ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY – Reviewer 2 Technologies for Remediation

1. In Situ Technologies
Session 1 2. Ex Situ Technologies
Environmental Chemistry and Pollution Control
Solid Waste Disposal
Topics: - Inadequate waste management leads to the formation of a large
1. Soil Pollution and Remediation, Solid waste disposal number of contaminated sites.
2. Waste Management and Recycling - Advanced waste management systems can also positively or
3. Methods of Environmental Analysis negatively affect the quality of the soil.
4. Toxicity and Ecotoxicity - Unsanitary disposal of municipal and other waste streams:
5. Environmental Control Technology of Air, Water, and Soil indicates the possibility of contamination.
Pollution.
Solid Waste Management and Recycling
Environmental Chemistry – the transformations or chemical
interactions and processes of (a) substances introduced by human What is solid waste management?
activity into the environment, (b) natural compounds, or (c) living - is the steps and actions taken to manage waste from their origin
organisms. until their final disposal.
- term used to refer to the process of collecting and treating wastes.
Soil Pollution and Remediation, Solid waste disposal It also offers solutions for recycling items that do not belong to
garbage or trash.
Soil
-The thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the
Characteristics of Waste:
Earth's rocky surface.
➢ Organic waste, Combustibles, Non-Combustibles, Toxic
-It has an organic portion and an inorganic portion
Waste, Recyclables, Ashes/Dust, Construction Waste,
-Called a “universal sink”
Hazardous Waste, Dead Animals, Bulky Waste, Soiled
Waste.
Pollution
- Undesirable change in the physical, chemical, and biological
Various sources of Solid waste
characteristics of air, water, and soil which affect human life, lives of
1. Residential (major sources of solid waste)
other useful living plants and animals, industrial progress, living
2. Agricultural land and agro-industry (pesticides, fertilizers)
conditions, and cultural asset.
3. Industrial (biggest contributors)
Pollutant 4. Health care facilities (pathological waste, human blood,
- something that adversely interferes with the health, comfort, etc.)
property, or environment of the people 5. Commercial waste (plastics, food wastes, metals, etc.)
- mostly are introduced into the environment by sewage, waste, 6. Institution (glass, rubber, waste, plastics)
accidental discharge, or else they are by-products or residues 7. Municipal services (street cleaning, waste from parks,
etc.)
Soil Pollution
- defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds, Method of waste management
chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease-causing agents, 1. Landfill
which have adverse effects on plant growth and animal health 2. Incineration
3. Composting
Sources of Soil Pollution (Calian et al., 2011)
1. Leaching from unsanitary landfills Recycling
2. Uncontrolled dumps -the process of breaking down and reusing materials that would
3. Accidental discharge of chemical and waste materials otherwise be thrown away as trash.
4. Inadequate storage of liquid waste
5. Setting up a system for the collection of sewage 2 Types of Recycling
wastewater in hydrologically and geologically - Internal recycling is the reuse in a manufacturing process of
inappropriate locations materials that are a waste product of that process.
6. Inadequate application of fertilizers and pesticides in - External recycling is the reclaiming of materials from a product
agriculture, etc. that has been worn out or rendered obsolete.

Remediation Methods of Environmental Analysis

- it is the implementation of all measures and activities for 1. Gravimetric
eliminating the danger to humans and the environment caused by 2. Titrimetric
the release of pollutants. 3. Electrochemical Methods
- making a decision on the choice of remediation method is a key 4. Spectrometry
step in remediation of contaminated soil 5. Chromatography

Methods and Techniques of Performing Remediation Toxicity and Ecotoxicity

1. Complete removal of pollutant
2. Reduction of Pollutants Toxicity
3. Immobilization and blocking pollutants -the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture
of substances can damage an organism.
“The dose makes the poison”
Change in the world temperature (by NASA earth observatory)
Ecotoxicity
-refers to the biological, chemical, or physical stressors that affect
ecosystems.

2 categories of Ecotoxicity
1. Acute toxicity -a single, short-term exposure where
effects appear immediately and are often reversible.
2. Chronic toxicity -frequent exposures where effects may
be delayed and are generally irreversible.

Environmental Control Technology of Air, Water, and Soil Pollution

Environmental control technology (ECT) Figure 1. World temperatures in 1880

-Part of an industrial process that prevents/reduces environmental -temperature anomalies in five-year increments since 1880.
impact of the process - a discharge of toxic waste, for example:
➢ ECT for air pollution
1. Multi-pollutant monitoring devices
2. Catalytic converters
3. Scrubbers
4. CFC and HCFC substitutes
5. Low-emitting stoves and heaters
6. VOC-free consumer products and building materials
➢ ECT for water pollution
1. Electrodialysis (ED)
2. Atomic layer deposition (ALD)
3. Sulfonated sawdust
4. Graphic nitrates Figure 2. World temperature in 2022
➢ ECT for soil pollution -The global temperature anomalies in 2022, which tied for the fifth
1. Sustainable agriculture - minimizing the external warmest year on record. The past nine years have been the
contributions by diversifying the cultures and using warmest years since modern recordkeeping began in 1880.
biological treatments.
Greenhouse gases
Session 2 -Greenhouse gases are gases in the atmosphere that absorbs and
Impacts of Climate change and Global warming re-emits infrared radiation (about 3um to 100um). Major
greenhouse gases include: carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane,
Coal nitrous and nitrous oxide.
-Coal is a black sedimentary rock which is burned to produce
energy. Carbon dioxide
-Coal is a composed primarily of carbon. -It is the most abundant greenhouse gas. Has a long atmospheric
-Most of the world’s energy is produced by burning coal lifetime. IR absorption at around 14um-18um

Steam Engine
-Steam engine converts heat energy to mechanical work through
steam.
-James Watt drastically improved the steam engine which made it
viable for industrial use.
-The textile industry was the first to adopt the use of steam engines
Industrial Revolution
-The industrial revolution was a period of global transition of
economy from agrarian to industrial. It began in around 1760 with
the advent of steam engines. Technological advances such as glass
making was developed during this period. Factories were
developed with the use of coal as a source of energy. The world
population increased exponentially.
Periods of Industrial Revolution
➢ First – Steam engines, iron production, coal mining,
mechanization, increase in population
➢ Second – Internal combustion engines, electricity, railway
networks, telephones, globalization
➢ Third – Computers, microprocessors, internet,
digitalization, information age
Greenhouse effect
-Greenhouse effect is the capture and re-emission of infrared
radiation to the atmosphere by greenhouse gases.
-Natural Greenhouse Effect is the natural mechanism of Earth to
maintain surface temperatures.
-Enhanced Greenhouse Effect is the caused by an increase in
concentration of greenhouse gases which amplifies the greenhouse
effect
What contributes to the greenhouse effect?
-Burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests and farming livestock are
increasingly influencing the climate and the earth's temperature.
This adds enormous amounts of greenhouse gases to those
naturally occurring in the atmosphere, increasing the greenhouse
effect and global warming.

Aerosols & Clouds
-Aerosols are tiny solid or liquid particle suspended in the
atmosphere. Aerosols offset some amount of global warming
increase in temperature.
-Clouds are formed from aerosols. These offsets global warming by
reflecting the sunlight themselves.
-Specifically, sulfate rich aerosols are very effective in reflecting light
into space. These sulfate rich aerosols are produced by burning coal
and volcanic eruptions, among others.
Mt. Pinatubo Explosion
-The explosion of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991. The explosion brought
about large volcanic ashes and sulfur dioxide. The large volcanic
ashes lowered the temperature in the surrounding area only for
weeks. Sulfate aerosols which remained in the atmosphere years
after the explosion lowered the temperature in the area for a long
time.
Climate change
-Climate change are long-term variations in weather patterns and
conditions on Earth.
-Global warming is the increase in surface temperature in the world.
-The world surface temperature has increased by 1.1 C from
preindustrial levels to present.
The effects of climate change
1. Melting of ice
2. Habitat destruction
3. Extreme weather
Global Climate agreements
-UN Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1992 was the first
global treaty to address climate change.
-Kyoto Protocol in 2005 required developed countries to reduce
emissions by 5 percent of 1990 levels.
-Paris Agreement in 2015 was the most significant global climate
agreement. It aims long-term to reach global net-zero emissions in
the second half of the century.
Takeaways:
1. The industrial revolution saw an exponential increase in
use of greenhouse emitting energy sources. This caused a
rise in global surface temperatures causing climate
change.
2. Climate change is environmentally catastrophic to
humans and animals, countermeasures must be
employed.
3. If climate change is not minimized, the global surface
temperatures will increase by as much as 5C by the end
of the century. Efforts must be made to prevent this.
Session 3
Analysis of Emerging Pollutants
Emerging Pollutants (EP’s)
-also known as “contaminants of emerging concern (CEC’s)” or
“emerging contaminants”
-chemicals known to cause major impacts on the terrestrial, aquatic
life and human health as a result of their chronic and acute toxicity
-include household products, industry and other anthropogenic
activities
-not been widely studied or regulated yet
Categories of emerging pollutants
Emerging water pollutants, pharmaceutical, and household wastes
➢ Nanomaterials
-prominent among the emerging pollutants that consist of very
small entities in the 1-100 nm size range.
-Have unique properties: high thermal stability, low permeability,
high strength, high conductivity, and high surface-to-volume ratio
-Lead to uses in electronics, automobiles, apparel, sunscreen,
cosmetics, and etc.
-Their potential effects as water pollutants are of significant concern
➢ Siloxanes (Silicones)
-another class of emerging pollutants are consists of this
-Thermally and chemically very stable
-Widely used in personal care products and even food additives
-resistant to biodegradation and as a result are encountered in
water that has received wastewater.
➢ Trihalomethanes
-chloroform, dibromochloromethane and etc.
-most common disinfection by-products
-by-products of water chlorination and are Group B carcinogens
(shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals)
➢ Other substances
-steroids, surfactants, flame retardants, fragrances, plasticizers, and
pharmaceuticals and their metabolites.
-cholesterol, nicotine metabolite cotinine, βsitosterol (a natural
plant sterol), 1,7-dimethylxanthine (caffeine metabolite),
bisphenol-A plasticizer, and fire retardant (2-chloroethyl)
phosphate.
Estrogenic substances in waste water effluents
Estrogenic Substances - A class of water pollutants of particular
concern commonly found in sewage and even treated sewage
effluent.
➢ can disrupt the crucial endocrine gland activities and
reproductive functions of organisms.
➢ Aquatic organisms including fish, frogs, and reptiles such
as alligators exposed to such substances
➢ annual usage of millions of kilograms of nonionic
surfactants makes them a significant factor as water
pollutant
Biorefractory organics - organic compounds of most concern in
wastewater, particularly when they are found in sources of drinking
water.
➢ poorly biodegradable substances and are sometimes
referred to as persistent organic pollutants
➢ found in water include benzene, chloroform, methyl
chloride, styrene, tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethane,
and toluene. In addition to their potential toxicity,
biorefractive compounds can cause taste and odor
problems in water.
➢ They are not completely removed by biological treatment
Radionuclides (radioactive isotopes) - are produced as fission
products of heavy nuclei of such elements as uranium or plutonium.
They are also produced by the reaction of neutrons with stable
nuclei
➢ formed in large quantities as waste products in nuclear
power generation. Their ultimate disposal is a problem
that has caused much controversy regarding the
widespread use of nuclear power
Waste water treatment
Objective: to produce a treated water product acceptable for
release to streams or bodies of water in the hydrosphere or as a
source of feedwater for advanced treatment such as that employed
for total water recycle
Major purpose: removal of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
consisting of organic substances, the biodegradation of which
consumes dissolved oxygen in water, which makes it unsuitable for
fish and other aquatic organisms that require oxygen
Two main categories of waste water treated are:
1. Municipal wastewater commonly known as sewage
2. Industrial wastewater from a variety of commercial
operations
Three major processes of wastewater treatment:
1. Primary (initial stage of wastewater treatment) - physical
removal of large solids from raw sewage or wastewater
2. Secondary (involves biological processes to break down
organic matter) - further reducing the concentration of
organic matter and suspended solids
3. Tertiary (known as advanced wastewater treatment) -
describe a variety of processes performed on the effluent
from secondary waste treatment, which may contain
potentially harmful substances.
Primary wastewater treatment
a. Physical processes of screening- Screens are made of
long, closely spaced, narrow metal bars. They block
floating debris such as wood, rags, and other bulky
objects that could clog pipes or pumps. In modern plants
the screens are cleaned mechanically, and the material is
promptly disposed of by burial on the plant grounds
b. Comminution - A comminutor may be used to grind and
shred debris that passes through the screens.
c. Grit Removal- Grit chambers are long narrow tanks that
are designed to slow down the flow so that solids such as
sand, coffee grounds, and eggshells will settle out of the
water.
d. Sedimentation- These tanks, also called primary clarifiers,
provide about two hours of detention time for gravity
settling to take place. As the sewage flows through them
slowly, the solids gradually sink to the bottom. The settled
solids—known as raw or primary sludge—are moved
along the tank bottom by mechanical scrapers. Sludge is
collected in a hopper, where it is pumped out for removal.
Mechanical surface-skimming devices remove grease and
other floating materials.
(See illustration on soft copy)
Secondary wastewater treatment
a. Aerotion of water
-Aerotion acts as a physical process to remove dissolved
Carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, and
ammonia gases along with volatile contaminants
responsible for taste and odor in water, and as a chemical
process to oxidize soluble iron(II) and manganese(II) to
insoluble hydroxides and hydrated oxides of iron(III) and
manganese(IV)
-be accomplished by bubbling air through water or by
droplets or sheets of water prayed downward over a
rising current of air in towers, often over packing or slats
that break up the flow of water and maximize contact
between water and air under turbulent conditions
(See illustration on soft copy)
b. Membrane filtration process
-Filtration through membranes under pressure is an
especially effective means of removing solids and
impurities from water
-There is permeate and a retentate.
-Membranes normally operate by size exclusion. As
membranes with smaller openings are used, smaller
particles and even molecules and ions are excluded, but
higher pressures are required and more energy is
consumed.
(See additional info on soft copy)
c. Trickling filter
-simplest biological waste treatment processes for
biodegradable organics removal.
-wastewater is sprayed from a rotating horizontal pipe
over rocks or other solid support material covered with
microorganisms. The structure of the trickling filter is
such that contact of the wastewater with air is allowed
and degradation of organic matter occurs by the action of
the microorganisms
(See illustration on soft copy)
d. Rotating biological reactors (contractors)
-another type of treatment system, consist of groups of
large plastic discs mounted close together on a
horizontally mounted rotating shaft.
-The discs, usually made of high-density polyethylene or
polystyrene, accumulate thin layers of attached biomass,
which degrades organic matter in the sewage.
Oxygen is absorbed by the biomass and by the layer of
wastewater adhering to it during the time that the
biomass is exposed to air.
(See illustration on soft copy)
Tertiary wastewater treatment
1.Suspended solids - implies the removal of those materials that
have been carried over from a secondary clarification process. It is
also employed as a pretreatment method prior to physical chemical
treatment processes.
(a) Diatomaccous filtration - a type of mechanical separation that
involves filtering wastewater with diatomaceous earth, a powdered
filter aid, on a supporting media.
(b.) Sand filtration- The standard method of filtration consists of
sandbeds with graded sand placed on a supporting medium with an
underdrain to collect the filtered effluent.
(c.) Ultrafiltration- Ultrafiltration (UF) is a method of water
purification that involves forcing water through a semipermeable
membrane
(See illustration on soft copy)
2.Dissolved organic materials -the most hazardous from the
standpoint of potential toxicity
(a.) Adsorption on activated carbon- The standard method for the
removal of dissolved organic material
(b.) Adsorbent synthetic polymers - Such polymers as Amberlite
XAD-4 have hydrophobic surfaces and strongly attract relatively
insoluble organic compounds. These polymers remove virtually all
nonionic organic solutes
(c.) Oxidation - Ozone, hydrogen peroxide, molecular oxygen (with
or without catalysts), chlorine and its derivatives, permanganate, or
ferrate (iron(VI)) can be used. High-energy electron beams
produced by high-voltage electron accelerators also have the
potential to destroy organic compounds.
3.Dissolved inorganic compounds – potentially hazardous toxic
metals
(a.) Electrodialysis
-another popular tertiary wastewater treatment method that
employs the removal of the solute from the solution instead of
removing the solvent.
-uses selectively permeable membranes and an electric potential
difference to separate ions from a solution
(b.) Reverse Osmosis
-one of several pressure-driven membrane processes for water
purification
- is a very useful and well-developed technique for the purification
and desalination of water.
(c.) Biological treatment by an activated sludge
-most popular wastewater treatment process.
- P, N, S removal.
4.Sorption by activated carbon
-usually in columns of granular activated carbon
- the powdered activated carbon sorbs some constituents that may
be toxic to microorganisms and is collected with the sludge
Major consideration: the hazard (toxicity or reactivity) that spent
activated carbon may present from the wastes it retains.
Regeneration of the carbon is expensive and can be hazardous in
some case
(See illustrations on soft copy)
Water disinfection
1. Chlorine dioxide -is an effective water disinfectant that is
of particular interest because, in the absence of impurity
Cl2, it does not produce impurity trihalomethanes in
water treatment.
2. Green ozone - Pumped into water, this form of oxygen kills
pathogens without producing the undesirable by-
products made by chlorine and it is actually more
effective than chlorine in killing viruses.
3. Ferrate and Percarbonate
-Iron(VI) in the form of ferrate ion, FeO42−, is a strong oxidizing
agent with excellent disinfectant properties. It has the
additional advantage of removing heavy metals, viruses, and
phosphate.
-oxidant that is becoming widely used as a cleaning and
bleaching agent in detergents and that, because of its oxidizing
ability from the release of hydrogen peroxide in water, has
disinfecting abilities as well, is sodium percarbonate.
4. UV radiation and photocatalytic process -an effective
disinfection agent that acts by direct breakage of
chemical bonds in the biomolecules of pathogenic
organisms and by generating reactive ions and radicals
that destroy microorganisms
Water Analysis: Emerging contaminants
Emerging pollutants can be classified according to the following
criteria:
(i) not necessarily a new compound, (ii) a compound that has long
existed in the environment but whose presence has only recently
been detected and whose significance is beginning to be
recognized, (iii) a long-known compound whose potential negative
impact on humans and the environment has only recently been
realized
Pharmaceuticals and Personal care products (PPCPS)
-cosmetics and health care products (e.g., over-the-counter drugs,
supplements, and prescription pharmaceuticals).
Hormones and steroids
-Among the various nonprescription and prescription or over-the-
counter drugs are synthetic and natural steroid hormones such as
gestagens, estrogens, and androgen. These drugs are used for
various purposes in humans and animals since they can modify their
physiology and trigger essential regulatory functions in the body
fluid.
Antiseptics
-Triclosan is an antiseptic/antibacterial agent frequently found in
toothpaste, soaps, clothing and more.
Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs)
-PFCs are a type of compound that is applied paints, polishes,
waxes, etc.
-The most common are perfluorocarbon sulfonic acids (PFSAs) and
perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs). In contrast, perfluoro
octane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are the
most commonly known usage [34].
-Due to releases from non-point sources, WWTPs, and industrial
facilities, PFOA is detected in drinking and treated water sources
[35].
Pesticides
-Pesticides can contaminate drinking water due to carelessness,
such as back-siphoning, application in lawns and golf courses, and a
sizeable accidental spill. Pesticide metabolites have been highly
prone to leaching in soil
Plasticizers
-Since BPA is among the most commonly used industrial added
chemicals, its adverse health effects have been extensively
researched.
Flame Retardants
-Effect: In breast milk, the levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers
(PBDEs) are linked to lower body mass and birth weights, as well as
cryptorchidism (undescended testicles) in newborn boys
Disinfection by-products (DBPs)
-On the other hand, the primary source of disinfection byproducts
(DBPs) came from the drinking water treatment plant (WTP). DBPs
were determined in 15 WTPs in Beijing City from various water
sources by Stalter et al. [40]. They discovered that halogenic acetic
acids (HAAs) and trihalomethane (THMs) accounted for 38.1% and
42.6% of all DBPs, respectively, in all treated samples. DBPs in
drinking water were found to vary with a water source, with surface
water having the highest levels, mixed water sources, and
groundwater having the lowest levels.
Importance of water analysis for emerging contaminants:
Health concerns:
-Many emerging contaminants have been associated with adverse
health effects, including hormonal disruption, carcinogenicity, and
developmental issues.
Environmental Impact:
-These contaminants can disrupt aquatic ecosystems, harm wildlife,
and alter the balance of aquatic habitats.
Regulatory Compliance:
-As the awareness of emerging contaminants grows, regulatory
agencies are increasingly setting standards and guidelines for their
presence in drinking water and wastewater.
Public awareness:
-Concerns about emerging contaminants have raised public
awareness and expectations regarding water quality and safety.
Sampling protocols:
-Proper purging of the well to remove stagnant water before sample
collection.
-Collection of representative samples from specific depths or depth
intervals.
-Preservation of samples based on analytical requirements (e.g.,
refrigeration, filtration, acidification).
-Documentation of well and sample information for accurate data
interpretation
Time Integrated (Passive) sampling techniques
Time-integrated (passive) sampling techniques involve the use of
passive samplers that accumulate contaminants from the
environment over an extended period. These samplers do not
require active sampling at specific time intervals but instead provide
an integrated measure of contaminant exposure over timeThe
concentration of contaminants in the passive sampler at the end of
the deployment period is used to estimate the average
concentration of contaminants over that time frame.
Passing air sampling using polymethine foam (PUF) passive
samplers:
-Principle:PUF passive samplers are used to capture and
accumulate semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) from the
ambient air over an extended period.

Traditional Sampling Techniques

Sampling is done for monitoring purposes, as well as for research.
The sample is the source of information about the environment. If
it is not collected properly, if it does not represent the system we
are trying to analyze, then all our careful laboratory work is useless.
Objective:
•to comply with regulatory requirements, •to identify long and
short term trends, •to detect accidental releases, or •to develop a
data base or inventory of pollutant levels.

When it comes to sampling, the essential questions are:

1.where to collect the samples
2.when to collect them, and
3.how many samples to collect.

Water Sampling
-Water samples can come from many sources: groundwater,
precipitation, waste water, industrial process water, drinking water
and many more.
(a) Surface water sampling
-surface water drainage around the sampling site should be
characterized
-simplest sampling device is a dipper (or a container) made of
stainless steel or Teflon
(b) Groundwater well sampling
-involves the collection of water samples from below the earth's
surface, typically from wells or boreholes, for the purpose of
assessing groundwater quality.
-Various bailers and pumps are used in ground water sampling
-Proper sampling techniques and protocols are crucial to obtaining
accurate and reliable groundwater quality data
Towards a Sustainable Future: Renewable Sources of
Energy
Renewable Energy
• energy that will not run out and whose
capture and use do not result in the direct
emission of greenhouse gases or other
pollutants. ¹
• energy derived from natural sources that are
replenished at a higher rate than they are
Volume + Height equals Power
consumed. ²
Nonrenewable Energy
• energy sources that exist in finite quantities
and cannot be naturally replenished or
• regenerated. ³
• a natural resource that cannot be readily
replaced by natural means at a pace quick
enough to keep up with consumption
Gets the job done but far from perfect
Renewable Energy towards Sustainable Development
• Reduces greenhouse gas emissions (between
90 and 99% less greenhouse gases (GHGs) and
produces 70 to 90% less pollutants.⁵)
• Improves energy security
• Provides access to energy to communities
• Create jobs and stimulate economic growth
Types of Energy Sources
Environmental Problems of Hydroelectric Power
• Hydroelectric power – rivers, dams and
waterfalls
• Wind energy – windmills
• Biomass energy – wood, crop residues, and
dung
• Marine energy – waves and tides
• Solar energy – sunlight from the sun
• Geothermal energy – heat from the earth’s
surface
Hydroelectric power is an indirect form of solar energy
• The Sun’s energy evaporates water from
bodies of water and transports the H₂O
molecules upward in the atmosphere.
• Even after condensing to raindrops, they still
possess considerable potential energy from
their elevation.
• This potential energy is harnessed by forcing
the downward-flowing water to turn turbines
and generate electricity
• Most large-scale facilities use dams and
waterfalls where the water pressure - and
hence the power yield - is much greater.
• In particular, the energy imparted to a turbine
is directly proportional not only to the volume
of the water but also to the height from which
it falls.
• The construction cost of hydroelectric power
ranges from 1 to 5 million dollars per
megawatt capacity, depending on the size and
site of operation.
• Changes in rainfall patterns, as well as the
melting of glaciers, resulting from climate
change could reduce the future capacity of
hydropower in some regions
• Displacement of human populations
• Eutrophication of water in reservoirs
• Release of GHGs
• Release of mercury
• Devastation to fish populations
• Buildup of silt behind dams

Hydroelectric Power

• Of all the forms of renewable energy,

hydroelectric power is by far the most
important, with a capacity of about 1000GW.
• Consists over 80% of renewable energy, 16%
of global electric capacity, and 3% of global
commercial energy
• Although availability depends upon seasonal
rainfall patterns, it is still a more reliable
resource than solar or wind energy.
Wind Energy
• Winds are air flows that result from the
tendency of air masses that have undergone
different amounts of heating, and that
therefore have developed unequal pressures,
to equalize those pressures.
• Air flows from regions of high pressure to
those of low pressure. The heating of air
results directly or indirectly from the
absorption of sunlight.
• About 1-2% of the Sun’s energy received on
the Earth is converted to wind energy
Wind flows to reduce the temperature difference
• Polar areas receive less sunlight than do the
tropics. To reduce the resulting temperature
difference between tropical and polar regions,
winds arise in the air as do the currents in the
oceans.
• Warm air and water are carried towards the
poles, whereas cold air and water are
transported to the equator.
Wind can be exploited to make electricity
• Wind energy systems operate the same way
as flowing water is used in hydroelectric
power plants.
• The basic components of any wind energy
system are similar. Blades are connected to a
drive shaft, then a pump or generator that
collects the energy.
• If the wind energy is used directly as a
mechanical force to pump water, it is called a
windmill.
• If it converts wind energy to electricity, it is
known as a wind turbine.
Wind power is currently the world’s fastest growing
source of energy
• The global wind-power capacity in 2010 was
almost 200 GW, about 2.5% of worldwide
electricity capacity. As of 2010, China and the
United States had the greatest amounts of
installed capacity, with Germany, Spain, and
India following them in that order.
The world electricity output could be produced from
wind
• A landmass the size of China would be needed
to satisfy world electricity demand from wind
alone.
• However, the United States has the highest
potential for wind power if price were not
taken into account. About 90% of the U.S.
potential lies in the twelve states in the
Midwest, from North Dakota to Northern
Texas.
Size and speed do matter
• The greater the velocity of the wind, the
greater the amount of energy a windmill can
produce. The energy yield from yield is
proportional to v³.
• So, a small improvement in velocity produces
a large increase in yield; e.g., an increase to 26
from 22 mph improves energy yield by two-
thirds.
The cubic dependence of energy on wind speed is the
result of two factors:
• The kinetic energy of the motion of the air
mass in the direction of the wind is
proportional to the square of the air speed,
since for any moving body, the kinetic energy
is mv2/2
• The amount of wind passing over the blades
per unit time increases linearly in direct
proportion to the wind speed.
Wind energy sites need to be picked on potential
derived power
• Geographical areas are classified into seven
classes of wind-power density with class 7
having the highest potential.
• Ideal locations are those having almost
constant flow of nonturbulent winds in all
seasons. So locations at less than 2km altitude
with wind speeds of at least 5 m/s or 18 kph
are required for a location to be economically
feasible.
Earth’s most eligible bachelorettes • At today’s consumption levels, the amount of
land required to supply the world’s energy
• The regions of high wind-power potential at
needs entirely by biomass equals that of all
reasonable cost are the United States,
agricultural land currently developed, which
Canada, South America, OECD Europe, and
constitutes more than 10% of Earth’s land
the former U.S.S.R.
surface.
• Areas with the lowest potential are Africa,
Eastern Europe, and Southeast Asia. Within a
given country, the best locations are usually Biomass sources
mountain passes, high- altitude plains, and
• Wood and wood processing waste - firewood,
coastal areas. In general, wind speed increases
wood pellets, lumber and furniture sawdust
somewhat with altitude
and waste
Many new wind farms are located on seacoasts • Agricultural crops and waste materials - corn,
soybeans, sugarcane, and food processing
• Consistently breezy offshore shallow areas,
residues
such as the sandbanks off the coasts of
• Biogenic materials in solid waste - paper
Denmark and Ireland, are ideal sites and are
products, cotton and wool products, food
now used extensively for wind farms.
wastes
• Indeed, offshore locations are popular in
• Animal manure and human sewage
Europe, and most are anchored in water 8–10
m deep. However, the physical conditions at
some potential offshore locations are rather
harsh, and it is difficult to service broken
turbines in open water.

Environmental Issues of Wind Energy

• Energy payback, while existent, is the least for

any electric power
• Perceived visual unsightliness
• Construction of windmills at remote sites
requires destructive infrastructure

Biomass Energy: from plants and animals

• It was the world’s first energy source and is

still widely used in less-developed countries
but is phased out in favor of fossil fuels and
electricity.
• The biomass produced by the worldwide
operation of photosynthesis constitutes a
form of solar energy.
• Annual amount of energy generated is about
55 EJ but the power density of photosynthesis
is too low to be used to supply the majority of
the world’s needs.

Law conversion rate

• The efficiency of conversion of sunlight to

chemical energy by photosynthesis is very low,
no more than 1–2% even in the most
productive areas.
Pyrolytic Production: Bio-Oil SynGas in the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis

• The least sophisticated thermochemical

process for biomass utilization is pyrolysis. The
dried cellulosic biomass is heated at ambient
pressure in the absence of air to 300–600ᵒC.
• The biomass substances decompose and
rearrange their atoms to form other
compounds. The final products of the process
are a solid (charcoal), non-condensable gases
(methane, hydrogen CO, CO₂) and bio-oil

Bio-Oil: What good does it bring? Marine Energy

• Although considered a biofuel, it has a fairly
low energy content since the original potential
of the biomass is split up between the solid
charcoal phase, the gases, and the liquid.
• Bio-oil is not miscible with gasoline or diesel
fuel.
• Although it will combust and can be used as
heating oil, it is not suitable as a vehicular fuel
due to its corrosiveness, as well as its poor
energy content. It also slowly deteriorates
over time with exposure to air.
Synthesis Gas
• The most widely used thermochemical
method is gasification. Here, the carbon-
containing material is subject to such high
heat (700– 1000ᵒC) that it decomposes into
the very stable gases molecular hydrogen, and
CO, along with some residual tar which is
cleaned out of the reactor.
• The decomposed material usually is a fossil
fuel but it can also be biomass—e.g., low-
grade wood or crop wastes
• A renewable power source that is harnessed
from the natural movement of water,
including waves, tides, and ocean currents.
• Wave power and tidal power, sometimes
collectively known as marine energy.
• It is estimated that about 20 EJ of power is
potentially recoverable annually from waves
and tides.
Tidal Wave
• The source of the energy of tides is the
gravitational influence of the Sun and the
Moon on the water mass. Shallow seas
surrounding the ocean perimeters are the
best locations for tidal power.
• Tides cause large masses of water to be lifted
and then lowered twice a day

The Reaction:

C (s) + H2O (g) CO (g) + H2 (g)

The gas mixture of H2 and CO is called synthesis gas,

since it can be used as the versatile reactant from
which many different organic compounds can be
created. Alternatively, it can be used as a gaseous fuel.
Indeed, at the turn of the twentieth century and for
several decades thereafter, the synthesis gas produced
when white-hot coal reacts with steam was itself used
as the fuel in many municipal street lighting systems
around the world.
Wave Power
• Wave power is generated by using the up-and-
down motion of water that results from
waves, which are caused by winds and thus
are an indirect form of solar energy.
• The machines based upon an oscillating water
column consist of a chamber located just
above the water surface that contains trapped
air
Geothermal Energy
• Geothermal energy is heat that emanates
from beneath the Earth’s surface and results
from the radioactive decay of elements and
from conduction from the molten core of the
Earth.
• Though not solar-based, geothermal energy is
still another form of renewable energy.
• Useful in countries that have no fossil fuel
resources, and currently accounts for slightly
less than 0.1% of the world’s energy supply.
Dry Steam Power Plant
• Hot steam from underground is piped directly
into turbines, which powers the generator.
Flash Steam Power Plant
• Hot water from underground is pumped into a
cooler temperature flash tank. The sudden
change in temperature creates steam which
powers the generator.
Geothermal energy has the advantage over solar, wind
and marine sources
• Geothermal energy’s availability is 100% of
the time at a uniform rate. It can be used as
baseload power and need not to be stored.
Environmental Problems of Geothermal Energy
• Large quantity of hydrogen sulfide gas is
released
• Corrosion of equipment
• Water pollution
Direct Solar Energy
• The direct absorption of energy from sunlight,
and its subsequent conversion to useful forms
of energy such as electricity.
• Can occur by two mechanisms: Thermal
conversion and Photoconversion
Types of Solar Energy
1. Low-Temperature Solar Energy
• An example of passive solar thermal
technology, in which the systems do not use
continuous additional energy source to
operate them
2. Concentrated Solar Thermal Power
• Use mirrors to reflect and concentrate
sunlight onto a receiver.
• The energy from the concentrated sunlight
heats a high temperature fluid in the receiver
Example of Concentrated Solar Thermal Power
• Solar Tower or Power Tower- consist of a
tall tower topped with a receiver onto
which sunlight from hundreds of sun-
tracking flat mirrors (“heliostats”) on the
ground are focused. The substance in the
receiver is heated to a very high
temperature, and its thermal energy is
continuously removed for use in an
electric power plant.
Advantages of Solar Tower
• High heat capacity
• Wide temperature range
• Stability to decomposition
• Convenient and economical supply source
Mixture of nitrate salts of sodium and potassium.
Although these mixtures have a specific freezing
points, it is expected that they also have melting
points.
The lowest-melting point combination is called the
eutectic, with a composition of 46 mol % NaNO3,
(60% by mass) and 54% KNO3.
The liquid range of eutectic mixture extends over
more than 300 degrees.
Up to 18% of the sunlight energy is converted to
electricity in tower systems.
Advantages of Solar Cells
• The availability in sunny locations
• Much cheaper than extending power grid
lines
• Can be installed in piecemeal rather as one
large project

By using large storage tanks, excess hot liquid salt can

be stored during the day and extracted at night when
the sun is not shining.

Storing heat is more efficient and less expensive in

general than storing the equivalent amount of energy
as electricity

• Thermochemical Application - another way to

use the very-high-temperature concentrated
solar heat is to drive an endothermic
thermochemical process in order to produce a
fuel such as hydrogen.

3. Solar PV Cells
• Electricity can be produced directly from solar
energy by the photoconversion mechanism.

4. Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

• Is a solar photovoltaic technology that
converts sunlight into electrical energy using a
sensitizer molecule (usually some dye
molecules).

Disadvantages of Solar Cells

• It is direct current rather than alternating

current
• Costly
• Cannot collect energy during night time and
cloudy days
Renewable Energy: Conversion and Storage
Renewable Energy
• sources of clean, inexhaustible, and
increasingly competitive energy.
• they differ from fossil fuels principally in their
diversity, abundance, and potential for use
anywhere on the planet.
• produce neither greenhouse gases nor
polluting emissions.
• According to International Energy Agency
(EIA) forecasts, the share of renewables in
global electricity supply will increase from
28.7% in 2021 to 43% in 2030 and they will
provide 2/3 of the increase in electricity
demand recorded in that period, mainly
through wind and photovoltaic technologies.
• Meanwhile, some 1.1 billion inhabitants (17%
of the world population) do not have access to
electricity. Equally, 2.7 billion people (38% of
the population) use conventional biomass for
cooking, heating, and lighting in their homes -
at serious risk to their health
Transition to Sustainable Energy Sources
According to the International Renewable Energy
Agency (IRENA) and the IEA (International Energy
Agency), tripling the renewable energy share in
electricity generation in 2022 until it reaches 90%
worldwide by 2030 will be necessary for meeting the
Paris Agreement targets. This requires raising annual
investments in renewable energy from the current
USD 1.3 trillion to USD 5 trillion, thereby boosting job
creation and growth linked to the green economy.
Lithium-Ion Batteries
• most widely used power sources in the world
and are used to power smartphones,
notebooks, tablets, and many other devices
that require a reliable battery.
• rechargeable energy storage devices that use
lithium as a core component in their
chemistry.
• have high energy density, making them
suitable for a wide range of applications,
including renewable energy storage.
Basics of Lithium-Ion Battery
• A battery is made up of an anode, cathode,
separator, electrolyte, and two current
collectors (positive and negative).
• The anode and cathode store the lithium. The
electrolyte carries positively charged lithium
ions from the anode to the cathode and vice
versa through the separator.
• The movement of the lithium ions creates free
electrons in the anode which creates a charge
at the positive current collector. The electrical
current then flows from the current collector
through a device being powered (cell phone,
computer, etc.) to the negative current
collector. The separator blocks the flow of
electrons inside the battery
The Importance of Renewable Energy Conversion and
Storage
• Renewable energy sources like solar and wind
are intermittent, producing energy
inconsistently.
• Lithium-ion batteries help bridge the gap by
storing excess energy when it's available and
delivering it when needed.
Role in Solar Energy
• Solar panels generate electricity during the
day, but not at night or on cloudy days.
• Lithium-ion batteries store surplus daytime
energy for use during nighttime or low-
production periods.
• This enables homeowners and businesses to
rely more on solar power
Role in Wind Energy
• Wind turbines produce electricity when the
wind blows, which may not coincide with peak
demand times.
• Li-ion batteries store surplus wind energy for
use during calm periods, ensuring a steady
power supply
In electricity generation
• One of the well-known shortcomings of solar
and wind-power energy sources is their large
variability in power generation.
• Batteries are used to store surplus power
when generation is abundant for use or to
distribute power when there is a deficit.
 • The large capacity of batteries to store energy
can reduce the maximum capacity needed by
power plants (and associated construction
costs), which are designed to meet the
estimated peak demand during, say, a hot
summer day when the use of air conditioners
is above normal
In the transport sector
• Batteries are enabling a revolution in electric
vehicles of all types.
• Li-ion batteries can help manufacturers
replace conventional automobiles with
combustion engines powered by fossil fuels.
• Demand for Li-ion batteries has grown from a
mere 19 gigawatt hours (GWh) in 2010 to 285
GWh in 2019. It is forecast to reach 2,000
GWh in 2030—about 8 percent of the world's
energy supply (figure 2). Passenger and
commercial electric vehicles continue to be
the dominant uses of Li-ion batteries in terms
of capacities installed, followed by stationary
(energy) storage
The importance of batteries in the transportation
sector
• As the battery energy density has soared and
prices have dropped, the Li-ion battery has
become the major source for the
electrification of various sizes of vehicles such
as bicycles, scooters, cars, buses, trucks, and
even ferries.
• Shipping and aviation are also making
electrification progress, though at the very
infant stage. Battery technology has the
potential for further becoming a great enabler
for sustainable transport.
Environmental Considerations
• While Li-ion batteries offer numerous
benefits, their production and disposal can
have environmental impacts.
• Recycling and sustainable sourcing of
materials are being addressed to minimize
these concerns.
Fuel Cells
• a clean, efficient, reliable, and quiet source of
power.
• do not need to be periodically recharged like
batteries, but instead continue to produce
electricity as long as a fuel source is provided.
• used today in a range of applications, from
providing power to homes and businesses,
keeping critical facilities like hospitals, grocery
stores, and data centers up and running, and
moving a variety of vehicles including cars,
buses, trucks, forklifts, trains, and more
Basics of a Fuel Cell
• composed of an anode, a cathode, and an
electrolyte membrane.
• a typical fuel cell works by passing hydrogen
through the anode of a fuel cell and oxygen
through the cathode.
• at the anode site, a catalyst splits the
hydrogen molecules into electrons and
protons. The protons pass through the porous
electrolyte membrane, while the electrons are
forced through a circuit, generating an electric
current and excess heat.
Types of Fuel Cell
1. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells
• also called proton exchange membrane fuel
cells, use a proton-conducting polymer
membrane as the electrolyte.
• Hydrogen is typically used as the fuel.
• These cells operate at relatively low
temperatures and can quickly vary their
output to meet shifting power demands.
• the best candidates for powering
automobiles.
• due to their low operating temperature, they
cannot directly use hydrocarbon fuels, such as
natural gas, liquefied natural gas, or ethanol
2. Direct-Methanol Fuel Cells
• similar to the PEM cell in that it uses a proton-
conducting polymer membrane as an
electrolyte.
• DMFCs use methanol directly on the anode,
which eliminates the need for a fuel reformer.
• are of interest for powering portable
electronic devices, such as laptop computers
and battery rechargers.
 • Methanol provides a higher energy density
than hydrogen, which makes it an attractive
fuel for portable devices.
3. Alkaline Fuel Cells
• use an alkaline electrolyte such as potassium
hydroxide or an alkaline membrane that
conducts hydroxide ions rather than protons.
• Originally used by the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) on space
missions
4. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells
• use a phosphoric acid electrolyte that
conducts protons held inside a porous matrix
and operates at about 200°C.
• they are typically used in modules of 400 kW
or greater and are used for stationary power
production in hotels, hospitals, grocery stores,
and office buildings, where waste heat can
also be used
5. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells
• use a molten carbonate salt immobilized in a
porous matrix that conducts carbonate ions as
their electrolyte.
• they are already being used in a variety of
medium-to-large-scale stationary applications,
where their high efficiency produces net
energy savings.
• their high-temperature operation
(approximately 600°C) enables them to reform
fuels such as natural gas and biogas internally.
6. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
• use a thin layer of ceramic as a solid
electrolyte that conducts oxide ions.
• they are being developed for use in a variety
of stationary power applications, as well as in
auxiliary power devices for heavy-duty trucks.
• Operating at 700°C–1,000°C with
zirconiabased electrolytes, and as low as
500°C with ceria-based electrolytes, these fuel
cells can internally reform natural gas and
biogas and can be combined with a gas
turbine to produce electrical efficiencies as
high as 75%
Efficiency
• Fuel cells can operate at higher efficiencies
than combustion engines and can convert the
chemical energy in the fuel directly to
electrical energy with efficiencies capable of
exceeding 60%.
• Fuel cells have lower or zero emissions
compared to combustion engines. There also
are no air pollutants that create smog and
cause health problems at the point of
operation. Fuel cells are quiet during
operation as they have few moving parts.
Challenges and Ongoing Research
Cost
• Research, development, and demonstration
(RD&D) focuses on the development of low-
cost fuel cell stack and balance of plant (BOP)
components and advanced high-volume
manufacturing approaches to reduce overall
system cost.
Performance
• To improve fuel cell efficiency and
performance, RD&D focuses on innovative
materials and integration strategies.
Durability
• Fuel cell applications generally require
adequate performance to be maintained over
long periods.
• RD&D focuses on identifying and
understanding the fuel cell degradation
mechanisms and developing materials and
strategies to mitigate their effects
Solar Cells
Solar energy as a renewable source
• Solar energy is that produced by the Sun’s
light – photovoltaic energy – and its warmth –
solar thermal – for the generation of
electricity or the production of heat.
Inexhaustible and renewable, since it comes
from the Sun, solar energy is harnessed using
panels and mirrors.
Photovoltaic Solar Cells
• Solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells,
convert the energy of light into electrical
energy using the photovoltaic effect.
 • Unlike batteries, solar systems do not use
chemical reactions, nor do they require fuel.
In addition, solar cells don’t have moving
parts like electric generators.
• Domestic solar systems convert around 20%
of the sunlight they receive into electricity,
while more expensive commercial systems can
convert up to 40%
large formation of solar cells – arrays
small group of cells – solar panels
How do they work?
1. Sunlight shines on the surface of the cell
2. Energy is carried through the layers of the cell
as photons
3. The photons give their energy over to
electrons in the lower layer
4. The electrons use this energy to jump back
into the upper layer and escape into the
circuit
5. The electrons flowing around the circuit
provide the power to a device
Types of Solar Cells
1. Crystalline Silicon Cells
• Around 90% of solar cells are made from
crystalline silicon (c-Si) wafers which are sliced
from large ingots grown in laboratories.
• These ingots take up to a month to grow and
can take the form of single or multiple
crystals.
Why do monocrystalline solar cells have the highest
efficiency than polycrystalline solar cells?
• monocrystalline solar panels are more
efficient than polycrystalline solar panels –
this is because monocrystalline panels are cut
from a single crystal of silicon, which makes it
easier for the highest amount of electricity to
move throughout the panel.
2. Thin Film Solar Cells
• around 100 times thinner.
made from amorphous silicon (a-Si), in which
the atoms are randomly arranged rather than
in an ordered crystalline structure.
• can also be made from cadmium-telluride (Cd-
Te), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS),
or organic PV materials.
• these cells are produced by layering
photovoltaics to create a module and are the
cheapest option for producing solar panels.
• the cells can be laminated onto windows,
skylights, roofing tiles, and other substrates,
including glass, metals, and polymers.
• however, despite this flexibility, they are not
as efficient as regular crystalline silicon cells
3. Third Generation Solar Cells
• combine the best features of crystalline silicon
and thin-film solar cells to provide high
efficiency and improved practicality for use.
• they tend to be made from amorphous silicon,
organic polymers, or perovskite crystals and
feature multiple junctions made up of layers
of different semiconducting materials.
• these cells have the potential to be cheaper,
more efficient, and more practical than other
types of cells, and be able to achieve around
30% efficiency (with a perovskite-silicon
tandem solar cell)
 Efficiency and Cost Considerations
• Solar cells can only produce electricity based
on the light they receive and can process.
Most cells convert just 10-20% of the energy
they receive into electricity, with the most
efficient cell laboratory cells reaching around
45% efficiency under perfect conditions
• The reason for this is that solar cells are
optimized to only capture photons from
within a particular frequency band, with those
outside this band being wasted.
• This overall solar cell efficiency is determined
by a combination of charge carrier separation
efficiency and, conductive efficiency,
reflectance efficiency, and thermodynamic
efficiency.
• Changes in solar panel cost over time can be
explained by Swanson’s Law, which states that
the price of solar PV modules decreases by
about 20% for every doubling in global solar
capacity.
• The law is named after Richard Swanson,
founder of high-efficiency solar panel
manufacturer SunPower, and indicates a
phenomenon seen across many different
technologies: new industries face a major
learning curve, and as they improve, prices
fall.
Integration into the Energy grid
Challenges
• Grid Compatibility
• Transmission Lines
• Power Quality
• Inertia
• Variable Sunshine
Solutions
• Better Predictions
• Spread Out Solar Panels
• Store Extra Energy
• Change Electricity Usage Times
Environmental Concerns
• Land impact
• Chemical use
Emerging Trends in Solar Cell Technology
1. Floating Photovoltaics (FPV) on the Rise
• FPV systems, where solar panels float on
water bodies, are gaining popularity and
becoming a competitive application of solar
PV. Clean energy companies and PV system
developers see this as a valuable addition to
the solar energy landscape. Predictions
indicate that by the end of 2022, there will be
5.2 GW of FPV installed capacity, surpassing
the total installed capacity from 2008 to 2020.
Water Splitting
• Water is a simple chemical molecule made up
of two molecules of hydrogen and one
molecule of oxygen.
• Water is a remarkable substance with unique
scientific properties, such as its chemical
composition (H2O), universal solvent
capabilities, density anomaly, and
cohesive/adhesive nature
• It can be driven by a variety of energy sources,
including electricity, heat, and light.
Why water splitting?
• Hydrogen production
• Energy storage
• Green hydrogen
• Chemical industry
• Environmental benefits
• Oxygen production
• Space exploration
Main Types
1. Photocatalytic water splitting
• Photocatalytic water splitting is a process that
uses light energy, typically from sunlight, to
split water into hydrogen and oxygen.
2. Electrocatalytic water splitting
• Electrolysis is a method of water splitting that
uses electricity to drive the chemical reaction.
Other Methods:
3. Radiolysis
4. Thermolysis
5. Photobiological water splitting
Photocatalysis and Electrocatalysis
Photocatalytic – method/process
Photocatalysis – application
Photocatalyst – material/substance
Photocatalysis
• It uses light energy to split water into
hydrogen and oxygen using a semiconductor
photocatalyst.
• Graphitic Carbon Nitride (g-C3N4)
• Hydrogenated Titanium Dioxide
• Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
• Perovskite Materials
The choice on choosing materials depends on the
specific purpose and desired properties suitable for
different applications
Photocatalysis Application: Hydrogen Generation
Clean, sustainable hydrogen through solar power

Photocatalysis: Artificial Leaf

• Efficiency
• Scalability
• Storage
• Environmental Benefits

Electrocatalysis

• Electrocatalytic water splitting is a process of

using electricity to split water into hydrogen
and oxygen.

Photocatalysis: Mechanism

• Photon Absorption – the photocatalyst Electrocatalysis Application: Hydrogen-Powered

material absorbs light (photons), usually from Transportation
sunlight.
Electrocatalysis Application
• Generation of Electron-Hole Pairs – the
absorbed photons energize electrons in the Hydrogen Fuel
photocatalyst, creating electron-hole pairs
• Renewable or Natural Gas
• Separation of Electron and Hole – these
• Green & Clean
electron-hole pairs are separated within the
photocatalyst, with electrons moving to the • Fuel Cell Efficient
surface and holes remaining inside the • Special Storage
material. • Renewable Potential
• Reduction and Oxidation Reactions – electrons • Growing Tech
at the surface engage in a reduction reaction, • Cost Varies
converting water into hydrogen gas. • Offers potential advantages in terms of
Meanwhile, holes participate in an oxidation sustainability and environmental impact,
reaction, turning water into oxygen gas when produced using renewable energy
• Formation of hydrogen and oxygen – sources
hydrogen and oxygen gases are produced as a Fossil Fuel
result of these reactions.
• Non-Renewable
Photocatalytic Material
• Polluting & Warming
• Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) • Lower Efficiency
• Zinc Oxide (ZnO) • Conventional Storage
• Tungsten Trioxide (WO3) • Finite & Challenged
• Semiconductor Nanomaterials (e.g., CdS, • Global Infrastructure
CdTe, In2O3) • Cost Competitive
THESE CRITICAL TECHNOLOGIES IN RENEWABLE
ENERGY CONVERSION AND STORAGE OFFER IMMENSE
PROMISE FOR EFFICIENCY, ENVIRONMENTAL
MITIGATION, AND A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE. THEIR
DEVELOPMENT AND INTEGRATION ARE KEY TO
REDUCING EMISSIONS AND ACHIEVING CLEANER,
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY.
Energy – Saving Technologies
Green Technology
Energy-saving technology is a technology which
augments or replaces existing systems for a net energy
savings. This helps in decreasing the impact of human
activity on the environment and often saves money
for the operations.
Green homes are a good example of how these
technology works and could affect daily lives of the
consumers. One of the simplest energy saving
technologies is building an insulation in which, if
properly placed, allows a building to stay at the
desired temperature with a significantly less heating
or cooling than it might otherwise require
Green Technology
The advances in technology continuously gives impact
to the lives of people.
The rise of modern technology paves the way for
these energy systems. The purpose of these
technology is, other that decreasing electricity
consumption, to provide life experiences with ease,
comfort, and convenience. There are new
technologies intended for the food industry, fashion,
education, as well as for the film and music industry.
Technology is so dynamic; it always aims to respond to
people’s need.
• Green tech refers to a type of technology that
is considered environmentally friendly based
on its production process or its supply chain.
Green tech—an abbreviation of "green
technology"—can also refer to clean energy
production, the use of alternative fuels, and
technologies that are less harmful to the
environment than fossil fuels.
• Green technology is an umbrella term that
describes the use of technology and science
to create products and services that are
environmentally friendly. Green tech is related
to cleantech, which specifically refers to
products or services that improve operational
performance while also reducing costs, energy
consumption, waste, or negative effects on
the environment.
Understanding Green Technology
• The goal of green tech is to protect the
environment, repair damage done to the
environment in the past, and conserve the
Earth's natural resources. Green tech has also
become a burgeoning industry that has
attracted enormous amounts of investment
capital.
Types of Green Technology
• Alternative Energy - in order to provide a
viable alternative to fossil fuels, many
businesses are seeking to engineer alternative
sources of energy that do not generate
atmospheric carbon.
• Sustainable Agriculture - Farming and
livestock have a substantial environmental
footprint, from the high costs of land and
water usage to the ecological consequences of
pesticides, fertilizers, and animal waste. As a
result, there are many opportunities for green
technology in the area of agriculture.
• Recycling - Recycling seeks to conserve scarce
resources by reusing materials or finding
sustainable substitutes. While plastic, glass,
paper, and metal waste are the most familiar
forms of recycling, more sophisticated
operations can be used to recover expensive
raw materials from e-waste or automobile
parts
• Carbon Capture - Refers to a group of
experimental technologies that seek to
remove and sequester greenhouse gasses,
either at the point of combustion or from the
atmosphere.
Motion Sensors
• A motion sensor (or motion detector) is an
electronic device that is designed to detect
and measure movement.
• Motion sensors are used primarily in home
and business security systems, but they can
also be found in phones, paper towel
dispensers, game consoles, and virtual reality
systems.
• Unlike many other types of sensors (which can
be handheld and isolated), motion sensors are
typically embedded systems with three major
components: a sensor unit, an embedded
computer, and hardware (or the mechanical
component).
Types of Motion Sensors
• Active Motion Sensors - Active sensors have
both a transmitter and a receiver. This type of
sensor detects motion by measuring changes
in the amount of sound or radiation reflecting
back into the receiver.
• Passive Motion Sensors - A passive motion
sensor does not have a transmitter. Instead of
measuring a constant reflection, the sensor
detects motion based on a perceived increase
of radiation in its environment.
Efficiency of Motion Sensors
• Known uses of motion Sensors are in lights.
Motion sensor lights detect when someone is
in the area and turn on automatically, which
eliminates wasted energy from leaving a light
switched on when no one is there. This makes
motion sensor lights much more energy
efficient than traditional lighting fixtures,
saving you money each month on your
electric bills.
LED Lighting
LED LIGHTING IS 80% EFFICIENT THAN FLOURESCENT
AND INCANDESCENT
• The light-emitting diode (LED) is today's most
energy-efficient and rapidly-developing
lighting technology. Quality LED light bulbs
last longer, are more durable, and offer
comparable or better light quality than other
types of lighting.
Types of Lightings and its Efficiency
• Light Emitting Diodes (LED) – long tube shape
(the long light bulb)
• Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) – spiral tube
shape (the curly light bulb)
• Incandescent Bulb – pear shape with opaque
or clear glass

• In incandescent bulbs, the filament material
must be heated by the flow of current until it
glows, which then emits light. In this process,
about 90% of the consumed energy is lost due
to thermal radiation and only 10% is emitted
as light.
• In CFLs, on the other hand, the current is
passed through a tube containing argon and
mercury vapor and this action generates light
energy. However, again, only 20% of the
consumed energy generates light, due to a
significant loss in the form of heat energy.
• LED lights deliver more lumens (quantities of
visible light) per watt than incandescents.
They have higher luminous efficacy. 60- watt
incandescent bulbs can roughly generate up
to 900 lumens, whereas an LED bulb uses only
6-8 watts for the same luminosity
How LEDs are different?
• Direction
• Lifetime
• Heat
• Efficiency
• Light Source
Reflective Roofing
PERHAPS ONE OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE LOW SLOPE COMMERCIAL
ROOFING INDUSTRY OVER THE PAST DECADE AND A
HALF IS THE ADOPTION OF COOL ROOFING
What is Reflective Roofing?
• Reflective roofing, otherwise known as cool
roofs, uses materials that absorb less solar
energy, thus reducing their temperature by
more than 50°F compared to traditional
roofing materials. Most cool roofs reflect 70%
of the sun’s energy, thus reducing energy bills
and any urban heat island effects.
Reflective Roofing Materials
• Asphalt Shingles
• Cool Metal Roofing
• Reflective Roof Coating (White, Pigmented,
Aluminum)
• Roofing Membrane
• Tiles
• Green Roof
Energy Saving
The single factor driving the growth of cool roofing
over the past decade is energy savings. Most dark
roofs absorb 90% or more of the incoming solar
energy. Most cool roofs have a reflectance rating of at
least .70, meaning they reflect at least 70% of the
sun’s energy.
Efficient Energy Use
• Refers to using less energy to provide an
energy service. Since energy production
typically creates pollution and greenhouse
gases, improving the energy efficiency of
certain technologies has the potential to
significantly reduce energy consumption and
consequently reduce emissions from the
energy sector
• Investing in energy efficiency is often
described as being a “win-win”: by reducing
the amount of energy used, efficiency
measures can reduce energy consumption
(and, consequently, impacts from energy use)
and save customers money.
Oher Measures in Improving Energy Efficiency Other Common Barriers of Energy Efficiency

• Devices - There are a range of energyefficient
devices, appliances, and other equipment
available for many electricity end-uses that
provide the same service using less energy,
either through improvements in efficiency of
appliances, or through the use of technologies
that consume less fuel
• Buildings - Reducing energy use from buildings
is therefore critical for mitigating the impacts
of climate change. Buildings can become more
energy-efficient through the use of more
efficient technologies and from optimal
building design. For new buildings, energy
efficient building through architectural design
and weatherization can be achieved.
• Transportation - The energy efficiency of
vehicles is typically referred to as “fuel
economy,” which is expressed in the number
of miles that can be traveled per gallon of
gasoline. The fuel economy of a vehicle can be
improved in several ways, such as reducing
the vehicle’s weight or improving engine
design to use less fuel.
The Challenges of Energy Efficiency
ENERGY EFFICIENT GAP
Even though consumers can often save money from
investing in energy-efficient devices, research suggests
that consumers do not tend to do so, leaving many
apparent cost-saving investments on the table. This
phenomenon is referred to as the “energy efficiency
gap,” since investment in energy efficiency should
theoretically be higher than it is today.
This inherent inertia against acting to improve energy
efficiency is reinforced by numerous institutional,
financial and technical barriers to energy efficiency
programmes, either real or perceived. These include:
• Policy and regulatory barriers;
• Lack of information and awareness of the potential
for energy efficiency;
• Lack of industry initiatives to emphasize energy
management as an integral part of total management
systems;
• Lack of technical capacity to identify, appraise,
develop and implement energy efficiency projects;
• Financial and investment barriers;
• Technology barriers.
The Rebound Effect
In addition to the barriers present for adoption of
energy-efficient technologies, some challenges exist
for reducing overall energy consumption even after
energy efficiency has improved. The rebound effect
refers to the phenomenon that improved energy
efficiency can lead, to some extent, to an increase in
energy use because the cost of the energy service
declines. Energy services have a downward-sloping
demand curve, meaning that if the price declines,
consumers will purchase more of it. This rebound
effect thus offsets some of the savings associated with
energy efficiency improvements.

In addition to the gap from a consumer perspective,

which focuses on costs to individuals, there is also an
efficiency gap from a societal perspective, which
considers both private costs and external costs (such
as the environmental costs of energy production).

Possible Explanation Behind the Gap

• Market Failure
• Lack of Information
• Hidden Costs
• Behavioral Failures
Benefits of Recent Technological and Product
Developments

Top 10 Emerging Technologies of 2023

1. Flexible batteries

2. Generative artificial intelligence

3. Sustainable aviation fuel

4. Designer phages

5. Metaverse for mental health

6. Wearable plant sensors

7. Spatial omics

8. Flexible neural electronics

9. Sustainable computing

10.AI-facilitated healthcare
 SESSION 6: ALTERNATE FUELS/ENERGY
What is BIOMASS?
a. biomass refers to organic materials, primarily
plant and animal-based, that can be used as a
source of energy.
b. the term is generally understood to exclude
coal, oil, and other fossilized remnants of
organisms, as well as soils
BIOENERGY & BIOFUEL
c. bioenergy is a broader term that encompasses
all forms of energy derived from organic
materials such as plants and animals while
biofuels are a subset of bioenergy and
specifically refers to liquid or gaseous fuels
made from organic materials.
CONVERTING BIOMASS INTO BIOENERGY
- Direct Combustion
o All biomass can be burned directly for
heating buildings and water, for providing
industrial process heat, and for generating
electricity in steam turbines.
o Biomass is burned in a boiler to produce
high-pressure steam. This steam flows
over a series of turbine blades, causing
them to rotate. The rotation of the turbine
drives a generator, producing electricity.
- Thermochemical Conversion
o Thermochemical conversion of biomass
includes pyrolysis and gasification. Both
processes are thermal decomposition
processes wherein biomass feedstock
materials are heated in closed, pressurized
vessels called gasifiers at high
temperatures.
➢ Pyrolysis - entails heating organic materials to
between 800° F and 900° F (400° C and 500° C) in
the nearly complete absence of free oxygen. Biomass
pyrolysis produces fuels such as charcoal, bio-oil,
renewable diesel, methane, and hydrogen.
➢ Gasification - entails heating organic materials to
between 1,400° F and 1,700 F (800° C and 900° C)
with injections of controlled amounts of free oxygen
or steam into the vessel to produce a carbon
monoxide- and hydrogen-rich gas called synthesis
gas or syngas.
- Chemical Conversion
o A chemical conversion process known as
transesterification is used for converting
vegetable oils, animal fats, and greases into
fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) to produce
biodiesel.
- Biological Conversion
o Biological conversion of biomass includes
fermentation to make ethanol and anaerobic
digestion to produce biogas. Ethanol is used
as a vehicle fuel. Biogas, also called
biomethane or renewable natural gas, is
produced in anaerobic digesters at sewage
treatment plants and at dairy and livestock
operations. It also forms in and may be
captured from solid waste landfills. Properly
treated renewable natural gas has the same
uses as fossil fuel natural gas.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF USING
BIOMASS AS AN ALTERNATIVE SOURCE OF ENERGY
- Biomass is a renewable source
o Biomass is an abundant resource: organic
matter surrounds us, from forests and
croplands to waste and landfills.
- Biomass helps reduce wastes
o Diverting waste to biomass energy plants
instead of landfills not only helps reduce the
size of landfills and alleviates these risks but
also takes materials that would otherwise sit
around and uses them productively.
- Biomass is a reliable source of electricity
o Biomass energy plants are often
dispatchable, meaning they can easily be
turned on or off. This allows electricity grid
operators to use electricity from these
plants during times of peak demand.
- Biomass reduces overreliance to fossil fuels
o Not only is there is a limited supply of fossil
fuels, but fossil fuels come with
environmental baggage, including the
release of large amounts of carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere and the pollutants that
result from removal, transportation and
production.
- Biomass costs
o Additional costs are associated with
extracting, transporting, and storing
biomass before electricity generation. This is
 an added cost that other renewable
technologies don't need to account for, as
they rely on free, onsite resources (tides,
sunshine, wind, etc.) for fuel.
- Biomass space requirements
o Biomass energy plants require a lot of space,
limiting the areas where you can place a plant.
Often, companies also need to put these plants
near their source of biomass to cut down on
transportation and storage costs
- Biomass environmentally impact
o Like many other forms of energy, producing
electricity from biomass can come with several
environmental downsides
- Biomass effectivity
o Some biofuels, like Ethanol, is relatively
inefficient as compared to gasoline. In fact, it
has to be fortified with fossil fuels to increase
its efficiency.
ALGAE-BASED FUELS
- Algae are sometimes grown to make algae
biofuels, which make up the third generation of
biofuels. Many types of algae can be used and
processed to become a biofuel. Biofuel is a fuel
made from living things, or the waste of a
living thing, also known as biomass. The algae
oils can be converted to biodiesel and the
remaining material can be used to create
bioethanol.
Algae-based fuels process
1. Carbon dioxide, nutrients, and sunlight
2. Algae is grown
3. Algae is harvested
4. Algae is dewatered
5. Algae oil is extracted
6. Algae oil is converted to biodiesel
7. Algae is fermented
8. Algae is converted to bioethanol
ALGAE FOR BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
- Algae are organisms that grow in aquatic
environments and use light and carbon dioxide
(CO2) to create biomass. There are two
classifications of algae: macroalgae and
microalgae
- Microalgae have long been recognized as
potentially good sources for biofuel production
because of their relatively high oil content and
rapid biomass production. Microalgae grow very
quickly compared to terrestrial crops; the practice
of algal mass culture can be performed on
nonarable lands using non-potable saline water
and waste water. Thus, use of microalgae as an
alternative biodiesel biofuel feedstock is gaining
increasing interest from researchers,
entrepreneurs, and the general public.
MICROALGAE ADVANTAGES
- An appealing characteristic of algae is its oil
content, with some strains consisting of over 50%
triglycerides.
- The yield of biodiesel from algae per square
kilometer could greatly exceed even that of tropical
palm oil. Unfortunately, achieving a high yield of
triglycerides requires the algae to be nutrient-
deprived, which slows their production.
- Algae production does not begin with the huge
carbon deficit from clearing land for biodiesel or
bioethanol production that is required directly or
indirectly
- The algae grow quickly; about 1% of sunlight is
absorbed and converted to biomass, which is small
by comparison to ~10–15% capture by solar cells,
but the initial capital costs are much less.
- The water used in the bioreactor or ponds need not
be pure—wastewater can be used and may even
be advantageous if it contains some of the
nutrients required for algal growth (nitrogen and
phosphorus)
MICROALGAE DISADVANTAGES
- A problem associated with the triglycerides derived
from algae is that they are polyunsaturated: their
fatty acid chains often contain four or more C
double bond C bonds.
- Other problems in algae systems are that in open
reactors many strains of algae are present, and
that the water tends to evaporate.
- The capital cost is increased of setting up the
system since expensive metal support structures are
used to hold the tubes vertically.
WHAT IS BIODIESEL?
- It is a fuel that produced from vegetable oils,
yellow grease, used cooking oils, or animal fats.
 - It is a non-petroleum-based diesel fuel, made up
of methyl or ethyl esters of fatty acids found in
vegetable oils.
- Biodiesel has become a standardised term
referring exclusively to mono alkyl esters
- Historically, the first diesel engines could be
powered using peanut oil, but it was more
expensive than fuel derived from petroleum and
this practice fell into disuse
- In the 1920s diesel engine manufacturers altered
their engines to use the lower viscosity of petro--
diesel (a fossil fuel) rather than vegetable oil (a
biomass fuel)
- Petro-diesel is cheaper to produce than biofuels,
so the biofuel industry waned. Side effects of
burning fossil fuels are now recognized as an
environmental concern, as is the realization that
fossil fuels are a finite commodity.
Properties of Biodiesel
1. Biodiesel varies in colour from golden to dark
brown
2. It has a high boiling point and low vapour
pressure.
3. The flash point of biodiesel is 130 ºC, which is
significantly higher than that of petro-diesel (64
ºC) or gasoline (-45 ºC)
4. Biodiesel gels at low temperatures
BIODIESEL: PLANT OIL
- Soybeans are de-hulled and crushed
mechanically, and the oil extracted from the
resulting flaked seeds using hexane. The
extracted oil then undergoes the
transesterification chemical reaction to produce
biodiesel
BIODIESEL: ALGAE
- An appealing characteristic of algae is its oil
content, with some strains consisting of over
50% triglycerides. This oil could presumably be
converted into biodiesel as an alternative to
using crops such as soybeans or palms grown
for that purpose
USE OF BIODIESEL IN MOTOR VEHICLES
- The fraction of biodiesel in diesel fuel is
designated by a B labeling system
- B5 symbolizes diesel fuel containing 5%
biodiesel by volume, and B100 is pure biodiesel
- In the past, the most common blend was B20
but more dilute blends such as B2, B5, and B7
are becoming popular.
- Currently, the largest manufacturers and users of
biodiesel in the European Union are Germany
and France, who together account for about half
the totals.
GREENHOUSE GAS AND AIR POLLUTION EMISSIONS
FROM BIODIESEL
1. The use of methanol created from a fossil fuel
makes biodiesel less than 100% renewable.
2. Biodiesel blends produce significantly fewer
emissions of carbon monoxide, particulate
matter (PM10), and hydrocarbons—including
polycyclic aromatic ones and those that
promote photochemical smog
COMPARING BIODIESEL WITH PETRODIESEL
ADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL
- Biodiesel produces significantly fewer air pollutants,
other than NOx, due to its lower aromatic content
and to better combustion efficiency resulting from
the presence of oxygen in its molecular structure.
- Biodiesel has a significantly higher flash point so it is
safer to handle.
- Biodiesel is a better lubricant, and reduces long-term
engine wear.
- Biodiesel biodegrades faster (owing to its oxygen
content, a point of enzyme attack) in freshwater and
soil, and is much less toxic.
- Growth of plants for biofuel absorbs much of the
CO2 subsequently emitted during its production and
 combustion; thus it reduces by about half the
greenhouse gas emissions from diesel fuel
combustion.
DISADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL
- Biodiesel has a slightly lower energy content (about
7-9%, depending on feedstock), though this is
partially offset by its superior combustion efficiency.
- Biodiesel is more viscous, though much less so than
SVO, so its use in cold climate winters can be
problematic.
- Biodiesel undergoes degradation by reaction with air
during long-term storage due to the presence of
C=C bonds in the original oils, which make the
carbon chain more susceptible to oxidation. Biodiesel
may attract water from atmospheric moisture owing
to the presence of mono- and diglycerides not
completely esterified by methanol. The water causes
corrosion of the engine's fuel system, reduces the
efficiency of combustion, can speed the gelling of the
fluid at cool temperatures, and accelerates the
growth of fuel-plugging microbe colonies.
- The CO2 reduction is more than offset for decades if
new land must be cleared to grow the plants.
AMMONIA: AS BIODIESEL FUEL
What is Ammonia?
- a combination of nitrogen and hydrogen, is a
primary industrial chemical that is the least
expensive
Green ammonia refers to ammonia whose
production is 100% renewable and carbon-free
- Method: to use hydrogen from the electrolysis
of water using energy from renewable sources
and nitrogen extracted from the air at high
temperatures under pressure in the presence of
a suitable catalyst.
THE HABER-BOSCH AMMONIA PRODUCTION
METHOD
ADVANTAGES
1. Since ammonia doesn’t contain any molecular
carbon, during its combustion there are no CO2
emissions
2. Currently produced in substantial volumes for the
chemical industry and distributable using existing
infrastructure
3. Commonly transported as cargo, so issues around
handling and carriage are already understood.
4. Ammonia is relatively easier to handle in terms of
temperature, as it is stored at around -33oC.
5. Low fire risk due to its relatively narrow
flammability range, as compared to other fuels
DISADVANTAGES
1. Its toxicity. Being extremely soluble, even at
extremely low concentrations, ammonia can be
absorbed by body fluids and may cause severe
chemical burns.
2. Ammonia also poses enhanced corrosion risk of
certain metals such as copper, brass and zinc and
various alloy.
3. Ammonia burns much more slowly than other fuels
and has higher autoignition temperature than
conventional fuel oil.
4. While carbon-free, ammonia contains nitrogen,
and burning it will result in nitrogen oxide (NOx)
and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. GHG impact of
N2O emissions is nearly 300x greater than CO2.
CARBON – NEUTRAL FUELS
- are synthetic fuels that are created as an
alternative to the liquid fuels typically burned in
internal combustion engines.
- is a term used to describe carbon-based fuels
that when burned will not increase carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere.
- Some carbon-neutral fuels are considered
renewable energy
CARBON – NEUTRAL ALTERNATIVE FUELS: BIOFUEL
1. Biodiesel – The most common carbon-neutral
fuel is biodiesel. Because it is produced from
such organically derived resources as animal
fats and vegetable oil it can be used to
recycle a wide range of waste material.
2. Bioethanol – is ethanol (alcohol) that is
produced by the fermentation of plant
 starches such as grains like corn, sugarcane, DIRECT AIR CAPTURE WITH CARBON UTILIZATION
switchgrass, and agricultural waste. - DAC technologies capture CO2 directly from the
3. Methanol – like ethanol, is a very strong air and can be coupled with processes that use
alcohol made from wheat, corn or sugar in a this captured CO2 to produce fuels or chemicals,
process similar to brewing, and is considered thereby removing carbon from the atmosphere.
the most energy-efficient fuel to produce. A
liquid at normal temperatures, it has a higher ENHANCED WEATHERING
octane rating than gasoline but a lower - This method involves spreading crushed
energy density. minerals like olivine and limestone on land or in
4. Algae – specifically microalgae—is a source the ocean, where they react with CO2 in the
for a carbon-neutral alternative fuel. Since the atmosphere to form stable carbonates,
1970s federal and state governments along effectively removing CO2 from the air
with private investment firms have poured
hundreds of millions into algae research as a
biofuel with little success to date. Microalgae
has the ability to produce lipids, which are
known as a potential source for biofuels.
5. Diesel Fuel from water and CO2 – In 2015,
Audi together with German energy-company
Sunfire announced it was able to synthesize a
diesel fuel from water and CO2 that can fuel
automobiles. The synthesis creates a liquid
known as blue crude and is refined into what
Audi is calling e-diesel.

CARBON NEGATIVE FUELS

- This means the greenhouse gases (GHGs)
generated by its use are less than the GHGs
removed by its production when calculated
on a carbon dioxide-equivalent basis. For
this to happen, the carbon-negative fuel
must come from a feedstock that is
currently contributing to climate change.

BIOENERGY WITH CARBON CAPTURE AND

STORAGE
- This technology involves biomass to produce
energy and the CO2 emissions generated during
combustion are captured and stored
underground to effectively remove more CO2
than it is released.

ALGAE-BASED BIOFUELS
- Algae absorbs CO2 during their growth and
when biofuels are used, they can be carbon
negative if the CO2 emitted is less than what the
algae absorbed during cultivation.
SESSION 9: CHEMICAL BATTERIES SECONDARY – designed to be reuseable even after
WHAT ARE BATTERIES? discharging due to a reversible chemical reaction by
- Devices that contain an electric cell or a series of passing an electric current in the opposite direction
cells that can store and release electrical energy of the current during discharge (rechargeable).
through a chemical energy.
PRIMARY BATTERIES
COMPONENTS OF BATTERIES - Better used as a power source for portable
1. Electrolyte electronic devices that need low power
2. Anode o Lithium Batteries
3. Cathode o Alkaline Batteries
4. Negative (-) Terminal o Zinc-Carbon Batteries
5. Positive (+) Terminal o Silver-Oxide Batteries
o Zinc-Air Batteries

SECONDARY BATTERIES
- Typically used as energy storage devices or for
various electronics and automobiles
o Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) batteries
o Lead-Acid Batteries
o Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries
Anode – Negative electrode o Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries
- Site where oxidation takes place during an
electrochemical reaction, releasing electrons to METALS USED IN BATTERIES
the external electrons.
Cathode – Positive electrode
- Site where reduction takes place during an
electrochemical reaction, acquiring electrons to
the external electrons.
Electrolyte – The ion-conducting medium that
provides the ion transport system between the
anode and cathode in order for the redox reaction to
take place.

OXIDATION/REDUCTION REACTION IN BATTERIES

USES
AND APPLICATIONS OF BATTERIES
- Main applications of batteries make use of
them being good powers sources
o Leisure and Entertainment
o Households and Workplaces
o Transportation
o Personal

TYPES OF BATTERIES
PRIMARY – designed to be usable once and
discarded after exhaustion due to its chemical
reaction being irreversible (non-rechargeable)

SESSION 8: WASTE TO ENERGY
WASTE-TO-ENERGY
- A term that is used to describe various
technologies that convert non-recyclable waste
into usable forms of energy including heat, fuels,
and electricity
- Can occur through number of processes such as
incineration, gasification, pyrolysis, anaerobic
digestion, and landfill gas recovery
- A technologically advanced means of waste
disposal that is widely recognized for reducing
greenhouse gases – particularly methane
HOW IT WORKS?
- Waste-to-energy plants burn municipal solid
waste (MSW), to produce steam in a boiler, and
the steam is used to power an electric generator
turbine.
- For every 100 pounds of MSW in the United
States, about 85 pounds can be burned as fuel to
generate electricity.
- Waste-to-energy plants reduce 2,000 pounds of
garbage to ash that weighs between 300 pounds
and 600 pounds, and they reduce the volume of
waste by about 87%
INCINERATION
- The process of burning hazardous materials at
temperatures high enough to destroy
contaminants.
- Many different types of hazardous materials
can be treated by incineration – soil, sludge,
liquids, and gases
- Although it destroys many kinds of harmful
chemicals, such as solvents polychlorinated
biphenyls and pesticides. It does not destroy
metals, such as lead and chromium.
IS INCINERATION SAFE?
ADVANTAGES
1. Reduced Quantity of Waste
2. Efficient Waste Management
3. Production of Heat and Power
4. Prevents Production of Methane Gas
5. Eliminates Harmful Germs and Chemicals
6. Operates in Any Weather
DISADVANTAGES
1. Air pollutants such as particulate matter – which
cause lung and heart diseases
2. Heavy metals such as lead and mercury – which
cause neurological diseases
3. Toxic chemicals, such as PFAS and dioxins, which
cause cancer and other health problems.
CLIMATE PROTECTION
1. Reduce methane gas emissions from landfills
2. Reduce emissions from energy consumption
3. Reduce emissions from incinerators
IS WASTE-TO-ENERGY A RENEWABLE ENERGY
RESOURCE
- It is partly renewable because the waste treated
in the Waste-to-Energy is partly biogenic or
biomass.
DIOXIN EMISSION
- Dioxins are environmental pollutants that belong
to the so called “dirty dozen”.
- Dioxins are mainly by-products of industrial
processes but can also result from natural
processes, such as volcanic eruptions and forest
fires.
- Dioxin release into the environment,
uncontrolled waste incinerators (solid waste and
hospital waste) are often the worst culprits, due
to incomplete burning.
EFFECTS OF DIOXIN ON HUMANS
- Short-term exposure of humans to high levels of
dioxins may result in skin lesions, such as
chloracne and patchy darkening of the skin, and
altered liver function
- Long-term exposure is linked to impairment of
the immune system, the developing nervous
system, the endocrine system and reproductive
functions.
- It does not affect genetic material and there is a
level of exposure below which cancer risk would
be negligible
PREVENTION OF DIOXIN EXPOSURE
- Proper incineration of contaminated material is
the best available method of preventing and
controlling exposure to dioxins.
 - Prevention or reduction of human exposure is Bottom ash is composed of inert, non-combustible
best done via source directed measures, i.e. strict materials that are left over after the combustion
control of industrial processes to reduce process: sand, stones, and ash from burnt material,
formation of dioxins as much as possible. this is the so-called mineral fraction, which makes up
- Protection of the food supply is critical. Good 80-85% of IBA, and can be utilized as filling material
controls and practices during primary for construction purposes (as a sub-base material in
production, processing, distribution, and sale are road construction substituting virgin gravel material,
all essential in the production of safe food. or concrete products, decreasing demand for
energy- intensive concrete production).
ASHES
- Ash is the solid, somewhat powdery substance
that is left over after any fuel undergoes
combustion.
- Coal ash and wood ash are the two most talked
about types of ash, although ash is created during
any process of incomplete combustion.
- The main chemical component of ash is carbon,
with varying amounts of other elements – calcium,
magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus - all of
which were not burned when the fuel was used

ASHES FROM INCINERATION

1. Incinerator Bottom Ash (IBA)
2. Air Pollution Control Residues (APC) also known
as Fly Ash

- Incinerator Bottom Ash – is the ash from

the bottom of the incinerator. You might
expect that this waste is simply sent to
landfill, with the successful job done of
reducing its weight and size to 30% and
10% respectively.
- This ash is taken out of the fumes that
come from the incineration process.
Removing this ash is done through a
number of different chemical and physical
treatment processes to ensure that the final
gas which leaves the factory is just water
vapor and CO2.

IMPORTANCE OF ASH
- Bottom ash is composed of inert, non-
combustible materials that are left over
after the combustion process
- can be utilized as filling material for
construction purposes
- Fly ash must be processed effectively to
prevent polluting the surrounding area.