Winston C.

Quilaton
Emmanuel Servants of the Holy Trinity (ESHT)
4th Year AB Philosophy
Indian Philosophy
Dr. James L. Piscos, Ph.D.

History of Indian Philosophy (100 points)

1. Research the characteristics and salient contents of each period using cognitive mapping as a start of
your answer: (40 points)

Early Vedic Later Vedic

Vedic Period Period
Four
Period Divisions

Strict Caste Texts: Texts:

Settlement of system:
Aryans  Yajur  Mantras/
 Brahmanas  Sama Samhitas
 Kshatriyas  Atharva  Brahmanas
NO divided Caste  vaishyas  Aranyakas
system:  shudras  Upanishads
Four
Vedas/shrutis

Text: Rig-Veda
Dieties

Other Texts:

 Upavedas
Texts:  Vedangas
Epic Period Smritis  Puranas
 Ramayana  Dharma Shastras
 Mahabharata  Darshana Shastras
 Bhagavad-Gita  Agama Shastras
 Bhakti Texts
 Laws of Manu
6 Heterodox
(Nastika)  Buddhism
systems  Jainism
 Charvaka
Sutra Period

 Nyaya
 Vaisesika
 Samkhya
6 Orthodox  Yoga
(Astika) systems
 Purva Mimamsa
 Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta

Scholastic  Shankara’s non-dualism

Period Invasions by Commentaries  Madhva;s dualism
Muslim and  Ramanuja
British On Sutra
 Indian philosophers
 In the history of Indian Philosophy, it is mainly divided into four major periods consisting: Vedic Period
(2500 BC – 600 BC), Epic Period (500 BC-200 BC), Sutra Period (200 CE with Christian Era), and ended with
Scholastic period (until 17th CE). It is perhaps the earliest known philosophy of the East, accumulating four
thousand intensive years of philosophical inquiry (Saksena, 1970:3). For beginners, instead of rigorously
dwelling on the comprehensive information in every period, it is better to have a holistic or bird’s eye view of it
to avoid difficulty in understanding their philosophical pursuit.

A. Vedic Period: 2500 BC – 600 BC

The period can be divided into two phases: the Early Vedic (1500 – 1000 BC) and Later Vedic Period
(1000BC–600 BC) in accordance with the transitioning stages of its culture style and societal progress (National
Institute of Open Schooling [NIOS], n.d.). Although the spanning time of the two phases is hard to determine,
the earlier is remarkable for its conquest and establishment of Indo-European (Aryans) communities in northern
India. This time, there is no division of caste system. While the later period emerged with a more advanced and
settled culture, it expanded its influence throughout northern India. One common effects is the creation of the
varna system: a hierarchy from brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras. This is due to the increase of
population and contribution of ideas to reform the civilization (Fasale, 2012).

The Vedic Period, in general, is known for its writing of the Vedas or Vedic Scriptures, a collection of
ancient sacred texts in ancient India and is considered the oldest scriptures in Hinduism. Veda from ‘vid’ means
‘to know’, is a sacred knowledge in a text known as Vedic text, which contains “divine truths, [that] are
believed to have been revealed to the ‘four-consciousness of the seers’ (Saksena, 1970:3).” There are typically
two categories of Vedic literature. The first literature can be classified as ‘Shruti’ which belongs to the Early
Vedic literature. The Second is ‘Smriti’ which belongs to the Later Vedic literature, which emerged during the
Epic Period (Roy, 2016:162).

Shruti contains four Vedas: Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda and Atharva-Veda, which serve as the
foundation of Hinduism. These four Vedas are called ‘shrutis’ because they were ‘revealed, authoritative texts’
that were believed to be ‘heard’ directly from the gods. Thus, these texts have no author (Wilson, 1850: vii).
However, sages who heard it passed it orally from the first generation to another and so on (Roy, 2016:162).
The Rich or Rig-Veda contains metrical prayers or hymns called Suktas, addressed to different gods (e.g., Agni,
Vayu, Asvins, Indri, Indra, etc.) of which each is ascribed to Rishi, a sage. It is the only sacred scripture dated
during the early Vedic Period. The Yajush or Yajur-Veda (knowledge of rites (Alternative Delivery Mode
[ADM], 2023)), however, contains rituals or collection of worship patterns. The Saman or Sama-Veda
(knowledge of chants (ADM, 2023)) is a re-arrangement of the Rich made up of the same hymns of some so
that it can be chanted on various ceremonies. Lastly, the Atharvana or Atharva-Veda (knowledge given by the
sage Atharva (ADM, 2023)) contains several hymns taken from Rich. It also contains magic formulas that deals
with black magic, medicine, and other spells to fight against enemies or devils. Amongst them, the Rig-Veda is
the most important Veda not just because it is the oldest among all four Vedas but also it is the Hindu’s most
genuine sacred text, whether it is civil or religious. Each Veda consists of four main divisions:
Mantras/Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads (Wilson, 1850: vii). They are known as direct
Vedic literature, the basis of Indian cultural books called ‘Vaideeka saahitya’. Mantras are chants or hymns that
convey a message of worship to God. Brahmanas explain Mantras such as how to perform Vedic rituals or
‘yagas’, which are sacrifices and other related rituals. Some of them include the Vedas. Aranyakas are
meditations that explain its meaning, but the rituals performed by men heading towards ‘vanaprastha’ and
‘sanyasa’ are difficult to understand and explain. Some of these Vedas follow Brahmanas, while others may not
contain all the Aranyakas. The Upanishads are the last part of Vedic literature and are also called ‘Vedanta’,
which means ‘coming at the end of the Vedas’ (Gopalakrishnan, 2020:4-7). These are recognized to be the
secret spiritual truths that go beyond rituals to illuminate the nature of the cosmos and our connection to it
(ADM, 2023). Mantras and Brahmanas are referred to as ‘Karma-kanda’, or the part where sacrificial acts are
included. The ‘Jnana Kanda’, also known as the Aranyakas and Upanishads, are composed of knowledge
(Goswami, 2021:12).

Thus, the discussion on Vedic literature shows that the Vedic texts can, to some extent, were the basis of
Hinduism in India. Without them, Hindu religion with its rituals and laws could not have been established. By
utilizing early and late Vedic literature, we can gain insight into the social structure of ancient India, including
rituals related to learning. Hindu literature's Vedic texts are the most prominent academic works, providing an
excellent understanding of India.

B. Epic Period: 500 BC-200 BC

Epic period is also known as the ‘post-Vedic’ period. When Shruti was first discovered during the Vedic
period, Smriti began during this period. ‘Smriti’ refers to literature that is based on memory and can be
“remembered or produced” (Roy, 2016:162). These documents were written by wise men called sages and
scholars. These books were written to assist Hindus recall Shruti's lessons. A significant number of these
writings are denominations and are considered to be less important than the shrutis texts, which comprise
stories, legends, social codes of conduct, and prayer guides. Few of the examples of it are the great epics of
Ramayana and Mahabharata, that has the philosophical poem embedded entitled Bhagavad Gita (ADM, 2023).
These epics are sacred texts of India for it contains values that they learn upon. These texts contain real-life
examples that offer guidance for living a fulfilling, socially relevant and satisfying life. In the three scriptures,
Ramayana teaches us how to live; Mahabharata explains how not to do so; and Bhaghavad Gita reveals our
ways of living. As humans are social creatures, these books provide a basic understanding of ethics and
behavior. The realization of this fact leads to a fulfilling journey towards Moksha, the stage of spiritual
liberation (Tiwari, 2021). Others include Upavedas, Vedangas, Puranas, Dharma Shastras, Darshana Shastras,
Agama Shastras, Bhakti Texts, Laws of Manu, etc. For the very reason that they are written teachings, there is
the possibility that they can be re-written, interpreted, and changed over time (kala), land (desha), and
personality (guna) with its intention to create a structure in the society depending on what is necessary (Hindu
American Foundation, 2019).

The three non-orthodox/heterodox (Nastika) systems of Buddhism, Jainism and Charvaka also emerged
during this period. The first one follows Gautama Buddha. Mahavira was the subsequent one. The Brahspati
Sutra embodies the third belief, which is entirely materialistic. All three schools reject the Vedas and therefore
hold a heterodoxic view (Goswami, 2021:8). On the other hand, they have independent sources of their origin.

The Buddhist school of thought whose ethical system avoids metaphysics. Hinayana (individual
enlightenment or Nirvana) and Mahayana (Bodhisattva to help others attain enlightenment) are its two main
branches. Jainism base its belief in prehistoric times. It consists of 24 Tirthankaras teachers that teaches
practical way of living. Finally, Charvaka aside from disbelief in God, also rejects soul and rebirth, and enjoys
the life of appreciating pleasure to avoid any chances of pain (Goswami, 2021:18).

C. Sutra Period: alongside the early centuries of the Christian era

The Sutra was in its third stage. During this period, the six orthodox (astika) systems were developed:
Nyaya or logical realism, Vaisesika or realist pluralism, Samkhya or evolutionary dualism, Yoga or disciplined
meditation, Purva Mimamsa or Vedic interpretation of actions, and the knowledge-based Vedic study, Uttara
Mimamsa or Vedanta, as the latter. The ‘darshana’ system is also known as such, the instruments for vision
(Goswami, 2021:8). We can now see the greater picture of why Sutra period emerged. This is due to the fact
that they wanted to bring back the authority of the Vedic tradition and this comes along with their sincere belief
in the divine for the few. Some exceptions include Mimamsa and the Samkhya that do no not belief in God,
however, stands with Vedas as the source of Indian thought.

Among the most ancient systems of Indian philosophy is Samkhya. The authorship of the Samkhya
Sutra, Kapila Muni, is credited with this. Comments were then added by learned teachers to convey
understanding to the general public. The philosophy is dualistic and posits two eternal realities: Prakruti and
Purusa. The fact that it believes in evolution makes it reject the existence of God. Prakruti represents the
materialistic principle and Purusa symbolizes the Self. The interaction between Purusa and Prakriti is the
starting point of evolution. The Nyaya system is the work of the great sage Gautama. The philosophy is
primarily grounded in logic and intended for practical purposes. In the Nyaya School, there is extensive
discussion about the sources of knowledge. Nyaya identifies four sources of knowledge: the use of perception,
inference, comparison, verbal statements. A practical school called Vaisesika was established by Sage Canada.
Vaisesika shares similarities with Nyaya in its emphasis on logic and epistemology. Yoga, in particular, is said
to have been developed by the great sage Patanjali. In addition to meditation techniques, this yoga school also
offers a sophisticated system of asanas and pranayama. The effects it has on the body, soul, and mind have
been widely recognized. Jaimini established the school of Mimamsa. It is primarily intended as a defense and
justification of Vedic ritualism. The school is also grounded in the physical world and values practicality. The
Upanishad texts serve as the foundation of Vedanta philosophy. The first systematic expounded Vedanta
philosophy was the Brahma Sutra of Badaraina. Numerous renowned teachers, including Samkara and
Ramanuja, provided an explanation and interpretation of this philosophy. (Goswami, 2021:18-19).

Thus, Indian philosophy owes much of its development to this period, and the ideas that were developed
during this time continue to shape philosophical and religious debates all throughout India.

D. Scholastic period: commentaries

India's loss of its dynamic spirit in the 16th century resulted in it becoming a target of foreign powers,
when the British and Muslims invaded, leading to the end of Indian philosophy (New World Encyclopedia,
2023). The period is also marked by the occurrence of commentaries on Sutras, Vedas, Upanishads, which are
carried out in a big way. (Goswami, 2021:9). It emerges as a critical evaluation on the questionable nature of
Sutra for a reason that Although short in nature, its meaning was not always clear. Scholasticism's interpretive
commentary, known as bhasha, was born out of this. In due course, there was a proliferation of commentaries
advocating for certain beliefs, and other independent writings were produced.

As a result, it gave rise to many relatively worthless and unphilosophical discussions, although there are
still notable writers like Samkara, Kumarila, Sridhara, Ramanuja, Madhva, Vakaspati, Udayana, Bhaskara,
Jayanta, Vijnaviks, etc. Among all of them, Shankara and Madhva, as well as Ramanuja, were recognized as the
foremost commentators of the time. Shankara's Vedantan philosophy, which is non-dualism or Advaita, is its
form of philosophy. According to the system of Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is the only reality that can be
expressed in half verses. The world is wrong after all. Brahman and the soul are alike while there is no
difference between Brahman and Atman. The philosophy of Madhva is referred to as Vedanta. He is a strong
advocate for dualist principles. He represents the deep dualism between the world and Brahman (Khole, et.al.,
2009: 24-28).

2. Examine dharma in the Vedas. Describe what Vedas are all about, their types, and the dharma as an
important component in the teachings of Hinduism. Provide some quotations as shown in the primary
source. Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (check the attachment). (40 points)

The Vedas, which are considered the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, are a collection of religious texts
that form the foundation of Hindu philosophy, rituals, and spiritual practices. The word "Veda" is derived from
the Sanskrit word "vid," which means "knowledge" or "wisdom" (Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1967: xviii). The
Vedas are written in Vedic Sanskrit and are comprised of four main texts: the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the
Yajurveda, and the Atharvaveda. Each Veda consists of four parts: Samhitas (hymns), Brahmanas (rituals),
Aranyakas (meditations), and Upanishads (philosophical teachings). Dharma is the cosmic principle of
harmony.

Dharma, a fundamental concept in Hinduism, refers to the moral and ethical duties and responsibilities
that individuals must uphold in order to maintain cosmic order and harmony. As it states, “The literature of
dharma deals with law and custom governing the development of the human individual and the proper relations
of the different groups of society (Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1967: 172).” In the Vedas, dharma is intricately
woven into the fabric of religious and social life, guiding individuals on the path of righteousness and moral
conduct. The Vedas emphasize the importance of dharma in upholding the natural order and balance in the
universe, and they provide guidance on how individuals should conduct themselves in various aspects of life,
including personal conduct, social interactions, and religious observances. AI also assisted that Dharma can also
be found in the Four Vedas namely the following:

Dharma in the Rigveda

“Having taught the Veda, a teacher further instructs a pupil: Speak the truth. Practice virtue
[dharma] (Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1967: 57).”

The Rigveda, the oldest of the four Vedas, is a collection of hymns dedicated to various deities and
natural forces While the Rigveda primarily focuses on ritualistic hymns and prayers, it also contains references
to dharma and the moral obligations of individuals. In the Rigveda, dharma is portrayed as a guiding principle
that governs human conduct, emphasizing the importance of truth, righteousness, and ethical behavior. The
hymns in the Rigveda exalt the virtues of dharma and underscore its significance in maintaining order and
harmony in society.

Dharma in the Samaveda

The use of chants and melodies in Samaveda also involves its mention of moral duties and dharma.
Samaveda emphasizes performing rituals and sacrifices in accordance with dharma and emphasizes the
importance of observing religious and social obligations. Samavedic chants serve as a means of invoking divine
blessings and upholding dharma by appropriately reciting Vedic hymns and melodies.

Dharma in the Yajurveda

“For these reasons, know that I am living in a condition of freedom, though ostensibly engaged in the
enjoyment of religion [dharma], wealth, and pleasure, in the form of kingdom and spouses, which
constitute a field of bondage [for the generality of men] (Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1967: 169).”

The Yajurveda gives instructions for performing rituals and sacrifices and explains the meaning of
dharma in the context of religious practices. In the Yajurveda, it is stressed that one should practice dharma as
well as in sacrifices and Vedic rituals, and describes ethical standards and procedures which are necessary for
fulfilling religious duties. It stresses the importance of following moral and ethical principles in all aspects of
ritual worship and emphasizes the essential connection between dharma and religious practice.

Dharma in the Atharvaveda

Hymns and magical spells for healing, protection, and prosperity are included in the Atharvaveda, also
known as the "Veda of magical formulas". These texts are based on these scriptures. Although distinct from
other Vedas, the Atharvaveda also addresses the concept of dharma and its significance in human existence.
Dharma is emphasized in the Atharvavedvada as being practiced to seek divine blessings and protection from
evil, while also prioritizing its ethical aspects in seeking happiness. Brahma Veda, Existence of Murtta
(concrete) and Amurtta (abstract), Rishi Atharva “seers of Mantras”-celebrating all Divine Presence (Rg-Agni,
Yajur-Vayu, Aditya, Atharva-Angiri). It contains several hymns taken from Rich. It also contains magic
formulas that deals with black magic, medicine, and other spells to fight against enemies or devils.

https://archive.org/details/atharva-veda-vol-2-of-2/page/n45/mode/2up
 Here is a brief description of each of the six shakhas of the Atharva Veda:

1. Shaunakiya (also known as Saunaka or Shaunaka): This shakha is named after the sage Saunaka and is
the most well-known of the nine shakhas.
2. Paippalada: This shakha is named after the sage Paippalada and is the second most well-known of the
nine shakhas.
3. Stauneyi: This shakha is named after the sage Stauneya and is known for its unique arrangement of
mantras.
4. Mauda: This shakha is named after the sage Mauda and is known for its focus on rituals and ceremonies.
5. Jalada: This shakha is named after the sage Jalada and is known for its focus on healing and medicine.
6. Brahmavada: This shakha is named after the sage Brahmavada and is known for its focus on philosophy
and spirituality.
7. Devadarsa: This shakha is named after the sage Devadarsa and is known for its focus on astrology and
astronomy.
8. Chaaraayaniya: This shakha is named after the sage Chaaraayana and is known for its focus on the
performance of yajnas.
9. Mashaka: This shakha is named after the sage Mashaka and is known for its focus on the performance of
yajnas

“Om, may we hear what is auspicious with our ears,

O gods. May we see what is auspicious with our eyes,
O ye worthy of worship. May we enjoy the term of life
allotted by the gods, Praising them with our body and limbs
steady! May the glorious Indra bless us!
May the all-knowing Sun bless us!
May Garuda, the thunderbolt for evil, bless us!
May Brihaspati grant us well-being!
Om! Peace! Peace! Peace!”
 - Sharma

Types of Dharma in the Vedas

As Assisted by AI, it shows that in the Vedas, dharma is classified into different types based on its
application and relevance in various contexts. The types of dharma outlined in the Vedas include:

1. Rta: The order of the universe and the natural laws that govern it. It emphasizes the harmony and
balance inherent in the cosmic order. As it states:

(Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1967: 25)

2. Sva-dharma: Individual duty and righteous behavior based on an individual's caste, position in life,
and social responsibility, with emphasis on fulfilling moral and social obligations. As it states,

(Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1967: 160)

3. Varna-dharma: Individual duty and righteous behavior based on an individual's caste, position in life,
and social responsibility, with emphasis on fulfilling moral and social obligations. As it states:

(Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1967: 105)

4. Ashrama-dharma: Social duties and responsibilities that are linked to one's social status or caste, with
emphasis on fulfilling obligations as per their respective roles. Moral duties and obligations related to his four
stages (ashramas) of life: student life (brahmacharya), stewardship (grihastha), retirement (vanaprastha), and
renunciation (sannyasa). Emphasis is placed on appropriate behavior and responsibility at each stage of life.
 (Radhakrishnan and Moore, 1967: 394)

Dharma in the Teachings of Hinduism

It is important to note that the Vedas serve as a source of instructions and prescriptions explicitly
expressed in their texts. They are considered an eternal transcendental entity in the Hindu concept of dharma.
According to the Wezler (2004), dharma is an essential aspect of Hindu teachings. As it states, “Dharma, the
contents of which refers to the castes and life stages, encompasses the entire sphere of morality, culture, law,
and custom and, put into practice, effects otherworldly salvation (Wezler, 630).” It is the performance of ritual
prescriptions that are revealed in the Veda and is regarded as a "sacrament" that mediates transcendence to
salvation.

Dharma is considered an integral part of Hinduism, and it is addressed in both the Vedic dharma and the
Dharmas’astric dharma. The Vedic dharma focuses on the performance of ritual prescriptions revealed in the
Vedas, while the Dharmas’astric dharma pertains to the duties and rights of specific classes. Dharma is seen as a
comprehensive and uniform concept within Hinduism, encompassing various aspects of life and providing
guidance for individuals. Overall, the Vedas play a crucial role in shaping the understanding of dharma in
Hinduism, particularly through their focus on ritualistic practices and their association with the concept of
transcendence and salvation. Thus, Dharma is a comprehensive and uniform concept that is secondary,
detectable merely by empirical means, be it from the Veda, or from the consensus of the Good, with regard to
the geographical location (Wezler, 2004).

References:

Alternative Delivery Mode (2023). Introduction to World Religion and Belief Systems: Darmic
Religions. Course Hero. https://www.coursehero.com/file/120093447/GAS-Humanities-IWRBS-Module-1-
week-1/.
 Fasale, M.K. (2012). A Study of the Early Vedic Age in Ancient India. Journal of Arts and Culture, 3
(3), 129-132. https://bioinfopublication.org/files/articles/3_3_3_JAC.pdf.

Gopalakrishnan, N. (2020). Introduction to Vedas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas. Indian Institute of

Scientific Heritage (IISH). https://iish.org/ebooks/vedas_bhramanas_aryanakas.pdf.

Hindu American Foundation (2019). Hindu Scriptures.

https://www.hinduamerican.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Scriptures2.0_0.pdf.

National Institute of Open Schooling (n.d.). History 315: The Vedic Age. https://nios.ac.in/online-
asscourse-material/sr-secondary-courses/history-(315).aspx.

New World Encyclopedia (n.d.). Indian philosophy.

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Indian_philosophy#Political_Philosophy.

Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalle and Moore, Charles A. (1967). A Source Book in Indian Philosophy.
Princeton University Press.

Roy, Sangeeta (2016). Vedic literature- A significant literature of ancient India: An introduction.
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Tiwari, Anita (2021). This is the difference between Mahabharata, Ramayana and Bhagavad Gita.
Divine Sansar. https://divinesansar.com/this-is-the-difference-between-mahabharata-ramayana-and-bhagavad-
gita/.

Wezler, Albrecht (2004). Dharma in the Veda and the Dharmas´ Astras? Journal of Indian Philosophy,
32, 629–654.

Wilson, H. H. (1850). Rig-Veda-Sanhita: A Collection of Ancient Hindu Hymns of the Rig-Veda (Vol.
1). The Bangalore Press. https://ignca.gov.in/Asi_data/8737.pdf.