> aa INJWNYIA0S HSILI8S AHL Ad GA0NN 2AUTHOR’S PREFACE CONTENTS This book has been prepared with the object both of helping the GueRAL INTRODUCTION student pass an examination, and for the practising engineer. The Autiior’s PREFACE subject-matter has been restricted to basic principles, and work examples are selected to give good coverage. The more descripti ‘foi, Derinirions aspects of soil mechanics, such as site investigation, piling pract + Engineering definition of soil | and soil stabilisation have been omitted, and to obtain informatiot Voids | ‘on these subjects the reader is referred to the wealth of technical) Moisture content, specific gravity and density journals which deal with civil engineering contracts in which the Neutral and effective stress latest practical techniques are described. Questions | The value of soil mechanics to the civil engineer is often ques- tioned, firstly, on the basis that empirical methods have been used OMPACTION for hundreds of years, and secondly, that soil is too complex a Proctor test material to be subjected to scientific examination. Both of these Site procedure reasons have some validity; indeed, it is dangerous to consider ‘Questions foundation problems on a scientific approach only without taki into account the knowledge of soil in practical condi il, CLASSIFICATION However, the theory can be a great aid to understanding the pi fications used in this chapter tical case and to making more economic use of the mater id identification available. The variable nature of soil, even on a limited site, should ticle size distribution also be considered when making an investigation, but if sufficien iaticity samples are taken, a good average value of soil properties may b ande’s system of soil classification obtained, or in certain cases the worst value may be the criterion; i again experience is required in interpretation. October 1980 M.S. aw ‘Tables from British Standard Code of Practice CP 2001: 1957 “Site Investi ea ef the coefficient of permeability tions", are reproduced by permission of the British Standards Institution, 2 Pi ination of permeability on site Street, London, W.1, {rom whom copies of the complete code may be purcha: ieal hy aM gradient nigh soil. GHEAR STRENGTH - 6 ” Shear-box test Coulomb's law Tri-axial compression test Further shear tests Cuapter 1 Pore pressure parameters Questions 100 SOIL DEFINITIONS {STRIBUTION OF VERTICAL PRESSURE. 7 © Single point load (Boussinesq’s theory) ENGINEERING DEFINITION OF SOIL pestrioutes aes or engineering purposes, soil is considered to be any loose sedi= Re oinaee the ry deposit, such as gravel, sand, silt, clay or a mixture of these Questions terials. It should not be confused with the geological definition of |, which is the weathered organic material on the surface, or . Topsoil is generally removed before any engineerifig pro- IL PRESSURES ON RETAINING WALLS ‘ are carried out. Active pressure Passive resistance Sheet pile walls E VOIDS Questions. 8 is made up of various-sized particles packed together, with the ~ between particles known as voids (see Fig. 1(a)). The voids ‘ABLLITY OF p Ly Suen f air and water, but in certain cireum- = 0 condition c—@ soils Effective stress analysis Stabilisation of slopes Questions ‘OUN DATIONS Shallow foundations Deep foundations Questions oss ppt DIX Answers to questions Ino! ratio a7, yin > i 4 tio of volume of voids to volume of sls known as the tio,2 SOIL MECHANICS For convenience it may be assumed that all the solids in a sample can be compressed together and their volume considered equal to unit volume. This may be shown in a block diagram (see Fig. 1(b)). SOIL DEFINITIONS MOISTURE CONTENT, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND DENSITY \ methods of determination of the specific gravity of soil par- the he moisture content and bulk density of a soil sample are 1377: 1975 (Methods of testing soils for civil Sai — wineering purposes). Only a brief description therefore is given sie ga or Hiote, and for fuller details the British standard should be referred to. otal volun of soil sample V= 1 + ¢ hose three properties of the soil should be determined in all site Porosity ivestigations and laboratory tests. The porosity of a soil is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to total volume of sample. isture content of soil ree of saturation should not be confused with moisture content, hich is the ratio of weight of water in the sample to weight of Mids: % Porosity n = ey Moisture content m = —* yt We which, referring to Fig. 1(b), taking V; = 1 gives Percentage moisture content = m x 100 Porosity n = r+¢@ sample of soil is placed in a container of known weight, with a lid Wi {0 prevent evapogation, The container and soil are weighed and laced in an oven at 105° C, with the lid removed, until the I dry. If the container, lid and dry soil are weighed again h in weight is the weight of water in the original sample, and Weight of solids is the final weight less the weight of the con- 1, Hence the Degree of saturation The ratio of volume of water to volume of voids is known as the degree of saturation. Vo Degree of saturation S, = or Percentage saturation = S, x 100 Weight of water Moisture content m = The voids in soil below the water table should be considered as Weight of solids completely filled with water, in which case the degree of saturation determined. gravity of soil particles pecific gravity of any material is defined as the ratio of the a iit of a given volume of that material to the weight of an equal water surrounding individual grains of soil ie of sorbed water, Adsorbed water can be remove ove i ful to know the specific gravity of the | the soil, and is of importance in consi col . i h les, If this property G, is known and the. grains. % f W, known, then the volume of solids Percentage air voids a ls ¥ i _ The ratio of the volume of air to the total volume of s as the percentage air voids, ei ‘of water (1000 kg/m?), vhich contain a high content of "quartz, the » usually about 2:7. ie asoul DERnsTrIONs oe _ In impervious soil, oil may be used instead of sand. The moisture jontent of the soil should be determined in each case. 4 SOIL MECHANICS Determination of the specific gravity of soil particles To determine the specific gravity of soil particles a known weight of soil particles W, (approximately 200 g of fine-grained or 400 g of coarse-grained soil) is thoroughly mixed with approximately 500 ml of water in a 1 litre ‘jar. The jar is then filled to the top with water, the outside of the jar wiped dry and the jar plus soil plus water weighed, W,. If the weight of the jar just fi filled with water is W2, then; Submerged weight of solids = W, — Wa “Weight of solid particles Weight of an equal volume of water but , Weight of an equal volume of water = weight of water displaced by solids = weight of solids in air — submerged weight of solids Ww W, — (Wi — Wa) This is a special case of bulk density and is the density of the sample ‘isuming the water is removed from the soil. The volume of the sample will not change, and therefore: mw Vv The dry density is usually calculated from the measured values of ik density and moisture content. The relationship between y, ya il m is therefore of value, i Dry density js = Specific gravity ofparticles G,, Hence specific gravity G, = Bulk density of soil The density of the complete soil sample (ic. solids and voids) is usually expressed as bulk density. WAL + m) v yal + m) Bulk density y = g Determination of bulk density E Ifa sample of soil can be taken in an undisturbed condition, then’ wiurated density measurement of bulk density is simple. A cylindrical cutter about another special case of bulk density and is the density of the 100 mm diameter and 125 mm long is carefully driven into the soil, dug 3 ol , trimmed and weighed. The weight of the cutter and its internal dimensions are readily determined, hence: ight of this water = Vorw Wet Vorw Saturated density = "2H! il OW water table it will be satu . d, but it will also be submerged. Now: — ¢ determined by filling it with a y graded sand of known density. te Weight of Soil6 SOIL MECHANICS SOIL DEFINITIONS or, since the soil will be saturated, Submerged density y’ = prt — Jw The student, however, should avoid using submerged density as far as possible. = 00103 m> ~ 265 x 1000 Vi = V— ¥; = 00183 — 0.0103 = 0-008 m? ‘If soil is saturated voids will be all water: We + Vays 27-2 + 0-008 x 1000 ve 0.0183 EXAMPLE 1 A sample of soil weighing 30-6 kg had a volume of 00183 m?, When dried out in an oven its weight was reduced to 27-2 kg. The specific gravity of the solids was found to be 2:65. Determine the following: = 1923 kg/m? (urated density = 34 (a) Bulk density. ; (b) Dry density. (0) Yo = Fo9g = 00034 m? | (c) Percentage moisture content. fe = v0 coe es (d) Saturated density. (@) Percentage air voids. (U)) Void ratio. (g) Porosity. (h) Degree of saturation. {i) Critical hydraulic gradient. F Av _ 0.0046 Percentage air voids ¥, = 7 7 301g * We _ 0-008 00103 Ye _ 0-008 (9) Porosity n = 75 = ani = 0437 : 0777 (/)Void ratio e = vy, ‘ : om ey (Note#Porosity = —*— = 9777 _ 9.437) ea E tte 197 ler (i) Degree of saturation S, * os = 0425 | () Critical hydraulic gradient. This is discussed in Chapter 4 where an pression given Si ine: | 0:2. Note that the figures underlined are given in the question cae Volume (m3) Mass (kg) “Weight” su Ff Fé 265 —1 Critical hydraulic gradient = >> = SOLUTION nD This qi shown in a block diagram (see Fig. 2). w 06 oe at fs (b) Dry density y ‘ Solids to be 2:6 and the dry density of the soil to be i 0 —_— sleulate: = 1672 kg/m* SS he void ratio and porosity. al hydraulic gradient. ated and submerged densities. ¢ of saturation of the soil ) The de;SOIL DEFINITIONS 1) If it took 6-57 kg of the same sand to fill a container 0-0042 m? in , deter nine the bulk density of the soil. | Ina water-content determination 24 g of the moist soil weighed 20 g i] drying in an oven at 105° C. If the specific gravity of the particles was | determine the water content, the dry density and the degree of satu- tion of the soil. Volume (m3) a” Fie. 3 “he (see Fig. 3) (a) We= 1500 x qdoo = 1-5 kg We = 1-74 — 15 = 024 ke 0-24 Volume (mm3) m === = 016 of percentage moisture content = 16% \L.UTION w, 1s Pero q ing to Fig, 4: OO Gare 2 Ta ON Volume of hole — 28 . 3.54 = 0.00226 m? Y= V— ¥; = 0.001 — 0-00058 = 0-00042 m* Sees Te AO STNG | é : 000042 Ww 56. Void rati = it — eae tam 3 . oid ratio e = Sans Bulk density = > = 5 oo = 2018 ka/m Porosity n = eee — = 042 ) From moisture content determination: v 1 oe ; iu We _ 4 26-1 alias On =—— = 093 1 aay 02 ae! Hi 072 e {tage moisture content = 20% percentage moisture content = 20% + Kae _ 15 + 000082 x 1000 a Sons . , i piel Cbia = 3 v 7 ; Dry density ya = 2 = 75g ~ esl ker W _ 24 x 100° Va Zaire x 1006 7183 20 x 10003 IT In order to measurt density of a soil the following sand replace- ‘ment test was il extracted from a hole at th surface of the n sand.SOIL MECHANICS NEUTRAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESS At any horizontal section, depth z in a soil profile, the total down- ward pressure is due to the weight of soil above the section, Bulk density ¥ Saturated density J Section under _7 consideration Fic. 5 Resistance to this pressure is provided, partly by the soil grains, and, if the section is below the water table, partly by the upward pressure of the water. Total load at depth z per unit area o = 217 + Z2)u1 This is resisted by the intergranular pressure o', which is referred to as the effective stress, and by the upward water pressure u, which is referred to as the neutral stress and equals 22)», i. Total downward load per unit area = Intergranular pressure + Upward water pressure = Effective stress + Neutral stress g=o'+u a ‘This relationship between load, effective and neutral stresses is of great importance in soil mechanics. EXAMPLE 4 A bore hole on building site has the soil profile shown in Fig. 6(a) Fir the effective stress at the bottom of the clay: (a) under no conditions; a (6) if the ground water level is lowered 24 m by pumping (assume the (ed with capillary water up to the original level SOLUTION, 7 Referring to Fig. \ SOIL DEFINITIONS Sand J = 1990 kein Gs+272 oat = 2010k g/m? Impermeable shale Volume Fic. 6(a). Bore-hole log. (b) Block diagram. then V, = e, V= 1+ e and W, = Gyw Gat + ew Gs We sceoratT = (48 x 1930 + 3-6 x 23 kN/m? | (3:6 + 2-4) x 1000 x 9:8/1000 = 588 kN/m? of = [48 x 1930 + 36(2120 — 1000) + 2-4(2010 — 1000)]9: 54:2 KN/m?12 SOIL MECHANICS ; SOIL DEFINITIONS (b) When ground water level is lowered 2:4 m: ) At the time of the investigation. os / 2 (ji) If the water table is lowered to the top of the clay. _ Downward load pet m? at base of clay : ii) If the water table is raised to the top of the silt. o = 213 kN/m? jy) If the water table is raised to ground level. ~ Neutral stress u = (1:2 + 24)1000 x 98/1000 “(y) If the water level rises 5 m above ground level. = 353 KN/m? Assume the soil remains saturated at all times. Effective stress at base of clay = 213 — 35:3 = 177-7 kN/m? —— QUESTIONS. 1, A sample of saturated soil has a moisture content of 29 per cent and a bulk density of 1930 kg/m?. Determine the dry density and the void ratio of the soil and the specific gravity of the particles. - ‘What would be the bulk density of a sample of this soil compacted to the same void ratio, but only 90 per cent saturated? ‘Note. Take the volume of the sample as | m?. 2, In a compaction test the weight of'wet soil in the mould (volume 7do9_ m:) was 1°88 kg, By drying out a small quantity of the soil its moisture’ content was found to be 20-7 per cent. The specific gravity of the particles was 272. ‘ Find: (a) the dry density; (b) the void ratio; and (c) the percentage air’ voids. i If the sample was immersed in water and allowed to become completely A aturated, without change in volume, calculate the saturated density and ae “moisture content, 3, Derive an expression for the bulk density of partially saturated soil in terms of the specific gravity of the particles Gy, the void ratio e, the degree ituration S, and the density of water 7. ae a sample of clay the void ratio is 0:73 and the specific gravity of the particles is 2:71, If the voids are 92 per cent saturated, find the bulk density, the dry density and the percentage water content. ‘ y { would be the water content for complete saturation, the void rati same, 3 cise take volume of solids as 1 m*. & ‘of soil, yoyo m? in volume, weighed in its natural state 1-7: ation being 61-6 per cent. After drying in the oyen at yeighed 44k / im ravity of the solids‘ (b) the natural water conte he bulk density, the dry density, the saturated densit nsity; (c) the critical hydraulic gradient. 4 ye the following data: density 1900 kg/m? sity 1800 kg/m? nsity 2100 kg/m? ound surface and the soil above the Calculate the eff ie Centre line of the clay.COMPACTION PROCTOR TEST "The standard Proctor test is a method of finding the optimum moist- Cuapter 2 q ure content for compaction of a soil. A cylindrical mould 0-001 m* jn volume is filled with a soil sample in three layers, each layer being COMPACTION 3 compacted by 27 blows of a standard hammer, weight 25 ke, length of drop 300 mm for each blow. (See B.S. 1377.) | In all civil engineering contracts soil is used as a construction ; ae pon is herd es and weighed, Hos giving the bulk | material, Compaction of a soil is carried out to improve the soi msity of the soil. The moisture content of the soil is then deter- properties and is technique specified by the engineer. The mos| mined, and hence the dry density. The test is carried pout with soil at common examples are the sub-base of a road where the compaction: different moisture contents and a graph of dry density against moist may be in situ, or an embankment where the soil is brought in, lure content plotted. ‘A heavy compaction test for soils subjected to frequently from a cutting being constructed elsewhere. Backfill after jureater compactive effort uses a 45 kg hammer dropping 450 mm below ground construction is another example where soil may have on to five layers. "a os to be compacted. a Examples of the curves obtained are shown in Fig. 7. From these Compaction is carried out by rolling or tamping and causes com-— curves the optimum moisture content can be read off at the point of pression of the soil by expelling air from the voids. It is not possible” maximum compaction (dry density). to remove water from the voids by compaction, but the addition of | water to a slightly moist soil facilitates compaction by reducing surface tension, However, there is an optimum moisture content | above which the addition of water causes an increase in voids. ba The state of compaction is measured by the dry density (y4) max dry where: density heavy compaction Ws. ya Ye compaction Ww but v optimum moisture We content eV Fic. 7. Compaction curves: yy—* me. graph W=We+W = mW, + We = Wl + m) ‘ir void lines & WL + m) " comparison a curve is plotted on the Proctor graph. ge } y= | case in which the soil is saturated and is known as t ¥ ds line. Assuming the specific gravity of the soil pai nown, a selection of values of moisture content art mum value are selected, .| 16 SOIL MECHANICS COMPACTION Assuming unit volume of soil (V = 1) Va = Ao Dry. donsity a (kg/m?) zer0 air voids line 5% ait i \ oS 1900 voids line } or (1 — VaGsyw = We + WoGs : = WL + mG) w= Gsyw(1 — Va) 1 + mG, 1800 _ Gatro(l = Va) 2 14 16 18 Moisture 1 + mG, ‘content (%) Fic. 8. Compaction curve and zero air voids line. Gsihw 1+ mG, for a saturated soil Vj = 0 and yg = SOLUTION (a) Referring to Fig Seay t a \ eso latiy However, complete saturation is impossible to obtain by com- ? 2 . paction, and there will be some air yoids in the compacted sample, eterna eee A measure of the air voids can be seen at a glance if'a 5 per cent and _ yee 1823 1859 1860, 1846 «1815 10 per cent air voids line is also plotted on the Proctor graph. ee a ie. Equation 1 is therefore used to plot the 5 per cent and 10 per cent From graph maximum dry density = 1865 kg/m? air voids line as well as the zero air voids line. a 7 . v and optimum moisture content = 149% —~ EXAMPLE 5 q Standard Proctor compaction tests carried out on a sample of sandy clay yielded the following results: Bulk density (kg/m'): 2058 Moisture coi ) 129 f (b) When dry density = 1865 kg/m® For 1 m? sample: 1865 2-73 x 1000 2125 21522159 2140 ase AS) eGo woul: 0683 m> Volume of solids = rye of dry density against moisture content and hen: im dry density and the optimum moisture content. r e the moisture content necessary for complete saturation at Weight of water = 0-317 x the specific gravity of the solid constituents i 317 Moisture content = —— Volume of water for Saturation = 0317 m? 186: ds” line and 5 per cent air voids line.18 SOIL MECHANICS (©) Select values of moisture content m(%) 14 15 16 17 18 14+mG, 138 141 144 146 149 for zero air voids 1 — Ve =1 Gitw = 2730 yu 1978 «193618961870 «1832 for 5% air voids 1 — Ve = 095 Griw(1 — Ve) = 2594 ya '1880-«1840,- «180117771741 ‘These lines are plotted on the graph Fig. 8. SITE PROCEDURE The Proctor test should be considered merely as a guide to com- paction om The optimum moisture content should not be speci- fied, since climatic conditions must be taken into account as well as the difficulties of accurately controlling moisture content on site. Tt is more common to specify a relative compaction for the site where: Site value of dry density Relative compaction = =————__———_____ x yi Proctor maximum dry density A relative compaction of 90-95 per cent is commonly required, but this will depend on the contract and plant used. ‘There are many types of rollers used, ie. rubber wheeled, smooth rollers, vibrating rollers all of varying weights. Selection of the type of roller will depend largely on the type of soil being compacted. Although a heavier roller will give better compaction, it is usually preferable to select the weight of roller and improve compaction by increasing the number of passes it makes over the soil, The con- tractor will normally wish to keep the number of passes to a. minimum, For an embankment the best procedure is to compact a trial area and measure the dry density of this area. When the relative com-— paction is satisfactory, then the number of passes of the roller used to construct the trial area is specified for the actual embankment. constant check made to ensure compaction is satisfactory. Tn an embankment the rate of construction is also controlled due to the build up of pore-water pressure, but this is outside the scope of this chapter, The soil is normally compacted in layers of 200-300 mm, and a COMPACTION QUESTIONS 1, The results of a standard Proctor compaction test are as follows Moisture content m% pameiee 9 11s 12° “iy 20) Bulk density y(kg/m°) 1890 2139 2170 2210 2219 2161 2069 Plot the curve of moisture content against dry density and determine the optimum moisture content and maximum compaction. If the grain specific gravity is 2-70 plot the zero air voids and 10 per cent air voids line. What are the values of void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation for the soil at its condition of optimum moisture content? 2. (a) Describe the standard Proctor compaction test. (b) How can the effectiveness of compaction in the field be assessed? (c) Ina standard compaction test on a soil the following results were obtained: Bulk density kg/m? 2070 2139 2187 2212 2228 2211 2193 Moisture content% 68 85 94 102 113 125 136 What is the optimum moisture content and maximum compaction? (d) If the specific gravity of the solids is 2-65 plot the zero air voids line. (¢) Find the percentage air voids at the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content. (f) Plot the percentage air voids line for the air voids value found in part (e). (g) Determine the percentage moisture content required to saturate the soil at its maximum dry density. 4. The following results were obtained from a standard Proctor com- paction test on a cylindrical mould of volume 0-001 m*. Weight of sample Bis ae ‘of wet soil (g) \ 665 G12 502 S18 520 477 474 Weight of sample et a ; of dry soil (g) ye 603 551 449 460 459 418 412 2821 2864 2904 2906 2895 2874 2834 compaction (g) . Weight of mould = 1034 g suming a relative compaction on site of 96 per cent at optimum yntent, estimate the total pressure at the base of a 20 m en yuilt of this soil. if "What will be the void ratio and degree of saturation of the embankment if the grain specific gravity is 2-67?SOIL CLASSIFICATION 21 The tests to assess the strength of the soil giverin column 4 are very easy to apply, and the structure in column 5 is determined by simple visual examination, CHAPTER 3 . Pen Se remembered that this classification is merely for use . in the field. More elaborate tests are required for complete classifi- SOIL CLASSIFICATION cation and for determining the strength of a soil. 2 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION Most systems of soil classification depend to some extent upon the distribution of various-sized particles in the soil. For coarse-grained material this distribution may be determined by sieving, and for finer particles a method of measuring the rate of settlement in water al is used. The determination of particle-sized distribution by these CLASSIFICATIONS USED IN THIS CHAPTER | As stated at the beginning of Chapter 1, in civil engineering a soil | may be taken to include any loose sedimentary deposit. This could include sand, clay, gravel, marl, etc. In order to be able to discuss the properties of different types of soil it is first necessary to have some way of classifying them. There are several ways in which a soil iietHiods %s known gaa eet class Be AES 4 ysi may be classified: by geological origin, by mineral content, by grain Several systems of particle-size classification are in use, but the size or by plasticity. The last tw sed by engincers, British Standards Institution had ad t and will be dealt with in this chapter. ae i SA errs ore tie Mes sachusetts Institute of Technology, since the boundaries of the main divisions correspond, approximately, to important changes in the engineering properties of the soil. These boundaries, together with a detailed description of the tests, are given in BS. 1377: 1975, and therefore only a brief description is given here (see Table 1). FIELD IDENTIFICATION For field identification of soils the Building Research Station has adopted a simple series of tests and this table is reproduced here (see Table 2). If you were responsible for carrying out preliminary site invest- igations you could prepare a scheme of simple tests for examining and identifying any soil you might encounter. The tests should re- — quire no special apparatus, and their purpose should be: (a) To distinguish between the main soil types. (b) To assess the strength and structure of the soil. 60-20 Medium gravel 20-6 Grain size. In this system, soils are split into coarse-grained non- _ Fine gravel 62 TABLE 1. PARTICLE SIZE LIMITS 4 Tipe Range of particle size, mm Cobbles 200-60. Coarse gravel cohesive, fine-grained cohesive and organic soils. They are then fur- Goseeatl 2-06 ther subdivided into The division of the Medium sand 06-02 03 coarse-grained non-cohesive soils into gravels and sands is accord- Fintan ing to grain size, which is readily determined by sieving. 0:2-0.06 Plasticity. The fine-grained cohesive soils are divided into silts Coarse silt 006-002 and clays according to their plasticity. In the field, plasticity is de- Medium silt 0:02-0:006 mined by touch, Clays cannot be powdered when dry and are : : Fine silt 0-006-0-002 sticky when wetGilts, on the other hand, are readily powdered Clay Mey than 0-002 when dry, and exhibit marked dilatancy when wet, that is, the mois-_ ture at the surg val recede if pressure is applied. Most studen > — f will have observed this phenomenon if they have stepped on damp Coarse analysis (sieve test) f | fine sand on the beach and noticed the “dry” patch which forms For coarse analysis either wet or dry sieving may b around the foot. Most soils ca mixture of the various types, and a case an oven-dried sample of soil is weighed and { few examples of composite types are given in column 3. q . batch of sieves, ek i Ee iv22 SOIL MECHANICS SOIL CLASSIFICATION 23 ‘TABLE 2. GENERAL BASIS FOR FIELD IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS Size and nature of particles Composite Strength and structural characteristics Principal soil types types Toe ‘ 2 i Strength Strength 3 2 Types Field identification SeUeINe Term Field test Term Field identification | Boulders Larger than 200 mm in diameter Boulder f Cobbles Mostly between 200 mm and 80mm —_| gravels Hogein De Gravels IMextly between 60 manana ana Loose | Can be excavated with | Homo- | Deposit consisting 4 sieve gravels spade. 50 mm wooden peg | geneous _ | essentially of one type 2 can be easily driven 8 Composed of particles mostly between 2 ‘ § mm and 63 yum sieves, and visible to the Compact | Requires pick for i naked eye. Silty sands excavations oda Z| Uniform Very little or no cohesion when dry wooden peg hard to drive £ ucaccols more than a few inches & Sands Sands may be classified as uniform or _| sands 2 well graded according to the distribution | Lateritic é ae Stratified | Alternating layers of @ Depariieiees Sands Slightly | Visual examination varying types 8 Uniform sands may be divided into (extented 9) Bick removes soil|in Graded coarse sands between 2mm and 0-5 mm_ | Clayey lumps which can be sieves, medium sands between 05mm | sands abraded with thumb and 0-25 mm sieves and fine, sands between 0-25 and 63 um sigves ‘ Particles mostly passing 63 yum sieve | Loams Particles mostly invisible or barely Clayey silts Soft Easily moulded in the Homo- Deposit consisting visible to the naked eye. Some plasticity fingers geneous | essentially of one type Low Silts and exhibits marked dilatancy. Dries Organic silts 1 Plasticity moderately quickly and can be dusted —_ | Micaceous off the fingers. Dry lumps possess silts Firm Can be moulded by strong | Stratified | Alternating layers of cohesion, but can be powdered easily in Pressure in the fingers varying types & the fingers 4 Boulder Medium aeeetmbstear be Eeokenouinice ae Very soft | Exudes between fingers | Fissured | Breaks into polyhedral i Plasticity powdered. They also disintegrate under _| Sandy clays when squeezed in fist fragments along fissure water lanes Silty clays Soft Easily moulded in fingers | Intact | No fisyures g Smooth touch and plastic, no dilatancy. Homo- _ | Deposits consisting © ‘Clays Sticks to the fingers and dries slowly Marls Elon, Can be moulded by strong | geneous | essentially of one type Shrinks appreciably on drying, usually Pressure in the fingers High showing cracks Organic Stratified | Alternating layers of Plasticity. clays varying types. If layers are Lean and fat clays show those properties Stiff Cannot be moulded in thin the soil may be ny to a moderate and high degree fingers described as laminated respectively Lateritic e eave Hard Brittle or very tough Weathered | Usually exhibits crumb or columnar structure 2 | Peats Fibrous organic material, usually brown | Sandy, silty F : — & oF black in colour or clayey Firm Fibres compressed rs & Beate together vil Spongy | Very compressible and aay. open structureSOIL CLASSIFICATION 25 24 SOIL MECHANICS The weight of dry soil retained on each sieve is recorded, and the percentage of the total sample passing each of the sieves is cal- \ culated. This percentage passing is plotted on the sand and gravel fractions of a semi-logarithmic chart as shown in Fig. 9. The silt and clay fractions of the chart are completed after fine analysis of the soil. Fine analysis The theory of fine analysis is based on Stokes’s law of settlement, i.e. small spheres in a liquid settle at different rates according to the size of the sphere. The terminal velocity of a spherical soil particle settling in water is expressed by Stokes’s law as: DATE OPERATOR! 22 20 5a RD SIEVE SIZES GRAVEL FRACTION Ys = Pw == py 18, Density of soil particle; yw = Density of water; Jw = Viscosity of water; D = Diameter of the spherical particle. For soil an average figure for 7, is 2670 kg/m?. The density of water jw is 1000 kg/m? and the viscosity of water at varying temper- atures 4 can be found from tables. At 20°C the viscosity is 0001009 Ns/m?, which gives: (2670 — 1000) x 981 18 x 0-001 where: ys BRITISH STANDAI SAND FRACTION = m/s Fic. 9. Particle-size distribution chart with D in metre units. or V = 900 D? mm/s with D in mm units. In practice, soil particles are never truly spherical. To overcome 1 this, particle size is defined in terms of equivalent diameter, where is the equivalent diameter of a particle is the diameter of an imaginary ia it it | PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CHART JOB ‘Coarse 0.020 ‘Medium SILT FRACTION sphere of the same material which would sink in water with the same velocity as the irregular particle in question. It is this equival- Fine ent diameter, therefore, which is finally determined. é Stokes's law should only be applied to spheres between about 0:2 i EFFECTIVE DIAMETER 0.006 oo and 0:0002 mm in diameter. This, however, is within the limits re- quired for classification of silt particles. OVINAONIC Nolivwwns CLAY FRACTION| 002 ares Experimental procedure for fine analysis | The soil must first be pre-treated to remove organic matter, the | weight of which should be recorded. This is a lengthy and pains-26 SOIL MECHANICS taking process, described in detail in B.S. 1377. A dispersing agent is now added to prevent flocculation, and coarse particles are re- moved by washing through a 63 jim sieve. The material retained on the sieve is dried and treated as for sands and gravels. The washing water is then subjected to sedimentation. There are two methods of sedimentation analysis: (a) the pipette method, and (b) the hydrometer method. SOIL CLASSIFICATION After time t; all the particles of a certain size D, will have sett! from the surface to a depth of 100 mm. Any particles larger re ' size D; will have sunk below the 100 mm mark in the suspension, ¥ ‘The velocity of particles size D; can therefore be calculated since they have moved a distance of 100 mm in known time fy, i.e: As h, t and K are known, the maximum grain si 100 mm after time t1, can be calculated. ee ae Since all sizes smaller than D; at this depth will be present in the sume concentration as they were in the original suspension (see Fig, 11), percentage of particles less than size D; in original solution ation tube 19 suspension only one shown) Sedimentation tube containing sodium hs Constant ‘ temperature N Weight of solids per ml at depth 100 mm after time t x 100 Weight of solids per ml in original suspension Wo, /10 = 500 x00 Fic. 10. Pipette method of settlement analysis (@) Pipette method. The washing water containing the fine par- ticles (weight MW) is made up to 500 ml with distilled water and placed in a constant-temperature bath (see Fig. 10). When the sus- pension has reached the temperature of the bath taken out, shaken to disperse the particles and replaced in the bath. A stop watch is started immediately the suspension is replaced. After a given time t (3-4 minutes depending on the specific grav- ity of the sample) a 10-ml sample of suspension is taken by pipette from a depth of 100 mm and the weight of solids in this sample found (Wp). A correction must be made for the weight of dispersing agent (sodium hexametaphosphate) in the suspension. To do this a sep- arate solution of the dispersing agent is tested at the same time in the same manner, . a i a The whole procedure is repeated after 40-50 minutes and again MPR selene iene ck ca aaa after a further ut jorizontal section. (b) Intermediate suspension, L From Stokes's la ean ale time (All particles I i | mm mark. Small is a constant equal mark. Smaller particles hat for convenience it is assumed " ~ same size lie above each other,SOIL MECHANICS Values for D, and D3 can 28 | be found in time ft, and 1. y These values can be plotted in the silt and clay fraction of the particle-size distribu- tion chart. (b) Hydrometer method. A 1000 ml suspénsion of fine particles is prepared in a similar manner to that in the pipette method, and the spe- cific gravity of the suspen- sion at depth h is measured at given intervals of time, using a hydrometer (see Fig. 12). The hydrometer gives a direct reading for the speci- fic gravity of the suspen- sion. For convenience, the 1 is often omitted from the specific gravity reading on hydrometers and the deci- mal point moved three places t, ie. a reading of 12 on the hydrometer gravity Depth (voile Gente of volume: oftyaromete Suspension 1G. 12, Hydrometer method of settle- t analysis. S = specific gravity of pension. R vot P Weight of solids = Wp geo). = reading on hydro- - ameter. R = (S — 1)1000. ae Volume of solids Vp = = Gv Mae. i 4, Volume of water = 1000 — —— apelin, Gayw Fefieoratcr — 1000). =" i: io G ? Ws + 1000)» — Wo/Gs 1000 = N. SOIL CLASSIFICATION We (Gs—1 = to + eal | and density of suspension at depth h after time t ep eagle (ee = 1= 1 + Tooog\ Gs} Percentage of particles less than size D, in original suspension 1 Ni = (hi — Yw) 100 000 Gj Wi(Gs — 1) _ 100.000 Gv ~ WAGs — 1) 1000 (S—) += aadings of the hydrometer should be taken after 4, 1, 2, 4, 8, 15 10 minutes, 1, 2 and 4 hours, and then once or twice daily. ‘orrections must be made for temperature variations and the idition of dispersing agent. It should also be noticed that as the jeter sinks, / will increase slightly, It is therefore normal to” ibrate the hydrometer before use. (PLE 6 dimentation test 20 g of soil of specific gravity 2:69 and pas: ecoetipd aed instOatior water Raving « viscosity on gn) ur after the commencement of sedimentation, 20 ml of were taken by means of a pipette from a depth of 10 solid particles (in the sample of 20 ml taken by pi was 0:07 g. Compute the following: J ‘gest size of particle remaining in suspensi r after the commencement of sedimentati tage of particles finer than this si » interval from the commencement, ; dining in suspension at 100 mm ‘epini30 SOIL MECHANICS SOLUTION = tw p> __ (2690 = 1000) x 981 0 ae 18 x 0001 me als poe i's = mm/s 3 60 x 60 100 x 18 x 0-001 De 60 x 60 x 1000 x 1690 x 981 = 00055 mm (6) WM =e ‘ 20 at commencement volume of solids = 5-55 = 7-4 ml volume of solution Va, = 1007-5 ml after 1 hour Wp = 007 g Wo/20 ercentage particles less than 0.0055 mm = 100 percentage particle n 7 0.07/20 =——— x 100 = 20073 * 1° (v= Ko =" « if D is multiplied by 4, then D? must be multiplied by 7 ahd t must be multiplied by 16, ic. 16 hours EXAMPLE 7 (a) A sample of soil weighing 50 g is dispersed in 1000 ml of water. How ‘long after the commencement of sedimentation should the hydrometer reading be taken in order to estimate the percentage of particles less than 0-002 mm effective diameter, if the centre of the hydrometer is 150 mm below the surface of the water? G, = 27 Viscosity of water » = 0-001 SI units SOLUTION From Stokes's law : __ 2700 — 1000) x 981 /0.002\? 4 °* 18 x 0001 Too) * 1000 = 00037 mm/s. 150 Rai tor7 x csue0 5 te Time of reading Particle-size distribu Coarse and fine a distribution curve been carried out, the particle-size ‘he soil can be described accord- i soll. CLASSIFICATION ~ A uniform soil, where all the particles are approximately ule size, will have an almost vertical curve. A well-graded soil, cor ing a wide range of particle size, will have a curve spread evenly ‘ucross the chart, A poorly graded soil will stretch across the chart / but be deficient in intermediate sizes. Some examples are shown in/ Pig. 13. fective size : | atalee is is defined as the maximum particle size of the smallest 10 per ent and is denoted as D1o ie. for curves shown in Fig. 13: Curve 1, Dio = 0-006 mm Curve 2, Dio = 0-052 mm Curve 3, Dio = 007 mm Allen Hazen’s uniformity coefficient This is the ra of the maximum particle size of the smallest 60 per ‘went to the effective size, and is denoted as U. - Deo Dio A uniform soil will have @ coefficient approaching 1, whereas a ll graded soil will have a high uniformity coefficient, ie. for Or Curve IU = G95 = 733 OL Curve 2 U = Gags = 212 04 Curve 3, U = Gq = S71 hus uniformity coefficient and effective size give two points on 1, Which is often sufficient to define the curve. 8 ts of a ‘sieving analysis of a soil were as follows: Retained on sieve size32 SOIL MECHANICS te BOULDERS 6 Coarse pate = Soy oe OPERATOR —— 4 FRACTION GRAVEL Example & tal 2 BRITISH STANDARD SIEVE SIZES 500 o8 oF ay : E Z| 4 § 2 é a # 3 EFFECTIVE DIAMETER oon 20s 008 ow FRACTION ‘0006 SIT ja) NOjivwivns Fic. 13. Particle-size distribution chart i a ‘SOIL CLASSIFICATION {a) Plot the particle-size distribution curve and describe Comment on the “flat”-part of the curve. {b) State the effective grain size. {c) Find Allen Hazen’s uniformity coefficient. (d) Design a filter suitable for protecting this soil. soLuTION— Sieve Size(mm) 20 125 10 63 56 28 20 14 Weight passing (g) 147-2 145:5 143-2 1348 1291 1162 1127 1116 Percentage passing 100 988 97-2 91-5 878 790 765 758 m Sieve size (jum) 500 355 «18063 Weight passing (g) 81-1 358 10-4 30 Percentage passing 550 243 7:0 20 For curve plotted from these results see Fig. 13. | From Fig. 13: | " (u) Description: poorly graded gravelly sand. The “flat” portion of the wlirve indicates an absence of particles around 2 mm diameter. | (b) Dio = Effective size = 021 mm so De (0) Doo = 069 mm .. Allen Hazen’s uniformity coefficient = 5 = 33 10 - (d) For filter design see Chapter 4, p. 52. “x PLASTICITY sistency limits moisture is removed from a fine-grained soil it passes through a ies of states, ie. liquid, plastic, semi-solid and solid. The moisture intents of a soil at the points where it passes from one stage to the { ure known as consistency limits. These limits are defined as: juid limit (LL). The minimum moisture content at which the soil | flow under its own weight. . lastic limit (P.L). The imum moisture content at which the ‘can be rolled into a thread 3 mm diameter without breaking uy) vinkage limit (S.L), The maximum moisture content at ean er loss of moisture does not cause a decrease in the vol a range of moisture content over which a soil is” ; - | nas the plasticity index and is denoted as Tp | definitions may be shown diagrammatically ( F ed ‘die ination of liquid limit ied } le of oven-dried soil, all passing the 0-425 led water to a stiff consistency, a pot PSOIL CLASSIFICATION the penetrometer cup, (see Fig. 15) the soil being struck off level with the top of the cup. The penetrometer cone is then clamped vith its tip just touching the soil. The clamp is released and the cone allowed to penetrate the soil for 5 seconds, when the clamp is peepee. The amount of penetration is read on the dial gauge. This repeated until two consecutive tests give the same penetration, ‘nd this reading is recorded. At this stage the moisture content of the soil in the cup is determined. ___The whole procedure is repeated with successive additions of dis- tilled water to the sample, and the relationship between moisture ‘nt and penetration plotted on a graph (see Fig. 16). The best 34 SOIL MECHANICS Volume of sample Heat aig Fi. 14, Consisteney-limits graph . 2 ton Birativon 20 ‘me 18 16 1 . se moisture 30 ie nt content (%) , Fic. 16. Plot of penetrometer test results sight line between these points is drawn and the moisture content feaponding to 20 mm_ penetration is taken as the liquid limit. (est is described in detail in B.S. 1377 (1975). men of plastic limit g of the dried soil, all passing the 0-425 mm sieve, are ~ ith distilled water and moulded into a ball. The rolled by hand on a glass plate with sufficient | hread. When the diameter of the resulting threa mt penetrometer the soil is kneaded together and then |___—-eur containing H continued until the thread crumbk geet jeler, and at this stage the moisture cont tof th This whole f papedue should be carried out t jue of moisture content taken as the is test is described in detail in B.S. 13° i apparatus ; &36 SOIL MECHANICS Plasticity chart The plasticity index of a soil and its liquid limit give one point on a plasticity chart (Fig. 17). Fine-grained soils are subdivided into soils of low, medium and high plasticity as shown, ies Low plasticity (L) LL. <35% | Intermediate plasticity (1) L.L. 35%-50% High plasticity (H) LL. >50% The division between inorganic clays and inorganic silts (or or- ganic soils) is by an empirical line (4 line) the equation of which is T, 0:73 (L.L. —20), Clays fall above the line and silts below it. Ince lo) Fic. 17. Casagrande’s plasticity chart CASAGRANDE’S SYSTEM OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION This system has been developed for roads and airfields. The soil type is designated by two capital letters. (See tables 3 and 4) TABLE 3. CASAGRANDE’S SYSTEM Main soil type Prefix Coarse-grained soils Gravel G)__ Well graded Said” it S | Poorly graded - ie ; Uniform - Clay binder Fine-grained soil Excess fines Silt -M) Low plasticity Clay C | Medium plasticity Organic soils © [ High plasticity Peat vo enoue, ——— SOIL CLASSIFICATION TABLE 4, EXAMPLES OF CASAGRANDE’S CLASSIFICATION FOR ROADS AND AIRFIELDS: i 2 3 a 5 ae | ee Major Deserpton and Subgroups | grande | clasefeation teste . divions ‘dentiaton feroup. | “(cared out on k Ssmbol | dteurbed somes Welwadel gravel | GO| Mechanical analysis Snilswith an appreciable | sands vila ely Tigid and plastic iit lag frac eu es the 80 content on binder be Be | esa cate are lien wavelnia | OU | Mestad maiyas int | ableby visual inspection, | litle oF wo nes y srvelly | A mecium to high dry strength indicates that ome clay is present, ‘A negligible dry strength indices the absence of olay oorly-graded gravel. | GP sand mixtures, lide or no fines ‘Mechanical analysis Gravel-sand mixtures with excess of ines Mechanical analysis Iiguid and plastic mits fon binder of applicable Soils with an appreciable Fraction between the 2m sieve and the ‘63 um seve, Majority ofthe particles enn be dlistinguished by eve Feel gritty when rubbed between the fingers. A medium to high dey strength indicates that Some clay is present. ‘Arneglzible dry strength indicates absence of clay Wall-graded sands and sravelly sands, tle fr no fines Mechanical analysis, ‘Wellgraded sand with small clay content ‘Mechanical analysis, Tiguid and plastic limits fon binder Uniform sands, with lite or no fines ‘Mechanical alysis Poorly-praded sands, lide or no fines Mechanical analysis Sands wath excess of fines ‘Mechanical analysis, Tiguid and plastic mits ‘on binder if applicable fi i te re wiles) * Soils with liquid limits less than 35%, and generally with less than. 20%, of clay. Not gritty beticen the fingers Cannot be readily rolled into theeads when moist Exhibit dilataney Sits (inorganic), rock four, sity fine sands wth Sight plasticity Mechanical analysis, Tiguid and plastic tits ifapplcable ‘Chayey sis Ginorganis) Liquid and plastic lime Organic silts of low plasty Liquid and pase tits fron iat ‘tons after oven dying Soils with iquid tims between 35 and 5 severally coat between 20 and 40, clay. Gan be readily rolled into thceads ven moist, Do hot exhibit dilatanc. Show some shrinkage on drying Silty lays (inorganic) and sandy clays Mechanical analy liguid apd plastic ‘applicable ‘Gays Gnorganie) of ‘medium plasticty “Liquids and plastic limits ‘Organic clays. of ‘meium plasticity condition i | Sos ith id ier tha 80% a ery ath ely ontent ee threads when =. Show ble Shainkage on drying. All highly compressible sis Highly compresibie mnjcaceous or diatomaceous soils lays (inorganic) of high plasty ‘Organie clays of high plasticity38 SOIL MECHANICS: Some examples of these designations can be seen in column 4 of Table 4. This table is based on Casagrande’s classification for roads and airfields. k EXAMPLE 9 A liquid limit test carried out on a sample of inorganic soil taken from below the water table gave the following results: Penetration (mm) 155 1824 23.6 Moisture content (%) 346 408 48:2 53-4 A plastic limit test gave a value of 33 per cent. Determine the liquid limit and plasticity index of this soil and give its classification. 28 penetration (oom) (a) content (%) ratty of ar aye Ins to) --sfeuatnL | tohinnse | Le q “ ‘a wi Koy s | LAS Toss 4 | ayer 0) RT ruc ite SOIL CLASSIFICATION _ SOLUTION From graph (see Fig. 18(@)_L. P. - eferring to Fig. 18(b), the soil will be classified as an inorganic silt of intermediate plasticity (MI). QUESTIONS 1, The results of a sieving analysis of a soil were as follows: Retained on sieve size(mm) 30 375 19 125 8 59 475 28 Wi retained (g) 0 155 17 10 11 33 335 81 j Retained on sieve size (um) 2360 1300 400 212 150 100 75 Weretained(g) 18 31 3259 8 SS 5 ‘The total weight of the sample was 311g. Plot the particle-size distribution curve and give a description of the soil 100-7 + : 4 | S no “0 ; sol} 20 +-+4 : 19 CLAY Fine ediam Gowrie FRACTION eeAcueh SILT FRACTION 6 0.002 0.006 002 inh Fic. 19 ee40 SOIL MECHANICS from this curve. Also find Allan Hazen’s effective size and uniformity coefficient. 2. Figure 19 shows a grain-size classification curve for a soil sample. Describe the test carried out to obtain this curve. Describe the soil. Ifa suitably prepared sample of this soil was dispersed in a cylinder of water 500 mm deep, estimate how long it would take for all the particles to settle to the bottom of the cylinder. 3. The following results were obtained from a liquid limit test on a fine- grained soil: Penetration (mm) 156 18-2 214 Moisture content (%) 48-6 54-8 622 A plastic limit test gave a value of 22 per cent. What is the Casagrande classification of this soil? 23-6 67-4 CHAPTER 4 PERMEABILITY DARCY’S LAW- Yermeability is a measure of the ease with which water flows iough rocks and soil. It is of importance to the civil engineer hen dealing with seepage under dams, land drainage or ground- ‘Water lowering. ‘The flow of water through soils is assumed to follow Darcy’s law: Q A kA juantity of water flowing; ‘ime for quantity Q to flow; -oefficient of permeability for the soil; rea of cross-section through which the water flows; ydraulic head across soil; length of flow path through soil ratio H/l is known as thé hydraulic Btadient and is denoted he coefficient of rermeatitt k therefore equals. b On “Ai | may be defined as the rate of flow per unit area of soil, under wdraulic gradient. This coefficient is expressed in mm/s. Values of vermont Drainage Soil type (mm/s) properties Gravels Ei0 _ Sands fot Good Silt (and fissured clay) f 10” Bli0:' poe 10-5 —+Impervious IRMINATION OF THE COEFFICIEN r OF _ PERMEABILITY iead permeameter. Water under a con: ied to percolate through a sample co!42 SOIL MECHANICS PERMEABILITY \ Gi, Sapte of cross-sectional area A. The quantity of water Q passing through the sample in time 1 is collected in a measuring cylinder. Manom- eters tapped into the side of the sample cylinder give the loss of head H over a length of sample / and hence the hydraulic gradient i. | From Darcy’s law: MPLE 10 constant-head permeameter test has been run on a sand sample 250 mm. Jength and 2000 mm in area. With a head loss of 500 mm the discharge “ found to be 260 mil in 130 seconds. Détermine the coefficient of per- tneability of the soil. If the specific gravity of the grains was 2-62 and the dry weight of the jund 916 g, find the void ratio of the sample. pe it Coefficient of permeability = ot 4 _ SOLUTION (260, x 1000130 t= Sai S00 ena Samm Jirom Fig, 21 = _ (16/1000) 100° ee 2 Yar 107 = 350000 mm V, = 250 x 2000 — 350.000 = 150000 mm? 150.000 350000 ~ £228 In situ value of permeability. It may be seen from Example 10 that if the dry weight of the sample in the permeameter and the specific _ jtiiyity of the grains are known the coefficient of permeability for ‘varying values of void ratio may be determined. ill the permeameter loosely for the first determination and then (ap down the sample to decrease the voids for succeeding tests. It ild be noted that the length of sample is taken as the overall et length Lfor determining volu ! | Perforated dise ‘and wire gauze ‘ ‘io k is plotted, a straight line is fre- quently obtained (see Fig. 2: 7 If the site value of void ratio e is known the value of k corre- onding to this in situ value of e can be read off the graph. Fic. 20. Constant-head permeameter This apparatus is known as a constant-head permeameter and is shown in Fig, 20. The water may be arranged to flow up the sample. as shown, but some permeameters permit downward flow, the same principles applying. A sand filter is incorporated above and below — the sample to help prevent it washing away. 4 — =m Fi. 22. In situ value of permeability; e—>logPERMEABILITY al dH 44 SOIL MECHANICS Fine-grained soils i sie cals Variable-head permeameter Ak A Water flows through fine-grained soils at a much slower rate than integrating between limits 0 tot and Hy to H2 through coarse material; consequently, it is not possible to obtain a ze - measurable amount of water within a reasonable time. In this case a t= SF log.Ft 2 variable-head permeameter (see Fig. 23) is used. dee Hi or kaax 5x23 logion In this equation all the terms may readily be found and hence k calculated. Three readings of H should be taken Hi, H2 and H; such that the time for the head to drop from H; to Hz is the same as the time for the head to drop from H2 to Hs. Since in the permeability equation derived k, a, A and ! are constant and 1 has also been made the fame, then: Hz = logon lo; ue B10 ge Hy A Hz = /H, Hs This should be checked when carrying out the test to ensure that wleady conditions have been wen The permeability of clay soils cannot be found by direct labora- _ lofy testing, but an estimate may be made indirectly from con- - Solidation test results (see Chapter 5). or Perforated dise julti-layer permeability and wire gauze | ii) natural conditions soil is rarely, if ever, homogeneous. Even in Fi. 23. Variable-head permeameter )purently homogencous soils, stratification will occur giving thin 8 of varying permeability. On the larger geological scale, the "la may vary widely from a relatively impervious clay to a per ble sand within a small depth. Similarily, man-made filters may ‘aded from coarse to fine material in layers. These variations will have a marked effect on the overall permea- shead is y, with the average value in the direction of stratification | ‘being ¢ sample \e different from the value at right-angles to it. : 1 a series of strata, thickness H7,, H2, Hy etc. with ore thee ky etc, the rate-of flow per unit area along each stratum will When the stopcock is opened, water will pass through the sample and the level in the standpipe will fall. Once steady conditions have been obtained, two readings, of H are taken, H; and H; at a time interval t, Now during any increment of time dt the variation —dH, and hence the quantity of water flowing through th in time dt, Q = —a dH, From Darcy's law: \ aad _ , but the hydraulic gradient will be constant. The average t dt 1 lity in this direction can be shown to be equal to ky ‘ete46 SOIL MECHANICS With flow at right-angles to the strata, the hydraulic gradient will vary in each stratum, but the rate of flow per unit area must be constant. The average permeability at right-angles to the strata can be shown to be equal to k, where: ees eee totes “An Hilky + Hajka + Hak +> Halk From these two equations it can be proved that ky/ky > 1, ie. that the permeability in the direction of the strata ky is always greater than the permeability at right-angles to the strata ky. As soil samples for laboratory testing are frequently taken at tight-angles to the strata, it can be seen that laboratory tests can give a low value of the actual permeability on the site. EXAMPLE IL In a falling head permeameter test on a silty clay sample, the following results were obtained: sample length 120mm; sample diameter 80mm; initial head 1100 mm; final head 420 mm; time for fall in head 6 minutes; standpipe diameter 4 mm, Determine from first principles the coefficient of permeability of the soil. On close investigation of the sample it was found to be in 3 layers 20 mm, 60mm and 40 mm thick, each of permeabilities 3 x 107? mm/s, 5 x 10-* mm/s and 17 x 10° * mm/s respectively. Check the average permeability through the sample in the laboratory test and estimate the permeability of this sample in a direction at right-angies to sampling. Find the ratio ku/ky and comment on the result. SOLUTION, L A The derivation of the expression k = 4 x > x 23 logio has been given 2 in the previous section. Substituting the values given into this expression, na? 4 120 1110 = eg * Pi lose 8074 * 360 * 73 !°8° 39 8 10° mm/s For three layer case, permeability of laboratory sample, ‘pe 20 + 60 + 40 "20/3 x 10°) ¥ 605 x 10-4) + 4017 x 10-4) = 799 x 10° mm/s =— which is as given by the original test, { PERMEABILITY Permeability in a direction at right-angles to sampling, Joy = 3X10"? x 20 +5 x 10-* x 60 + 17 x 10° x 40 ai 20 + 0 + 40 4 = 13 x 10°? mm/s ka 46 kyo = It can be seen that if the flow of water on site is along the strata, the laboratory results give an underestimate of the flow that will occur. Accuracy of permeability measurements It should always be remembered that the measurement of permea- bility of a soil can never be accurate. Firstly there is the enormous Tange of values covered, from 1000 mm/s for a coarse gravel down {o say 000001 mm/s for a fine silt, which limits the degree of ac- curacy normally obtained in calculations. ‘The wide variation of soil on a site will cause variations in per- meability, depending on the direction of flow, as has just been shown. As an exercise, the student should consider a 5 m layer of silt with a laboratory measured permeability of 3 x 10-* mm/s. ‘This layer of silt will not be homogeneous but may be in 1 mm thick liiyers, each with a slightly different value of permeability. If say only J layers each 1 mm thick have a permeability of 8 x 107? the value Au/ky will be approximately 9! Finally, there is the serious problem of sampling. Only very small mples are used to estimate the permeability of a large site and it is fieeessary to test a large number of representative samples. Mortover samples will also be disturbed. In the case of the constant head permeameter using coarse grained soils, the disturbance will be fielile and this test is only really suitable for man-made “soils” such 1 filter’ In the falling head permeameter, sample disturbance also ‘Heelirs, and it is difficult to be sure that the effects of seepage be- ‘Ween the soil and its container are negligible. * ; Generally therefore, site tests give a far more satisfactory result i laboratory tests. DETERMINATION OF PERMEABILITY ON SITE hole techniques estimate of the permeability of a soil may be made using the holes driven during the site investigation. There are many em- il techniques for determining permeability in this way and, the general inaccuracy of determining permeability, these are Mably satisfactory methods. erally if the stratum being tested is above the water table, ‘48 SOIL MECHANICS water is pumped into the bore-hole and the rate of flow to maintain a constant head is measured. If the stratum is below the water table, either pumping in or pumping out tests may be used, in conjunction with a casing to the bore-hole extending into the permeable stratum. The theoretical approach to these determinations is beyond the scope of this volume, but the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation use the following expression for cased bore-holes: = R= S53 rh coefficient of permeability rate of flow of water into bore-hole to maintain con- stant head above the water table radius of the casing head of water maintained above the water table where Such methods however, rely on the experience of the engineer rather than mathematical accuracy to obtain a reasonable result. Well-point techniques Ifa well-point, method of ground-water lowering is used it is possi- ble to determine the coefficient of permeability in the field. When water is pumped from a well point the water is lowered adjacent to the point, giving a cone of depression. This cone of depression will form even in relatively impervious soils after suffi- cient time has elapsed. Consider the horizontal flow of water through a thin element of the soil at distance r from the well point where the head of water above an impervious layer is Z (see Fig. 24). Fe (ie ae? oN (Sone: se PERMEABILITY 49 The rate of flow, Q/t, is the rate at which water is being pumped and may readily be determined. The surface area of the soil clement at distance r from the well point is equal to the surface area of a cylinder radius r height z, or A = 2arz. The hydraulic gradient at the point is the rate of change of head per unit length or, i = dz/dr. From Darcy’s law: Qit=kAi peer ar L 2 or fdr =k x = x 2dz r O/t Integrating between limits rz to r, and zp to 24: ene loge? =k x As geleaior Sey mh Qt 2 Qft log # m1 © Wea? = 217) tT E Qinlowio = ay Hence, by measuring the height of the ground water at two points distances r, and r2 from the well point the coefficient of permea- bility may be determined. Considerable practical experience is required before a reliable " fegult by this method may be obtained, since the soil is unlikely to ‘he homogeneous, nor is any impervious layer present likely to be rizontal. Pumping should be allowed to continue until conditions ttled before any measurements are taken, and the observation ls must not be too close to the well point, where soil wil iturbed and the drop in head too rapi The student should now develop the equation for determining the {ficient of permeability for a permeable stratum thickness d and Wverlain by a relatively impervious stratum (see Fig, 25). ipssal 2:3 O/t logio™ ay. © 2nd(z2 = 21)