Title: General Biology (BIOL.

102)
(Animal Physiology)
Prepared by Prof. M. F. F. Bayomy
 Lipids
The lipids are heterogeneous group of substances that are:
(1) Present in both animal and plant tissues.
(2) Composed of C,H and O, where ratio of O:H is far more less than in
carbohydrates.
(3) Insoluble in water and soluble in fat solvents such as chloroform,
ether and benzene and
(4) Utilized by living organisms as a source of energy.
Since biological material, in general, has a very high percentage of
water, therefore, the insolubility of the lipids contributes to the
specialized roles which they play in the body such as:
(a) The storage of the body's reserve of energy.
(b) The maintenance of the structural integrity of the cell.
Lipids, also, have Hormonal and regulative functions such as in
the case of the steroids (steroid hormones).
Therefore, lipids have important physiological and structural roles
that can be indicated in the following:
I. Energy storage
Energy is stored in the body mainly as saturated fatty acids, of the
general formula: CH3 (CH2)n COOH where n = 0 in acetic acid, n=1 in
propionic acid, n = 2 in butyric acid, and so on. The value of n lies
usually between 10 and 16 but is always an even number. Most of the
common fatty acids have a long inert hydrophobic chain (long
hydrocarbon chain) with a highly reactive hydrophilic acidic grouping
at one end (carboxylic acid group).

In the neutral fats the acidic groups are joined through ester linkages
to the trihydroxylic alcohol, glycerol, to give a completely fat
molecule which has no charge and no reactive groups.
Triglyceride (triacylglycerol)
Glycerol reacts with 1 mole of fatty acid to form a
monoglyceride and with 2 moles to form a diglyceride.
With palmetic acid, CH3.(CH2)14 COOH (a 16 C acid), it
yields glyceryl tripalmiate or tripalmitin and with strearic
acid, CH3.(CH2)16COOH, (an 18C acid), glycerol forms
glyceryl tristeatate or tristearin. Both tristearin and
tripalmitin occur in large quantities in beef and mutton fat.
With the unsaturated fatty acid, oleic acid, (an 18C acid),
CH3.(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH, glycerol yields glyceryl
trioleate or triolein which is the main constituent in the
olive oil.
In the general formula for a fat: R1, R2 and R3 may be
derived from the same or different fatty acids.
The liver can store energy in the form of glycogen but
glycogen supplies are exhausted after only a few hours of
fasting and that is why the fat stores are regarded as the
main form of energy reserve in man.

The waxes:
The waxes are esters of fatty acids with complex
monohydric alcohols. Beeswax, for example, is an ester of
the palmitic acid with myricyl alcohol (C37H61OH). Many
animal waxes are esters of the steroid alcohol,
cholesterol.
II The maintenance of the structural integrity of
the cell :
All animal cells are surrounded by a membrane and
many intracellular particles such as nuclei or mitochondria
are also enclosed by membranes.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is also a membrane-
like structure. These membranes are highly flexible and
elastic and also very selective with respect to the ions and
molecules which they allow to pass so that the
composition of the intracellular fluids of the body is very
different from that of the extracellular fluids.
This selectivity is dependent on the nature of
the molecule rather than on their size; some
quite large molecules such as small proteins can
enter the cell whereas some relatively small
ions such as sodium ions are, to a large extent,
excluded.
A membrane may be able to differentiate
between molecules of the same size, thus D-
glucose which can pass into some cells whereas
L-glucose which cannot.
 This membrane specificity differs with the animal, the
tissue, or even the intracellular organelle involved, thus
although the red cells of man and of primates are
permeable to glucose, those of pig and horse are not, and
again, although human red cell are permeable to glucose,
human muscle cells are relatively impermeable in the
absence of the hormone insulin. It is apparent that these
membranes are not simple sieves but are highly selective
and have intdicate permeability mechanisms.
It is obvious that the ideal barrier for
preventing water soluble materials from passing
freely between the intra- and extra- cellular fluids
would be a lipid one, since it would have little
affinity for those materials. This is in fact the
main role of phospholipids.
The phospholipids (phosphatides):
These compounds contain: Glycerol, 2 moles of fatty
acids (generally unsaturated), phosphate, and an N-
containing base (choline, in case of lecithins and
ethanolamine, in case of cephalins). Phospholipids are
structural ingredients of any cell membrane. They include:
a) Phosphatidylcholine (lecithin):
They are the best known phospholipids which on
hydrolysis give: glycerol, fatty acids, phosphoric acid and
choline:

Choline
Lecithins: It can be attacked by the enzyme lecithinase A,
which removes one of the fatty acid residues, leaving a
product known as lysolecithin, a surface-active agent
with the ability to cause hemolysis of red cells.
Lectithinase A presents in the venoms of many snakes and
poisonous insects.
(b) Phosphatidylethanalamines (cephalines):
They resemble lecithin in most properties but differ in
containing, instead of choline, ethanolamine
(H2N-CH2-CH2-OH). It is found in the biological
membranes.
(C) Phosphatidylserine:
It contains the amino acid serine instead of choline. It is
found in the inner leaflet of the membrane bilayer of healthy cells.
HO-CH2-CH-COOH Serine

NH2

Phosphatidylinositol (Ptd Ins)

It is found mainly in the nervous tissues, and contains inositol
in place of the amino acid serine, and occurs in cells and tissues.
(e) Sphingomyelins:
These materials are more complicated phospholipids
containing instead of glycerol the base sphingosine. On
hydrolysis, they yield: fatty acids, phosphoric acid, choline
and sphingosine. They are found in animal cell
membranes, especially in the membranous myelin sheath
that surrounds some nerve cell axons.
(f) Plasmalogens:

They are abundant in brain and muscles. They

resemble lecithin in structure with a complex
aldehyde attached to the β-carbon atom of the
glycerol.
Phospholipids are known to play a specialized role in
nervous tissue and brain which contain some rather
phospholipids such as cephalins, plasmalogens and
triphosphoinositides.

The exact role of the phospholipids in nervous tissue is not known

but many disorders of phospholipid metabolism are accompanied
by brain damage.

The passage of nerve impulses is known to involve variation in

permeability down the axon of the nerve cell. It is likely that the
phospholipids exercise an extremely specialized permeability
function.
III. Hormonal Regulation of Steroids:
Steroids are conveniently considered along the lipids. Like the
lipids they are soluble in fat solvents and in general insoluble in H2O.

The steroids include such substances as cholesterol

Perhydrocyclopentenophenantherene ring system.

 The steroids include such substances as
, cholesterol and other sterols
,

Male and female

Bile acids sex hormones Hormones of the Vitamin D
adrenal cortex.

They all contain the nucleus which is known as:

Perhydrocyclopentenophenantherene ring system . cholesterol is
the main precursor of the bile acids, the steroidal sex hormones
and those of the adrenal cortex as well as Vitamin D.
 Cholesterol

*The bile salts are strong emulsifying agents which help

disperse fatty materials into very small particles which may be
absorbed or more rapidly broken by enzymes.

* A patient whose gallbladder has been removed may develop

vitamin K deficiency and exhibit poor breakdown and absorption of
intestinal fats.
* Bile salts are reabsorbed and retained by portal circulation to the
liver. The reabsorbed salts stimulate the liver to secrete bile. Bile salts
also stimulate intestinal motility.
Steroidal Hormones

A) Sex hormones: Male testosterone (testis) and female

estrogens: estradial, esterone, estriol (ovaries) and
progesterone (corpus luteum).

B) Adrenocortical hormones (cortisone, cortisol and

aldosterone).
 Physiological importance of lipids
-They are important sources for energy.
-Combustion of I g of fat yields 9.3 K-cal.

-They are important sources of vitamins A & D.

-They also dissolve vitamins: A, D, E, K, and help in their

absorption.

-Lipids represent the most common storage materials

(particularly in adipose C.T., under the skin, around kidneys
& heart and in the mesenteries).
- Serve as thermal insulators in the subcutaneous tissues
and around certain organs.

- Non-polar lipids act as electrical insulators

-The lipid content of the nervous tissues is particularly high.

- Combine with proteins forming lipoproteins (important

cellular constituents).

- In certain diseases, large amounts of lipids can be found in

cells of different body organs (lipid storage diseases).
 Proteins
Chemically, the proteins are made up of numerous different
amino acids known as the building blocks of protein molecules. All
living cells contain protein. Growth in cells is synonymous with
protein synthesis. Proteins are important for many cellular functions
such as:
1. They are the chief structural units of the protoplasm.

1. Protein in the diet serves as the primary source of amino acids, the
building blocks for cellular proteins.

1. Proteins play an important role in the transport of water, inorganic

ions, organic compounds, and oxygen and carbon dioxide.
4- Antibodies are complex proteins whereas viruses are
nucleoproteins.

5- Some hormones, the regulators of chemical reactions,

are proteins or peptides.

6- The biologic catalysts known as enzymes are also

proteins.
 Proteins
-- Proteins are very large and elaborate polypeptides.

-They are different from other biologically

macromolecules such as the polysaccharides and
lipids.
-The latter are composed of smaller units which are
often identical or at least very similar and their
functions in living organisms are largely structural or
as reservoirs of essential nutrients.

-- The units of which proteomes are composed are,

however, varied since all 20 different amino acids may
be present in greater or smaller amounts in one
protein.
Consequently, there is a great variety and range
of the proteins, according to their composition,
size and shape.

They are of the utmost importance in biological

processes since, although some have a purely
structural function,

the majority such as enzymes (functional

proteins) which will be discussed later.
The molecular weights of protein range from the 6000
of insulin, through 60000 of bovine serum albumin
(BSA) to the 600000 of myosin and even a few or
several million, e.g. viruses.

The proportion of various amino acid residues in

proteins vary considerably.

Some such as serum albumin contain all the common

amino acids, others, such as insulin, are lacking only in
methionine. Collagen, the protein of connective tissue,
contains 33% glycine residues and 12% each of
alanine and proline with very low proportion of the
other amino acids.
 -- The order of amino acid residues along the chain is
also variable so that proteins with similar amino acids
compositions can have completely different biological
functions.
The shape of proteins ranges from the
a- long ribbon-like structures such as fibrinogen
b- almost completely spherical structures such as enzyme
ribonuclease.

-- They can be very

a- acidic in character such as pepsin,
b- Basic such as the histones which have very high
proportion of lysine residues or the protamines which are
rich in arginine.
- Proteins may be very highly insoluble, such as the
keratins from hair, hoofs and nails or

-Highly soluble such as the albumins of the blood

plasma.

The properties of each protein are related to its

biological function.
The daily requirement of protein,
• According to the Nutrition experts of WHO (World
Health Organization) is 1 gram / kg body weight.
Reduction in the intake of protein leads to protein
malnutritions
• such as marasmus and kwashiorkor.
-In marasmus the child loses weight and it also causes
severe diarrhea and the body muscles get wasted. It will
appear as though the bones are covered by the skin.
In kwashiorkor there is wastage of muscles. Face and
feet will have edema. The belly region will appear
enlarged.
Marasmus Kwashiorkor
Proteins are classified on the basis of both chemical and
physical properties. In many cases it is difficult to place a
single protein in a particular group; nevertheless, a
uniform method for classifying these substances has been
very useful. The committee of the Biological Chemists
places the proteins in 3main groups:

(1) Simple, (2) conjugated, and (3) derived proteins.

Simple proteins
Examples of these substances are: glutelin of wheat,
scleroproteins (insoluble in aqueous solvents), collagens,
elastins and keratins.
Proteins upon hydrolysis yield only (amino acids); Examples are:
A-Albumin: (serum, egg, and lactalbumins)
 These proteins are soluble in water,
 precipitated by saturated salt solutions and coagulated by heat.
B-Globulins (s-globulins)
 Insoluble in water,
 Soluble in dilute salt solutions of strong acids and bases.
 Also, coagulated by heat.
C-Glutelins (glutenin from wheat):
 Insoluble in water or dilute salt solutions,
 Soluble in dilute Acids or Bases.
D-Prolamines (Zein and gliadin):
 Insoluble in water and absolute alcohol,
 Soluble in 70 to 80% ethanol.
 The sticky quality of moistened flour is due to these proteins.
E-Scleroproteins (only in animal tissues):
• Perform structural & protective functions.
• Insoluble in all of the solvents mentioned.
Examples:
i-Keratins: e.g., horns, nails, hoofs, & feathers.
 They contain large amount of cystine.
ii-Collagen: (tendons, skin, & bone (C.T. proteins).
 Insoluble in water & resistant to diges. enzymes,
 Converted to easily digestible soluble gelatin by
boiling in water.
iii-Elastin : from ligaments.
 Can not be converted to gelatin.
Conjugated proteins
These are proteins which are combined with
characteristic groups such as lipids, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, and other non- protein substances.
Examples of these proteins are:-

a.Nucleoptoteins: Nucleic acids combined with

basic proteins such as histones and protamines
(found in the nucleus and mitochondria).
B- Mucoproteins contain large amounts
of carbohydrates and amino sugars
(blood group substances,
gonadotropins, and mucins are
examples of these compounds.

C-Glycoproteins: They contain smaller

amounts of carbohydrates, particularly
amino sugars (serum globulins are typical
examples of this group of proteins). .
d. Lipoproteins: These are proteins conjugated with lecithin,
cholesterol, and other lipids (found particularly in brain, nerve tissues
and as structural components in all cells).

e. Chromoproteins: These are colored proteins (hemoglobin and other

respiratory pigments are typical examples).

f. Metalloproteins: These proteins containing Mg, Mn, Fe, Co, Zn, Cu

and so forth.

g. Phosphoproteins: Proteins other than nucleoproteins that contain

phosphorus (casein of milk is a good example of this type).
3- Derived Proteins

Derived Proteins are substances obtained when

proteins are altered by chemical or physical
methods. These include proteins, coagulated proteins
and peptones as well as amino acids, e.g. glycine,
alanine, serine, tryptophan, valine, glutamic acid,
histidine, arginine, cystine, cystiene, methionine,
lysine, proline, hydroxyproline, phenylalanime,
tyrosine, leucine, isoleucine, aspartic acid, and
threonine.
Amino Acids
Amino acids are the building blocks connected with
peptide bonds to form different protein molecules. The
order in which these amino acids occur is specific to each
protein molecule. Each amino acid is composed of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. There are about 20 amino
acids participating in the formation of different protein
molecules. Accordingly, the products of hydrolysis of
simple proteins are α- amino acids:
H
Hydrolysis ‫׀‬
Protein ––––––––––→ R– C– COOH
Acid, alkali ‫׀‬
or enzymes NH2
General amino acid structure
The structural formula of an amino acid
 Essential amino acids (EAAs )
• Acids that can not be synthesized by the
organisms.
• Are required to satisfy:
1-The optimal growth of the young and
2-Maintenance of nitrogenous
equilibrium in the adult.
• They must be supplied in the diet.
• The 9 EAAs required by man are in a table:
 The 9 EAAs required by man:

Histidine Phenylalanine The complete group

Isoleucine Threonine must be administered
Leucine Tryptophan simultaneously, to avoid
Lysine Valine the impairment of
nutritional effectiveness
Methionine
of the entire group.
• The remaining a. as are called “non-essential”.
• They can be synthesized in the body; e.g., gly.,
ala.,..etc.
The nutritive value of a protein depends
on its content of EAAs.

Examples of incomplete proteins are:-

1- gelatin, which lacks tryptophan

2- zein of maize, which is poor in both
tryptophan and lysine. .
Peptides

The carboxyl group of amino acid can react with

the amino group of another amino acid, with the
elimination of water. Thus, glycine and alanine
can react together in one of 2 ways with the
formation of the glycylalanine or alanylglycine:

Glycylalanine
 Physiological functions of proteins
- Supplying body, generally, with amino acids and
particularly with essential amino acids.
1- Coordination and intracellular movements: As
in muscle contraction, & movement of
chromosomes.
2- Immunological defense: Antibodies protect the
body against pathogens as bacteria & viruses
3- Hormonal regulation: Some hormones are
proteins; e.g. growth hormone and insulin, cellular
receptors.

4- Control of genetic expression: Activators,

repressors & other regulators and biocatalysts such
as enzymes ; all are proteins.
 Vitamins
A vitamin is an organic molecule (or a set of molecules
closely related chemically) that is an essential
micronutrient which an organism needs in small
quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism.
Sometimes the vitamin is necessary for a human but
not for some other animals. For example, vitamin C
(ascorbic acid) is an important vitamin for humans but not
for dogs, because dogs can produce (synthesize) enough
for their own needs, while humans cannot.
Deficiency of vitamins:
A vitamin is one of a group of organic
substances, present in minute amounts in natural
foodstuffs that are essential to normal
metabolism; insufficient amounts in the diet may
cause deficiency diseases (avitaminosis); but
simply, a vitamin is both:
There are currently 13 recognized vitamins.
- An essential nutrient the body cannot produce
enough of its own, so it has to get it (tiny
amounts) from food.
Water-soluble vitamins
- Water-soluble vitamins do not get stored in the
body for long time
- They soon get expelled through urine.
- Therefore, water-soluble vitamins need to be
replaced more often than fat-soluble ones.
Vitamin.
- C and all B vitamins are water-soluble.
- The best way to get enough vitamins is to
follow a healthy diet that includes a wide range
of fruits and vegetables.
Vitamin B1

- Chemical name: Thiamine.

- Water soluble.

- Deficiency may cause beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

- Good sources include: Yeast, cereal grains, sunflower seeds, brown
rice, cauliflower, potatoes, oranges, liver, and eggs.
Vitamin B2
- Water soluble.

- Chemical name: Riboflavin.

- Deficiency may cause ariboflavinosis, i.e., early clear sign is sores

and cracks on the corner of the mouth, scaly skin, reddened eyes, and
anemia.
- Good sources include: Bananas, okra, cheese, milk, yogurt, meat,
eggs, fish, and green beans.
Vitamin B3
- Water soluble.

- Chemical names: Niacin and niacinamide.

- Deficiency may cause pellagra (diarrhea, dermatitis and dementia).

- Good sources include: Liver, heart, kidney, chicken, beef, fish (tuna,
salmon), milk, eggs, avocados, dates, tomatoes, leafy vegetables, broccoli,
carrots, sweet potatoes, nuts, whole grains, legumes, mushrooms, and
brewer's yeast.
Vitamin B5

- Chemical name: Pantothenic acid.

- Water soluble.

- Deficiency may cause headache, fatigue, irritability, restlessness,

disturbed sleep, nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, numbness or burning
sensation in hands or feet, muscle cramps.
- Good sources include: meats, whole grains, broccoli, avocados, royal jelly,
and fish ovaries.
Vitamin B6 (water soluble)

- Chemical names: Pyridoxine, pyridoxamine and pyridoxal.

- Deficiency may cause anemia, peripheral neuropathy.

- Good sources include: Meats, bananas, whole grains, vegetables, and nuts.
When milk is dried it loses about half of its B6. Freezing and canning can
also reduce content.

Vitamin B7 (water soluble)

- Chemical name: Biotin.

- Deficiency may cause dermatitis and enteritis.

- Good sources include: Egg yolk, liver and some vegetables.
Vitamin B9 (water soluble)
- Chemical names: Folic acid and folinic acid.
- Deficiency: pregnancy deficiency linked to birth defects.
- Good sources include: Leafy vegetables, legumes, liver, baker's yeast,
sunflower seeds. Several fruits have moderate amounts.
Vitamin B12 (water soluble)
- Chemical names: Cyanocobalamin, hydroxycobalamin, and
methylcobalamin

- Deficiency may cause megaloblastic anemia.

- Good sources include: Fish, shellfish, meat, poultry, eggs, milk, and
dairy products, soy products, as well as fortified nutritional yeast.
Vegans are advised to take B12 supplements.

Vitamin C (water soluble)

- Chemical names: Ascorbic acid.
- Deficiency may cause scurvy and decreased immunity.
- Good sources include: Fruit and vegetables such as green pepper,
lemon, orange, tomatoes and fruits which have the highest vitamin C
contents of all foods. Liver also has vitamin C.
Fat-soluble vitamins (ADEK):
Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the fat tissues of our bodies, as
well as the liver. Fat-soluble vitamins are easier to store than water-
soluble ones, and can stay in the body as reserves for days, some of
them for months. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the
intestinal tract with the help of fats (lipids). Vitamin A:
- Chemical names: Retinol, retinal, and four carotenoids (including
beta carotene).
- Deficiency may cause night-blindness and keratomalacia (eye
disorder that results in a dry cornea).
- Good sources include: liver, cod liver oil, carrot, and milk.
Vitamins D (D2 & D3):
- Chemical names: Ergocalciferol (D2) and cholecalciferol (D3).
- Deficiency may cause rickets and osteomalacia.
- Good sources: Produced in the skin after exposure to ultraviolet light
from the sun or artificial sources. Also, it is found in fatty fish, eggs,
beef liver, and mushrooms.
Vitamins D (D2 & D3):
-
Chemical names:
Ergocalciferol (D2) and

cholecalciferol (D3).

- Deficiency may cause rickets and osteomalacia.

- Good sources: Produced in the skin after

exposure to ultraviolet light from the sun or
artificial sources. Also, it is found in fatty fish,
eggs, beef liver, and mushrooms
 Vitamin E (Tocopherols and tocotrienols):
- Deficiency is uncommon. It may cause mild hemolytic anemia in
newborns and decreased fertility.
- Good sources include: eggs, milk, leafy green vegetables, unheated
vegetable oils, wheat germ, and whole grains.

Vitamin K (Phylloquinone and menaquinones):

- Deficiency may cause bleeding diathesis.
- Good sources include: Parsley and leafy green vegetables,
avocado and kiwi.
- A balanced diet is the best way to get enough vitamins
for good health; however some people may need to take
a daily multivitamin.

Toxicity: Very large doses of fat-soluble Vitamins are highly toxic.

 Hypervitaminosis A → anorexia, headache,
hepatosplenomegally and irritability.

 Hypervitaminosis D → weight loss and calcification of soft

tissues, and excessive vit. D intake causes renal failure.

 Hypervitaminosis K → gastrointestinal disturbances and

anemia.

 Although large doses of water-soluble Vitamins don't cause health

problems since they can be rapidly cleared from the body,
megadoses of pyridoxine (Vit. B6) can produce peripheral
neuropathy.
 Minerals
They are inorganic compounds of great importance for all
biological processes in the body of a living organism, and they
consist of easily soluble substances, such as the salts of the
following elements: calcium, phosphorous, sodium, iron,
iodine, and potassium.
I-Macrominerals
• Constituents of cells and body fluids,
• Also, as structural components of tissues.
• Required in amounts greater than 100 mg/day.
• These include: Ca, P, K, Na, Mg, S, and Cl.

II- Microminerals
* Are more likely to have any specific functions.
* Required in amounts less than 100 mg/day.
* Examples are: Fe, Mn, Cu, I, Co, Cr, Mo, Se, F and Zn.
Macro- & microminerals have important physiologic functions as
follows:
Iron (Fe): It is found in liver, kidneys, calf meat, vegetables, fresh fruits and
bread.
Functions: It is a component of the cytochrome enzymes, which work to
transfer electrons, and it is included in the formation of hemoglobin, which
carries oxygen; thus its deficiency cause anemia (hypochromic anemia).

Copper (Cu): It is found in animal tissues in trace quantities.

Functions: It is a component of cytochrome A that transfers electrons to
molecular oxygen in the "electron transport system",
- oxidative enzymes such as polyphenol oxidase.
- It is also found in hemocyanin, which is a respiratory pigment similar to
hemoglobin, and it transports oxygen in some invertebrates just as
hemoglobin transports it in vertebrates.
Manganese (Mn): Manganese is present in the tissues of
both plants and animals, and is poorly absorbed in the
intestine.

Functions: It works as a cofactor to some enzymes,

especially the one that splits peroxide,
Calcium (Ca)
It is found in milk, cheese, eggs, vegetables and some types of
fish. Functions: It works as a cofactor to some enzyme systems
and acts as a principal component in the bones of vertebrates. It
is also necessary for blood clots and muscle contraction.

Sodium chloride (NaCl): The body needs 7 to 15 g of table salt

per day, and this amount is usually found in food.

Functions: The ions of sodium, chlorine, and potassium are

necessary to regulate the osmotic mechanism in body fluids.
Iodine (I): Iodine is a mineral found in some foods as
sea foods and fishes. .

Functions: The body needs iodine to make thyroid

hormones. These hormones control the
body's metabolism and many other important
functions. .
Iodine primary function is its participation as a
constituent of the thyroid hormones,
thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).

- A deficiency of thyroid hormones can reduce basal

metabolic rate up to 50%. Brain
damage and irreversible mental retardation are the
most important disorders induced by iodine
deficiency.
Toxicity due to large doses of minerals:
- Iron: excessive iron intake causes hemochromatosis (a
syndrome characterized by pigmentation of the skin,
pancreatic damage with diabetes (bronze diabetes),
cirrhosis of the liver, a high incidence of hepatic
carcinoma, and gonadal atrophy).

- Copper excess causes brain damage.

 Enzymes
A substantial part of the study of living

cells is today devoted to enzymes. Almost all

physiological functions such as muscular

contraction, nerve conduction and excretion

of the kidney, as well as life itself are linked to

the activity of enzymes.

Even relatively simple reactions may be
catalyzed by enzymes when the non-catalyzed
reaction is too slow for physiological needs;

An example is the reversible combination of

CO2 and H2O to form Carbonic acid (H2CO3),
which in blood is catalyzed by the enzyme
carbonic anhydrase.
The non-catalyzed reaction would not •
permit CO2 interchange between the
blood and the tissues and between the
lungs and blood at rates sufficient for
physiological needs.

This enormous catalytic property can be •

imagined from the fact that each enzyme
molecule can hydrolyze 105 molecules of
CO2 in one second which is 107 times
faster than the uncatalyzed.
General Nature of Enzymes
1. All enzymes are proteins.
2. Enzymes accelerate the rate of chemical
reaction but are not consumed in the overall
process.
3. Enzymes exhibit a high degree of specificity
for their substrates. Enzymes are highly specific
both in the reaction catalyzed and in their choice
reactants, which are called substrates.
4. Enzymatic analysis involves formation of an
intermediate complex between the enzyme and
its substrates (key-lock relationship).
Enzymes, like all catalysts, accelerate the rates
of chemical reactions by
lowering the activation energy for a specific
reaction. In the previous figure this effect is
evident in terms of the energy content of a
population of molecules as well as the energy
levels of reactants and products throughout the
course of the reaction.
6 – Influence of temperature (T):
A rise in temperature has a dual effect on an enzyme-catalyzed
reaction. First, there is about a doubling of the reaction rate for
each 10C rise in temperature, the same as for most chemical
reactions. However, as the temperature rises, the rate of
inactivation of the catalyst by denaturation increases. In this
situation the optimum temperature will depend on the reaction
time, i.e. Temperature increases the rate of reaction within limits.
For short time intervals the optimum temperature may be much
higher than for a longer time.
Influence of pH
The catalytic activity of an enzyme is evident over a narrow range
of pH and within this range has a maximum at a particular pH, known
as the optimum pH. Generally the optimum pH is characteristic of the
enzyme. If an enzyme acts on two different substrates both of which
may be ionic in nature, it may exhibit an optimum pH for each of
these substrates; such is the case of pepsin, which has an optimum
pH (1.5-2.5), depending on the particular protein being used as
substrate.
Proteins have many charges on the
molecule, and the charges will depend
on the pH. The activity of the enzyme
may require specific ionic structures in
the substrate which are found in
different proteins at different pH values.
Most enzymes have their optimum
between pH 5-7 and are often most
stable at these pH values. There are a
number of exceptions.
 Water
The amount of water in the organisms of the different
species varies in a wide range, and it is also noticed that
its quantity also varies from one organ to another and
from tissue to another in one organism, for example, the
percentage of water in the blood, lymph and gastric juice
ranges from 88 to 99%, while its percentage in the bone
tissue ranges from 20 to 24%.
The amount of water increases in very young organisms
and newly formed organs, and this percentage decreases
as these organisms undergoing aging, so the appearance
of signs of aging in humans, for example, such as: the
appearance of wrinkles of the skin and face is associated
with a decrease in the water content of these tissues as
they become aged.
Body water is divided into three parts
- Intracellular water: It enters structurally as a
component of the living cell, and this type forms the
largest part of body water, amounted to be two-thirds
of the total amount of water in the body.
- The second: Plasma water that is included in the
composition of various vital body fluids.
- Third: Intercellular water: This water is located in the
spaces that exist between cells.
The last two types together represent "water outside the
cells", which makes up about a third (1/3) of the total
water in the body. The amount of water present inside the
cells is related, to some extent, to the processes of vital
activity in those cells. Thus, the amount of water in the
active dividing cells ranges from 80 to 90%.
The biological importance of water in the body
- It is a structural element involved in building the contents of the
cell, or the living being as a whole.
- It has an important role in the processes of vital activity, and
therefore the lack of its content in the body from the normal level
constitutes a danger to living organisms.
- Experiments and scientific research have proven that the body’s
losses of fat completely, as well as the reduction in the amount of
protein by 50% as a result of starvation are not as dangerous as
loss of only 20% water.
- Hungry dogs' lives can be prolonged by up to 10 times if water is
provided to them regularly.
- Water is an essential component in the formation of the internal
structure of the cell and regulates biological processes in living
organisms, e.g., the intensity of the phosphorylation process
associated with oxidation in mitochondria depends on their water
content.
- Preservation of the ribosomes structure and their ability
to manufacture proteins.
- Water, also, performs the transport functions in the body
for a large number of organic and inorganic compounds,
through the blood and lymphatic system.
- Removal of catabolic waste products from the body.
- Water is a good medium, in which many different
chemical reactions take place.
- It directly contributes to chemical reactions; e.g., the
synthesis reactions.
It regulates the temperature of the body, due to the
ability of water to conduct good thermal conductivity, in
addition to absorbing heat in a large amount, during the
process of evaporation, and to its high heat capacity.
Water Metabolism:
The body loses water, through the process of exhalation, during
the process of breathing, evaporation from the skin and perspiration,
and through the excretion of waste products, such as urine, feces and
sweat, and the amount of this loss is about 2,600cm3 as follows:
1500cm3 in the form of urine, 500cm3 in the exhaled air, 500cm3 in
the form of sweat or evaporation, 100 cm3 in fecal waste, and in order
for there to be balance in the water metabolism, the water lost or
exiting the body must be equal to the water gained or entering the
body. Many researches were conducted for this, and the water
entering was calculated and found that it is estimated at: 1300 cm3 in
the form of drinking water, in addition to 850 cm3 representing the
water in food, and the remaining amount of water (450cm3) remained
a matter of controversy and confusion until the scientists deciphered
it, and they indicated that it is produced from the metabolic processes
of oxidation of food and organic substances in the body.
The water reaches the tissues of the living being, through the vital
fluids, where water escapes from the tissues again. In this way, water
enters and exits the cells in the same way. The water penetrates into
the cells and back, through the holes in the cellular membranes, each
of which is estimated to be about 3-8 angstroms in diameter. The
mechanism of water permeability, through the cell membrane, is still
a matter of controversy.
Table showing the daily average of inward and outward water in the case of
an adult.
Water output Water input
Volume Via: Volume Source
500 C. C. - Expiration 850 C. C. - Food
500 C. C. - Skin (persp) 1300 C. C. - Drinking
1500 C. C. - (urine) 450 C. C. - F. O.
100 C. C. -(feces).
2600 C. C. - Total 2600 C. C. - Total
The amount of water in the body is regulated with
tremendous accuracy, even if we drink the maximum
amount of water because the kidneys regulate the
amount of water in the body quickly and accurately
through hormonal regulation, as the posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland secretes a hormone called antidiuretic
hormone (ADH), which is secreted and works when water
is lacking in the body, thus increasing the ability of the
renal tubules to reabsorb water, which results in a
decrease in the amount of urine and becomes more
concentrated. But when there is a temporary increase in
body water, the secretion of diluted urine (that is, which
contains a high percentage of water), occurs which
increases the chance of the body to get rid of the excess
water in this case (ADH secretion decreases).