat, or feces.

MAIN PARTS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM

 KIDNEY - the main organ in the excretory system.
 URETERS - a tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.
 URINARY BLADDER - temporary storage reservoir for urine.
 URETHRA - the tube through which urine leaves the body.
UREA
- is a nitrogen containing waste substance that the kidneys clear from the
blood and excrete into the urine.
- is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed along with
water and other wastes in the form of urine.

NEPHRONS - millions of filtering units.

Each of your kidneys is made up of about a million filtering units called nephrons.
Each nephron includes a filter called the glomerulus, and a tubule.

The nephrons work through a two-step process:

 the glomerulus filters your blood
 and the tubule returns needed substances to your blood and removes wastes.

ADDITIONAL INFO:

 SIMPLE PLANTS - have no vascular system.

 HIGHER PLANTS - has vascular system.
 LOWER ORGANISM - have no vascular system (ex; bacteria - single cell)
 HIGHER ORGANISM - has vascular system.
 Stomata - small openings on underside of leaves.
 Sink cell - roots
 Source cell - leaf
 Translocation of sucrose
 Transportation of water