UNIT - I

INTRODUCTION

DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The word Disaster is Irom a French word Desastre meaning bad or evil star.
Disaster means a situation in which there is a sudden disruption oI normalcy
within society causing widespread damage to liIe and property.

In other words, Disaster is that which occurs rapidly (quickly), instantaneously
(immediately) and indiscriminately (randomly) causing damage to liIe and
property.

These extreme events either natural or manmade (man induced) exceed
the tolerable (average) magnitude within or beyond certain time limits, it result
in catastrophic (terrible) loss oI property and income and apparently (actually)
the human liIe is completely paralyzed. The aggravate (worse) natural Iuries
cause disaster to human society such as sudden tectonic movements leading to
earthquake, volcanic eruptions, continued dry conditions leading to prolonged
(long -lasting) droughts, Iloods, atmospheric disturbances, collision (crash) oI
celestial (heavenly) bodies, etc., The intensity (power) oI environmental disaster
is weighed in terms oI the quantum oI damage done to the human society.
Disasters are taken into account only when they adversely (badly) aIIect
the human society. For example, a very strong tropical cyclone (hurricane or
tornado or typhoon) becomes only as an event when it occurs and dies in the
midst oI the ocean or in a desert, but it becomes disaster when it strikes the
inhabited (populated) coastal areas and inIlict (cause) colossal (huge) loss to
human liIe and property.
We can express in other words as, When any hazard or event happens in
uninhabited (unpopulated) land or ocean it`s never disastrous whereas when it
takes place in densely populated area, it becomes disaster.

1ypology (types) of disaster

Environmental disasters are normally classiIied into two main categories
on the basics oI their main causative Iactors. They are
1. Natural Disasters and
2. Manmade Disasters.

A disaster can be either natural |rain, Ilood, cyclone, storm, earthquake,
volcanoes| or manmade |wars including biological, arson sabotage, riots,
accidents caused by automobiles, industrial accidents, Iires (Iorest Iires), bomb
explosions, nuclear explosions and ecological disasters|. These are conIined
(restricted) to be the natural disasters since these manmade disasters adversely
aIIect the natural environment.

Natural disasters are Iurther sub-divided into two categories, i.e.,
1. !lanetary disasters and
2. Extra planetary or extra terrestrial disasters.

!lanetary disasters are again Iurther divided into two sub types namely,
a) Terrestrial or Endogenous disasters and
b) Atmospheric or Exogenous disasters.

!re-Independence, droughts and Iamines were the biggest killers in India.
The situation has changed now Floods, cyclones, droughts, landslides,
avalanches and earthquakes are some oI the major natural disasters that
repeatedly and increasingly aIIect the country.

Man induced disasters may be divided into three sub categories viz.

1. !hysical man induced disasters like landslides, accelerated soil erosion.

2. Chemical & Nuclear disaster like release oI toxic chemicals in the air,
nuclear explosions, leakage oI radioactive elements and

3. Biological disasters like sudden increase or decrease oI population oI
species in a given habitat either due to increased nutrients or due to the
increase oI toxic chemical elements.

Mitigation reIers to activities which actually eliminate or reduce the
vulnerability or chance oI occurrence or the eIIects oI a disaster. Mitigation
phase begins with conducting hazard identiIication and vulnerability analysis
which are essential to the planning oI all other phases. Hazard identiIication and
vulnerability analysis is a two step process. First the hazard is identiIied which
has the potential oI aIIecting the population. Secondly, how people, property
and structures will be aIIected by the disastrous event that is vulnerability.

Julnerability Vulnerability is deIined as the extent to which a
community, structure, service, or geographic area is likely to be damaged or
disrupted by the impact oI particular hazard, on account oI their nature,
construction and proximity to hazardous terrain or a disaster prone area.

In 1989, the General Assembly oI the United Nations proclaimed the
decade 1999-2000 as the International Decade Ior Natural Disaster Reduction
(IDNDR). At the World ConIerence on Natural Disaster Reduction in the city oI
okohama, Japan in 1994, deep concern was expressed at the continuing human
suIIering and disruption oI development due to natural disasters and a
okohama Strategy and !lan oI Action Ior a SaIe World were developed. This
was a deIinitive step in Disaster Mitigation and !reparedness !lanning. It is not
possible to do away with the devastation due to natural hazards completely.
However, destruction Irom natural hazards can be minimized by the presence oI
well-Iunctioning warning systems, combined with preparedness on the part oI
the vulnerable community. Disaster management may be seen as a part oI good
governance.

The principle of risk partnership

Coping with Iuture loss burdens represents a Iormidable challenge which
requires the cooperation oI all parties involved, i.e. the potentially aIIected
private persons and industries, by the Iinancial sector and by the state. More
speciIically, and introducing the role to be played by insurance within the
context oI natural disaster relieI, we can distinguish between
the insured persons or entities
primary insurers
reinsurers
capital markets
governments / public authorities.

Each oI these parties has its own tasks and responsibilities in managing the risk
arising Irom natural disasters. Beyond the pure Iinancing oI Iuture losses, which
is a reaction aIter the event, much more eIIort than hitherto has to be invested in
a pro-active strategy, i.e. in reducing and preventing Iuture losses. Such a
strategy is not only a matter oI Iinancial resources, but also, and maybe even
more so, a result oI good and Ioresighted planning and oI coordination at all
levels, Irom households and industrial companies to public institutions and
authorities.

What precisely are the tasks oI these parties?

The insurers: householders and business owners can do a lot in order to
reduce the risk to their property by proper maintenance and securing sensitive
items like equipment, electronic installations and machinery. In industrial
businesses emergency planning can help to prevent or minimize losses Irom
Iuture disasters. Finally, a certain portion oI the Iinancial risk has to be borne by
the insurers in order to keep the interest in loss reduction awake. Typical Iorms
oI selI-participation are deductibles, preIerably expressed as a percentage oI the
sum insured, and/or coinsurance, i.e. a percentage participation in each and
every loss.

!rimary insurers: primary insurers have to provide and secure capacity by
charging technically adequate rates
applying appropriate underwriting guidelines
accumulation control and portIolio management
establishing reserves Ior natural perils
limiting their liability according to their Iinancial strength ~ reinsurance
protection.

Reinsurers: reinsurers are oIten the main risk carriers in the Iield oI natural
disaster losses, making proper risk management all the more a primary task
which includes
balancing the risk over time and regions
technical support to the clients in rating considerations and assessments oI
probable maximum losses (!MLs)
controlling and limiting liabilities (setting cession/occurrence limits,
budgeting, retrocession).

Capital markets: they have entered the scene only recently. This type oI
alternative risk transIer (ART) must be seen as a supplement to rather than in
competition with reinsurance. Their potential Iunction is mainly to provide
additional capacity Ior top-rank losses.

The state: in the insurance context the state has to act as a reinsurer oI last
resort Ior very rare, extraordinary losses and/or uninsurable risks. The main task
oI the state lies, however, in the Iield oI risk management and risk reduction by
designing and enIorcing land use and building regulations
securing the serviceability oI critical Iacilities and inIrastructure
developing emergency plans deIining precisely the responsibilities and the
coordination oI the authorities involved.
granting tax exemption Ior catastrophe reserves

Within this context, the role oI the insurance sector has been rather well
established and tested. In contrast, the capital markets have still to prove
whether they are willing to provide reliable and continuous capacity when
investors may have lost their money aIter large disasters.
Furthermore it is worth mentioning that the entirety oI ART programs have
been placed so Iar Ior highly developed countries. Complexity oI the programs,
investor attitudes and also the usually high price require mature insurance
markets. The state should create an environment where the greatest possible use
is made oI private resources Ior disaster recovery, combined with the
availability oI protection Ior as many people as possible. Linking the
availability oI such protection to the observance oI building regulations can
provide an eIIicient mechanism Ior code enIorcement, especially Ior new
construction. Notwithstanding, mechanisms aiming at code compliance may
serve to encourage rehabilitation measures as well.

DISAS1ER PREPAREDAESS

Preparedness is a state oI being ready to react promptly and eIIectively in
the event oI an emergency. Being prepared means that a plan oI action exists Ior
an emergency so that it is clear what has to be carried out beIore and aIter the
emergency occurs. !reparedness measures to be undertaken depends upon the
analysis oI hazard severity and vulnerability, which is also the basis Ior
deciding mitigation strategy. In some cases, such as a Ilood or hurricane, an
early warning gives several hours to act. However, oIten no prior warning oI an
impending emergency, such as with earthquakes, tornadoes, explosions, or
major Iires is possible.

!reparedness Ior any emergency, especially those, which strike without
notice, requires a plan. It is essential to identiIy the resources available, and
ways to utilize them. It must also be reasonably certain that the plan will work
in an emergency situation.

Preparedness Plan The purpose oI a plan is to provide a systematic way oI
responding to an emergency situation. The Iollowing aspects should be taken
into consideration in the development oI Emergency !reparedness !lan.

IdentiIication oI possible emergency situations which may occur in an
area
Deployment oI oIIicer in charge in case oI emergency
Developing a strategy Ior activities likely to be undertaken and resources
which could be oI use
IdentiIying government bodies responsible to respond in case oI
emergency
Establishment oI Emergency Operation Center (EOC) or Control Room
to carry on emergency operations

Response activities occur during and immediately Iollowing a disaster. They are
designed to provide emergency assistance to victims oI the event and reduce the
likelihood oI secondary damage.

The Iive basic stages oI response to an emergency or disaster are:

(i). NotiIication/ Warning,
(ii). Immediate !ublic SaIety,
(iii). !roperty Security,
(iv). !ublic WelIare, and
(v). Restoration.

The length oI each stage depends upon the emergency situation.

Aotification / Warning- is the Iirst stage oI response.

Warning should be issued to two speciIic groups:

(a) The general public; and
(b) Departments, individuals, or agencies who must respond to the emergency.

In most emergency situations, the general public can be inIormed through
radio and television; however, those in the immediate danger area should be
inIormed by more direct means using public address systems. Those
departments, individuals or agencies, which must be alerted, should be inIormed
according to the emergency preparedness plan.

The alert could be done by two-way radio, telephone, messenger or local
television and radio bulletins. The people who are expected to respond must be
given enough inIormation so that they know what to do. !ractically no warning
can be given Ior an earthquake as there exists no scientiIic method to predict its
occurrence. However, some oI the conventional ways oI earthquake prediction
have been practised since ancient times, the most relevant being the erratic
behavior oI animals just beIore an earthquake and it can be considered as an
indicator oI earthquake.

Immediate Public Safety deals primarily with providing emergency medical
services, search & rescue and evacuation Irom the disaster area. The primary
concern is Ior saIety oI the people and treatment oI those who are injured

Property Security - This stage deals primarily with the protection oI property
in the community. !rimarily local police carry out the actions in this stage. The
police should see that property is saIe and looting or vandalism does not occur.
The Iire department aids in prevention oI Iurther damage to surrounding
property. The !ublic Works/ Highways Department/ local urban or rural bodies
may also play an important part by providing manpower, removing debris or
providing street barricades.

Public Welfare consists oI two main operations-
1. caring Ior the people aIter the emergency and
2. assessing damage.

This stage is where it is most important that all the service agencies work
closely. During the public welIare stage the prime concern is about mass care
Ior injured, shelter Ior the homeless, Iood and clothing Ior those in need. During
this stage assessment oI the damage is necessary in order to obtain State or
National support.

Restoration involves actions that repair the necessities oI liIe, which means
restoring utility service and the removal oI debris Irom the disaster scene.

Recovery is the Iinal phase oI the emergency management cycle. Recovery
continues until all systems return to normal, or near normal.

Short term recovery returns vital liIe support systems to minimum
operating standards. It grows out oI the response eIIort. During the response
phase, emergency repairs to buildings are made as protective measures against
Iurther damage or injury. Short-term recovery is the restoration oI vital services
and Iacilities to minimum standards oI operation and saIety. Severely damaged
buildings are scheduled to be replaced or removed, water and sewer repairs are
made, electricity and telephone services returned to normal.

ongterm recovery may continue Ior a number oI years, as the
community slowly returns to pre-emergency or better conditions. Long-term
recovery may include the complete redevelopment oI damaged areas. During
short-term recovery, buildings are repaired and people`s immediate needs are
taken care oI and assistance programmes are put into eIIect. There is no clear-
cut distinction when long-term recovery begins. They are not two distinctly
diIIerent phases oI recovery. Long-term recovery is simply those recovery
eIIorts, which are still in operation long aIter the disaster and includes
everything Irom complete redevelopment oI the disaster area to mitigation
eIIorts to prevent a similar disaster on an on-going basis Ior years aIter the
emergency. The recovery phase oI emergency management is just as vital as the
mitigation, preparedness, and response phases. A key element in the recovery
phase is to develop and implement ways to reduce community's vulnerability to
a repeat oI a similar emergency and also continued liaison with the State
Headquarters and the Central Government Ior assistance.



Redevelopment as mitigation AIter a major disaster, certain areas may be
completely levelled and new buildings must be designed to take their place.
Redevelopment reIers to the complete replacement oI structures, and not just
structure repair. Redevelopment provides the opportunity to reduce the chances
that similar structural damage will occur again. The redevelopment oIIicials
(public and private) must think oI ways to rebuild the damaged structures so
that the next time the same hazard strikes, the impact is greatly reduced.
Engineers should evaluate iI the building codes respond to particular hazard.
!lanners should evaluate whether the damaged area should be rezoned Ior lower
density uses.
Residents oI a disaster-aIIected area should be asked Ior their preIerence Ior
resettlement in the same area or other. The loss oI human liIe and property Irom
a disaster can be substantially reduced by timely issue oI warning to the
community likely to be aIIected Irom the disaster. Similarly, providing a quick
response immediately aIter the disaster can substantially reduce the suIIering oI
the aIIected people.

EMERCEACY RESPOASE

Basic concepts of Emergency Management

The basic concept suggests that the same management strategies can be
applied to all emergencies. Emergencies do not just appear one day, rather they
exist throughout time and have a liIe-cycle oI occurrence, and hence the
management strategy should match the phases oI an emergency in order to
mitigate, prepare, respond and recover Irom its eIIect.

There are Iour phases in Emergency Management: Mitigation,
!reparedness, Response and Recovery. The Iour phases are visualized as having
a circular relationship to each other (Emergency Management Cycle). The
activities in one phase may overlap those in the previous one.


Organizational structure and Institutional arrangements for emergency
management in the State

State Emergency Management Planning Committee (SEMPC) A State
Emergency Management !lan must be prepared Ior each kind oI disaster and
the details oI the organizational structure Ior emergency management activities
should be made known and must be readily available Ior Iast reacting.
Responsibility oI concerned agencies Ior the execution oI rescue, relieI and
recovery operations and Standard Operating !rocedure Ior each should be made
available. A State Emergency Management !lanning Committee (SEM!C)
should be constituted with all the stakeholders as members.

State Crisis Croup (SCC) The setting up oI a State Crisis Group (SCG) will
enable quick decision making, operational direction and coordination oI the
issue oI warning and execution oI rescue, relieI and recovery operations. The
responsibilities oI the SCG would include:

a). On spot decision making
b). Control and coordination oI response and recovery activities
c). Resource mobilization and replenishment
d). Monitoring oI overall response & recovery activities.
e). !reparation oI reports Ior submission to State Government through RelieI
Commissioner

State Emergency Manager (SEM) - DiIIerent government agencies and the
NGOs are supposed to operate within the overall direction and coordination oI
the Commissioner oI Revenue Administration/ RelieI Commissioner, who may
be designated as the State Emergency Manager (SEM). The individual
government agencies and the NGOs will perIorm the assigned jobs but the State
Emergency Manager will appropriately augment their resources by drawing
upon resources Irom other government agencies and the local communities. The
ChieI Secretary or Commissioner oI Revenue Administration can also assign
additional responsibilities and Iunctions to diIIerent Government agencies to
meet the requirements oI the situation.
During the time oI emergency the ChieI Secretary or the Commissioner
oI Revenue Administration who is the State Emergency Manager (SEM) would
act as the Iocal point Ior control and coordination oI all activities. His
responsibilities would be:

a). Get in touch with the local Army/ Navy/ Air Iorce units Ior assistance in
rescue, evacuation and relieI
b). Requisition resources, materials and equipment Irom all Departments /
Organizations oI the government and also Irom private sector
c). Direct industry to activate their onsite and oII -site disaster management
plan
d). Set up Site Operations Centre in the aIIected area with desk arrangements
e). Arrange establishment oI transit and/ or relieI camps, Ieeding centres and
cattle camps.
I). Send !reliminary InIormation Report and Action Taken Report to the
Government
g). Arrange immediate evacuation whenever necessary.

As and when a disaster takes place, be it natural or man-made, the
managers struggle to mitigate its eIIects on human lives and material losses.
The immediate response in all disasters has more or less the same parameters.
These are to provide rescue and relieI operations and save the precious human
liIe. Thus, the emergency response oI the disaster managers is a Iactor
independent oI the types and intensity oI the disasters.

State Emergency Control Room (SECR) - The need Ior directing the operations
at the aIIected site, the need Ior coordination at the district headquarters and the
need Ior interaction with the State Government to meet the conIlicting demands
at the time oI disaster is the responsibility oI the RelieI Commissioner and his
team. A well-equipped State Emergency Control Room (SECR) in terms oI
manpower and equipment should be established to help the RelieI
Commissioner and his team and to perIorm the Iollowing Iunctions:

Collection and compilation oI inIormation Irom the aIIected area
Documenting inIormation Ilow
Decision making regarding resource management
Allocation oI task to diIIerent resource organization
Supply oI inIormation to State Government

The SECR may have senior representatives in the capacity oI Desk OIIicers
Irom the Iollowing key resource agencies:

Search, Rescue & Evacuation desk - !olice and Fire Services
Logistics & WelIare desk
Medical desk
InIrastructure desk

The Desk OIIicers should maintain constant and regular contact with the
State Crisis Group members and other district heads to ensure quick decision
making.

Activities of State Emergency Control Room (SECR)

(a) Aormal times:

The responsibilities during the normal times will include:

1. Ensure all warning and communication systems, instruments are in
working condition.
2. Collect inIormation on a routine basis Irom the State departments on the
vulnerability oI areas to disasters.
3. Liaise (communicate) with SEM!C
4. Develop status reports oI preparedness and mitigation activities in the
State.
5. Ensure appropriate implementation oI State Emergency Management
!lan.
6. Maintain data bank with regular Evaluation & updating oI State
Emergency Management !lan which is the responsibility oI SEM!C.

However, SEM!C would keep an account oI the amendment (revision) and
accordingly review its response strategy. SECR will be responsible Ior
activating the trigger mechanism in the event oI receipt oI a warning or
occurrence oI a disaster.

(b) Activities on occurrence of emergency Issue Warning / Alert:

On the basis oI message received Irom the Iorecasting agencies, warning
has to be issued Ior the general public and the departments which play a vital
role during emergencies.
1. Issue oI correct and timely warning would be one oI the major
responsibilities oI SECR.
2. For eIIective dissemination oI warning SECR should have a well-planned
line oI communication.
3. The RelieI Commissioner would be the authoritative body to issue
warning.
4. Formulation oI warning message should consider the target group Ior
which it is issued.

(c) Post-emergency activities

AIter an emergency the main responsibility oI a SECR would be:

i. Evaluation oI relieI and rehabilitation activities in order to assess the
nature oI state intervention and support, suitability oI the organization
structure, institutional arrangements, adequacy oI Operating !rocedures,
monitoring mechanisms, inIormation tools, equipment and
communication system.

ii. !ost -emergency impact studies Ior long term preventive and mitigation
eIIorts to be taken.

Communication Room (Main Message Room)

The police wireless system should continue to be in contact with the
SECR. In every district the police have a well-established wireless
communication system; thereIore, under any emergency the communication
resources available with the police may be utilized.
During disaster, SECR would be connected to Site Operations Centre and
the Iacilities at various Desks.

Emergency Support Functions ESFs)
Emergency Support Function is how Emergency Management accomplishes
many oI the tasks in case oI responding to an emergency.

ist of Emergency Support Functions

ESF No. 1 Communication
ESF No. 2 !ublic Health and Sanitation
ESF No. 3 !ower
ESF No. 4 Transport
ESF No. 5 Donation
ESF No. 6 Search and Rescue
ESF No. 7 !ublic Works and Engineering
ESF No. 8 Food
ESF No. 9 InIormation and !lanning
ESF No. 10 RelieI Supplies
ESF No. 11 Drinking water
ESF No. 12 Shelter
ESF No. 13 Media
ESF No. 14 Helplines

Disaster - Development linkages

Why some groups in society are more vulnerable than others? Why is it almost
always the same, the resource poor, and the powerless groups in society that get
aIIected with hazards, and continue to be prone to disasters and other shocks?
The concept oI vulnerability helps us to answer these questions. In the
development context, it is the social, cultural, economic and political
environment that makes the people vulnerable to shocks, to disease, to any
negative Iorce. Class, caste, ethnicity, gender, disability and age are other
Iactors aIIecting the people`s vulnerability.

The same argument can be applied to encompass (include) disaster risk.
Being poor and having no choices increase people`s vulnerability to disasters,
and increases the degree oI being at risk to any potential hazard. Economic
pressures Iorce many oI the poor to live in cheap but hazard prone locations
such as Ilood planes or unstable hillsides, but there are many less visible
underlying Iactors; social and political as well as economic, that aIIect peoples
ability to protect themselves against disasters or to recover Irom them.

Thus, disaster risk is one oI the key Iactors that constitute the overall
vulnerability oI people, along with resource poverty and powerlessness.

Development` in broad, general terms means a positive change. There are Iive
key words stating development; well- being, livelihood, capability, equity and
sustainability, and it also suggest that each term is linked with the others.
Taking vulnerability` as the condition, which explain dynamics between
disasters and development, one can see that socio economic vulnerability can
have a negative impact on all the above-mentioned Iive situations or stating.

Disaster-development linkages are most visibly demonstrated by means oI
the livelihood analysis oI people who live with various hazards. Dealing with
hazards, and adjusting to live with them occupy a large share oI livelihoods and
liIe sustenance (nourishment) activities oI the communities living in hazard
prone situations. Also visible are the varying degrees and types oI
vulnerabilities, and the related survival possibilities at diIIerent degrees oI
vulnerability in conIronting (heading on) hazards.

A closer look at the research Iindings shows us, that despite new thinking
and much discussion on the alternative approaches to disasters at various levels,
the matter largely remains the same, as they were a number oI decades ago.
Development desks continue with their assigned tasks, while emergency
management orientation dominates the disaster scenarios, at central and
provincial (regional) levels. Under such circumstances, there is also a situation
when the development process itselI becomes a cause oI increased vulnerability
to disasters.
Research studies indicate that while at institutional levels disasters remain
to be seen as events`, which happen` at particular points oI time, communities
Ior whom it is a living experience, disasters are part oI the process oI their daily
survival. The remarkable and striking capabilities and capacities people possess
and apply in the risk management process are evident (clear) Irom the approach
towards disaster.

For the communities, preparing to Iace hazards/ disasters, risk
management is a continuous process linked to their livelihood activities. This
contrast with the event` or relieI` approach adopted by the institutional
structures, and oIIers many lessons Ior integrating alternative approach to
disasters into the main stream.

!hysical vulnerabilities are seen in the Iorm oI destruction oI houses,
damage to the agricultural land and crops, loss oI livestock and personal
possessions, displacement oI Iamilies and livestock, poor accessibility due to
the nearby protective embankments and stagnant Ilood water pools, and the
river that is been diverted towards the village settlement.
Followed by the physical damages there are economic vulnerabilities. For a
number oI months oI the year Iloods hinder (delay) the community Irom
engaging in any economic activity, and mobility largely remains within the
village. Social and institutional relationships are largely governed by the Feudal
management pattern, since land ownership lies with the landlords.
Consequently, Iormal social organisations are at a poor state, communities are
oIten unable to access the services, or voice their collective opinions on the
unsatisIactory conditions. Literacy is low, inIant mortality rates and population
growth rates are high, indicating isolation Irom mainstream development.

For Example, Analysis on the livelihoods oI the Kamra community show the
Ilood management process applied in their yearly calendar. April to June they
engage in early Ilood preparation activities, and during July to September they
cope with the Iloods, securing their lives and belongings and taking care oI
animals. October to December time needs to be spent on re- building the
damaged houses and attending to the damages to the agricultural lands. From
April to December major livelihood activities such as, growing wheat and
Iodder get disturbed in the situation oI Iloods. Both communities in their
struggle to survive Iloods apply indigenous techniques to gauge the rains, water
levels and assess the danger levels and act accordingly in managing their
livelihoods. In doing so, a continuous risk management process within the given
limited resources and knowledge levels Ialls in place. In eIIect, the communities
are demonstrating a process approach with a strong disaster preparedness
component in it.
Considering the Irequency and the scale oI Ilood hazard in this area, the
institutional structures responsible Ior general administration and development
requires having a strong Ilood preparedness Iocus. In the absence oI the same,
the research highlights short-term, as well as long-term, regular action required
in this regard.
In the longer term, and at a higher-level, structural measures such as
construction oI ecological Iriendly, small, dams in upper catchment valleys oI
rivers to store excessive water, land use regulation in Ilooded areas,
development oI protective embankments along river banks, re-locating
vulnerable settlements, and developing an integrated water management system
to eIIectively control excessive water during rainy season, it is noted will help
to keep the Ilood hazard controlled. Research clearly envisages us that it
requires consistent policies, and well-inIormed planning to overcome such
enormous, perpetual Ilood related problems.

Study on Kamra and Kort Murad demonstrates the continued application
oI the dominant approach, where development work takes place external to the
issues related to Ilood hazard. In addressing Iloods in the area, which is a
regular occurrence, a relieI-based approach is taken. There is no evidence oI
linking Ilood concerns with long term development plans. !reventive measures
are limited to weather Iorecasting and monitoring oI rainwater. The Irrigation
Department maintains the related inIrastructure such as spurs, embankments to
check spill over. The Health Department takes care oI preventive vaccination,
and local bodies evacuate people Irom threatened areas. Thus it is noted that
preventive measures are superIicial and insuIIicient, and carried out in a dis-
jointed manner.

The study indicates the essential development linkages to the regular
occurrence oI Iloods, and emphasises the need Ior change in approach. The
supply driven interventions made by state and large voluntary institutions re-
institute the vulnerability oI the marginalized communities, while taking oIIicial
pride in the relieI measures in response to disasters. An alternate approach,
which champions the demand driven approach to address certain substantial
issues in vulnerability oI the communities like that oI livelihood security in
response to Iloods in the oIIspring. The livelihood options oI the aIIected
communities have to be secured in a long-term context oI planning Ior
sustainable development, instead oI Iollowing the disaster and relieI approach`.


ISDR

ISDR stands Ior International Strategy Ior Disaster Reduction. The
International Strategy Ior Disaster Reduction (ISDR) is a strategic Iramework
adopted by United Nations Member States in 2000. It is an umbrella movement
that aims to more eIIectively reduce the risk oI disasters. The secretariat oI
ISDR is based in Geneva, New ork. The regional units are at Cairo, Bangkok,
Nairobi and !anama.
The ISDR guides and coordinates the eIIorts oI a wide range oI partners
to achieve a substantive reduction in disaster losses. It aims to build resilient
nations and communities as an essential condition Ior sustainable development.
The main role oI the ISDR secretariat is to promote and support the
implementation oI yogo Framework for Action 2005-2015. Building the
Resilience oI Nations and Communities to Disasters and to support and
coordinate the eIIorts oI ISDR system partners, to implement risk reduction in
their areas oI competence (capability). The United Nations International
Strategy Ior Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) is the secretariat oI the ISDR
system. Secretariat activities include advocacy (encouragement), network and
partnership development and inIormation generation and dissemination
(broadcasting). The secretariat does not directly implement programmes in
countries but it encourages and assists partners to do so. The ISDR system helps
to bring all parties to the table and to Iocus on country needs and coherent
approaches, in line with what the UN reIorm wants to achieve.

UNISDR serves as the Iocal point Ior the implementation oI the Hyogo
Framework Ior Action (HFA) - a ten year plan oI action adopted in 2005 by168
governments to protect lives and livelihoods against disasters.

Mission and Objectives of ISDR

a. Increase public awareness to understand risk, vulnerability and disaster
reduction globally.
b. Obtain commitment Irom public authorities to implement disaster
reduction policies and actions.
c. Stimulate interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships, including the
expansion oI risk reduction networks.
d. Improve scientiIic knowledge about disaster reduction

!revention begins with the inIormation. By sharing a common cause or
purpose and through the collaborative eIIorts we can ensure that is more
resilient to the impact oI the hazards. The more we know about the causes and
consequences oI natural hazards and related technological and environmental
disasters we are able to be better prepared to reduce risks

What ISDR does?

1. Coordinates to take eIIorts in disaster risk reduction and provide guidance
Ior the implementation oI the Hyogo Framework Ior action. ISDR also
monitor its implementation and report regularly on progress.
2. Advocates Ior greater investment oI the investors in disaster reduction
actions to protect the people`s lives and their assets.
3. Campaign to build global awareness oI disaster risk reduction beneIits
and empower people to reduce the community vulnerabilities to hazard
impacts.
4. InIorm and connect people by providing those services and practical tools
such as the Disaster Risk Reduction Community Website !revention
Web, !ublications on good practises, country proIiles and policy advice.
5. Connect international eIIorts in disaster risk reduction and provide proper
guidance Ior the implementation oI the Hyogo Framework Ior action.
6. !romote the eIIective reduction oI climate risks through the integration oI
disaster risk reduction into policies and programmes Ior climate change
adaption.
7. Encourage the establishment oI regional and national platIorms Ior
disaster risk reduction, comprising multi stake holder committees or
mechanisms as well as thematic platIorms on key topics like early
warning, recovery, capacity development, education, environment and
others.
8. !rovide a biennial Global Assessment Report, an authoritative analysis oI
global disaster risk and progress in disaster risk reduction.

The ISDR combines the strength oI many key players through the Inter-
Agency Task Force on Disaster Reduction (IATF/DR) and the Inter-Agency
Secretariat (UN/ISDR).

The IATF/DR is the principal body Ior the development oI disaster reduction
policy. It is headed by the Under-Secretary General Ior Humanitarian AIIairs
and consists oI 25 UN, International, Regional and civil society organisations.
Working groups reporting to the IATF/DR bring together specialists and
organisations to discuss issues oI common and global relevance to disaster
reduction.

The UN/ISDR is the Iocal point in the UN system to promote links and
synergies between the co ordination oI disaster reduction activities in the socio-
economic, humanitarian and development Iields, as well as to support policy
integration. The UN/ISDR headquarters is based at the !alais des nations in
Geneva.

The Hyogo Framework Ior Action (HFA) 2005-2015: Building the resilience
(Ilexibility) oI nations and communities to disaster:

The HFA was adopted by 168 governments at the world conIerence on Disaster
Reduction in Kobe, Japan in January 2005. It was later endorsed by the UN
General Assembly. It represents the internationally most accepted and
legitimate policy document on disaster risk reduction. The HFA contains three
strategic goals and Iive priorities Ior action Ior the period 2005 to 2015.

The three strategic goals are:
i. The most eIIective integration oI disaster risk considerations into
sustainable development policies, planning and programming in all
levels, with a special emphasis on disaster prevention, mitigation,
preparedness and vulnerability reduction;
ii. The development and strengthening oI institutions, mechanisms and
capacities at all levels in particular at the community level, that can
systematically contribute to building resilience to hazards;
iii. The systematic incorporation oI risk reduction approaches into the design
and implementation oI emergency preparedness, response and recovery
programmes in the reconstruction oI aIIected communities.

The Five priorities Ior action are:

i. Ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and local priority with a
strong institutional basis Ior implementation.
ii. IdentiIy access and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning.
iii. Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture oI saIety and
resilience at all levels.
iv. Reduce the underlying risk Iactors.
v. Strengthen disaster preparedness Ior eIIective response at all levels.




1rigger mechanism

Trigger Mechanism is a quick response mechanism, which would
spontaneously set the vehicle oI management into motion on the road to disaster
mitigation process.

The trigger mechanism has been envisaged (predicted) as a preparedness plan
whereby the receipt oI an impending disaster would simultaneously energise
and activate the mechanism Ior response and mitigation without loss oI crucial
time. This would entail (involve) all the participating managers, to know in
advance the task assigned to them and the manner oI response.

IdentiIication oI available resources, including manpower, material,
equipment and adequate delegation oI Iinancial and administrative powers are
prerequisites (fundamentals) to the successIul operation oI Trigger mechanism.

As and when the disasters strike or take place, the managers are required
to swing in action without losing time. Generally, in such situations, the
managers start organising, planning and activating the mitigation process. On
the other hand, the event had already taken place and the need oI that hour is to
start the mitigation process and virtually no time can be spared (safe) at that
stage Ior the activities like organizing and planning. Time is the essence oI the
immediate relieI and rescue operations to save human lives and mitigate human
miseries Ior the next 48 to 72 hours. ThereaIter, actually what is required to be
done is a part oI long term rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes.

The trigger mechanism is in Iact a preparedness plan in which all the
participating managers, and actors (i.e., the persons authorized or allotted Ior
the execution oI work) know in advance the task assigned to them and the
manner in which they have to prepare themselves to respond. Trigger
mechanism is also an essence Ior the Standard Operating !rocedure (SO!) in
which the implementation oI the eIIorts on ground is well laid down. Generally,
the activities which include evacuation, search and rescue, temporary shelter,
Iood, drinking water, clothing, health and sanitation, communications,
accessibility, and public inIormation which are very important components oI
disaster management, would Iollow on the activation oI the Trigger Mechanism.
All these major activities which are common in all types oI disasters which will
require sub-division and preparation oI sub-action plans by each speciIied
authority. They will be required to list all requirements and their availability
within the prescribed response time. Separate SO!s need to be in place Ior each
Iront line agency like !olice, Fire-Service, !WD, Highways and Health
Departments.


The Trigger Mechanism requires the disaster managers to:

i. Evolve an effective signal / warning mechanism:

AIter identiIying that the disaster is about to happen, the next step
or immediate action that has to be taken is to evolve an eIIective signal /
warning mechanism. This technique is been carried out with the existing
systems by the Indian Meteorological Department and the Central Water
Commission and also enlist the services that is been provided by the All India
Radio, TV, sirens and by all means oI communication processes that can alert
the people when a disaster is about to happen.

ii. Identify activities:

Management is always a co ordinate eIIort. There are a number oI
activities that has to be carried out as a response in the event oI occurrence oI
the disaster. The activities that will be usually assigned are:

a. Co ordination, Command and Control
b. Rapid review oI the cause
c. Restoration oI power
d. Restoration oI communication
e. Restoration oI transport
I. Operation oI search and rescue teams
g. Operation oI medical teams
h. Supply oI Iood materials
i. Supply oI medicines
j. Supply oI drinking water
k. Setting temporary shelters
l. IdentiIication oI resources, i.e., man, material, money
m.Maintenance oI law and order, etc.

iii. Identify subactivities under each activity / level of activity:

Under each category the will be teams to carry out the sub activities. For
Example, in search and rescue operation, we need canine involvement to trace
out human beings and persons to rescue them Irom that area. Similarly, in case
oI medicines, paramedical staIIs are needed Ior assisting the doctors.




iv. Specify authorities for each level of activity and subactivity:

Each activity is to be assigned to a speciIic authority at each level. This is
been in implemented, since there are a number oI departments/organisations
would be involved, details about the authorities such as their name, department,
designation, contact numbers, e-mail, etc., should be listed. The similar details
about the authority second in command also have to be listed out, since there
are a number oI sub activities Ior every main activity.

v. Determine the response time for each activity:

In case oI emergency one should not Iorget that time is the prime Iactor.
Hence each authority should carry out the operation within the response time.
The response time will be lesser Ior carrying out operation in case oI disaster at
lower scale and more time would be needed Ior the operation team at higher
scale. ThereIore each authority and sub-authority should very clear know their
response time with reIerence to the scale oI disaster.

vi. ork out individual plans:

Each authority and sub authority has to be keen in working out the
response oI individual in probable (possible) disaster areas. This plan gives
clear identiIication oI the resources i.e., men, money, material and equipments
needed Ior each activities and sub activities. The identiIication and allotting oI
resources should be both in terms oI quantity and availability and also
Iunctionality.

vii. Have Quick Response Teams for each specified authority:

The work to be carried out is known in advance and the process oI
planning and organisation has been completed; now it`s the role oI the quick
response team to be carried out. The team members should know about each
member and should know their speciIic assigned task as an individual besides
the overall assignment to the team. The speciIic authorities and sub-authorities
should have complete details about the quick response team members to ensure
their availability and proper communication at the time iI response.


viii. Have alternative plans and contingency (emergency) measures:

Even in an emergency response to a disaster, one ahs to aim Ior zero level
oI Iailure. Hence it is recommended that alternative plans and contingency
measures are also been sought in advance, so that the response mechanism does
not get stuck up in the middle Ior any reason till the mitigation process is
completed.

ix. !rovide appropriate delegations to make the mechanism functionally
viable (possible):

The perIormance oI the quick response teams will depend on mobilising
the resources at their command. It would, thereIore be necessary to ensure the
required administrative,

x. Undergo preparedness drills:

The quick response teams should undergo preparedness drills and carry
out mock exercises so as to pre-empt (prevent) the possibility oI any Iunctional
hiccups or restrains which are likely to occur during the implementation oI the
plan on the Iield. On the basis oI Iield experience or the lessons learnt Irom the
previous disasters, the team should update their Iunctional methodology to be
more eIIective, both in terms oI time and delivery.

DEJELOPMEA1 PLAAS AAD LIAKACES - DISAS1ER MAAACEMEA1

Planning Process

The !lanning process Ior disaster management is based on the principle
that response and level oI preparedness required are dependent on the extent oI
vulnerability and the level oI capacity to deal with situations.

Disasters may be graded at three levels:

L1: District Level Disaster: The disaster that is within the capabilities oI the
district administration and it can deal with the situation.

L2: State Level Disaster: The disaster that is within the capabilities oI State
Government which can deal with but whereas district cannot.

L3: National Level Disaster: The disaster that is requiring major intervention oI
the Central Government, whereas the district and State cannot deal with.

L0: No disaster situation- This is the level at which surveillance, preparedness
and mitigation activities must be Iocussed on since there is no disaster.


Paradigm Shift towards Prevention and Reduction Recognizing the rapid rise
in world-wide toll oI human and economic losses due to natural disasters, the
UN General Assembly in 1989 took a decision to launch a Iar reaching global
undertaking during the nineties to save human lives and reduce the impact oI
natural disasters. With this aim in mind, the decade 1990-2000 was declared as
the International Decade Ior Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).

The objective oI the IDNDR was to reduce, through concerted
(determined) international action, especially in developing countries, the loss oI
liIe, property damage, social and economic disruption caused by natural
disasters such as earthquakes, Iloods, cyclones, landslides, locust inIestations,
drought and desertiIication and other calamities oI natural origin.

By the year 2000, as per the plan oI the IDNDR, all countries should
have had:

a. Comprehensive national assessments oI risks Irom natural hazards, with
these assessments taking into account their impact on developmental
plans,

b. Mitigation plans at national or local levels, involving long term
prevention, preparedness and community awareness, and

c. Ready access to global, regional, national and local warning systems and
widespread dissemination oI such warnings.

Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness Strategy -
i. Development oI a culture oI prevention as an essential component oI an
integrated approach to disaster reduction.
ii. !repare and maintain in a state oI readiness !reparedness and Response
!lans` at National, State and District levels.
iii. Adoption oI a policy oI selI reliance in each vulnerable area.
iv. Education and training in disaster prevention, mitigation and
preparedness Ior enhancement oI capabilities at all levels.
v. IdentiIication and strengthening oI existing centres oI excellence in order
to improve disaster prevention, reduction and mitigation capabilities.

&shering (Cuiding) in a Aew Culture of Disaster Management

Culture of Preparedness- Hitherto, the approach towards coping with the
eIIects oI natural disasters has been post-disaster management involving many
problems such as law and order, evacuation and warnings, communications,
search and rescue, Iire-Iighting, medical and psychiatric assistance, provision oI
relieI and sheltering, etc. AIter the initial trauma oI the occurrence oI the natural
disaster is over within the Iirst Iew days or weeks, the phase oI reconstruction
and economic, social and psychological rehabilitation is taken up by the people
themselves and by the government authorities. Soon thereaIter the occurrence oI
the disaster is relegated to historic memory till the next one occurs either in the
same area or in some other part oI the country. It is not possible to do away with
the devastation oI natural hazards completely. However, experience has shown
that destruction Irom natural hazards can be minimized by the presence oI a
well-Iunctioning warning system, combined with preparedness on the part oI
the vulnerable community. Warning systems and preparedness measures reduce
and modiIy the scale oI disasters. A community that is prepared to Iace
disasters, receives and understands warnings oI impending hazards and has
taken precautionary and mitigatory measures, will be able to cope better and
resume their normal liIe sooner.

Culture of Prevention- One oI the many lessons learnt by victims oI various
natural disasters is that the aItermath oI a disaster can be even worse than the
disaster event itselI. Thus, there is a need to acknowledge the necessity Ior
eIIorts towards disaster prevention. However, people are oIten surprised by the
concept oI reducing disasters. How, it is oIten asked, can a natural disaster such
as an earthquake or a cyclone be reduced or prevented?

Natural occurrences such as Iloods, earthquakes, cyclones, etc., simply
cannot be avoided altogether, they are a part oI the environment we live in.
What can be done, however, is to take preventive measures at various levels oI
society in order to make the impact oI such natural hazards as harmless as
possible Ior people and people`s properties. The impact oI a natural hazard can
be reduced; its worst eIIects can be prevented.

Early Warning- Building codes do not exist against storm surge inundation.
!rescribed means today to save liIe and properties against storm surge
inundation is to evacuate people to saIer places as quickly as possible on receipt
oI warnings. Coordinated early warning systems against tropical cyclone are
now in existence around the globe and it is possible to warn the aIIected
population at least 24 to 36 hours in advance about the danger Irom a tropical
cyclone. By taking advantage oI early warning systems, it is now possible by
prepared and knowledgeable communities to minimize the loss oI lives and
properties.

Development Planning- There is a need to integrate development plans and
regulations with disaster-mitigation. The construction oI roads, railways lines,
bridges, etc., should be according to the topography and geology oI that area
in terms oI risk and vulnerability. All development projects (engineering and
non-engineering) including irrigation and industrial projects should be targeted
towards disaster-mitigation.

Environmental protection, aIIorestation programmes, pollution control,
construction oI earthquake-resistance structures should have priority Ior
implementation.

What is important is to introduce a culture oI prevention in disaster managers
and all communities, at all levels: action to save lives must be taken beIore
disaster strikes. For instance, most oI the deaths and casualties in an earthquake
are caused not by the earthquake itselI but due to the collapse oI buildings and
concrete structures. Hence earthquake prooI Ieatures need to be planned and
incorporated at the structural design itselI.

RetroIitting oI existing structures will also mitigate the eIIects oI an earthquake.
Such preventive measures are essential also in a State like Tamil Nadu
considering that much oI the State has been upgraded to Zone III in the revised
seismic Zonation map oI India, on par with Latur in Maharashtra. The building
control regulations need to be revised accordingly.


Financial Arrangements

The policy arrangements Ior meeting relieI expenditure related to natural
disasters are, by and large, based on the recommendations oI successive Finance
Commissions. The two main windows presently open Ior meeting such
expenditures are the Calamity RelieI Fund (CRF) and National Calamity
Contingency Fund (NCCF). The Calamity RelieI Fund is used Ior meeting the
expenditure Ior providing immediate relieI to the victims oI cyclone, drought,
earthquake, Iire, Ilood and hailstorm. Expenditure on restoration oI damaged
capital works should ordinarily be met Irom the normal budgetary heads, except
when it is to be incurred as part oI providing immediate relieI, such as
restoration oI drinking water sources or provision oI shelters etc., or restoration
oI communication links Ior Iacilitating relieI operations. The amount oI annual
contribution to the CRF oI each State Ior each oI the Iinancial years 2000-01 to
2004-05 is as indicated by the Finance Commission. OI the total contribution
indicated, the Government oI India contributes 75 percent oI the total yearly
allocation in the Iorm oI a non-plan grant, and the balance amount is contributed
by the State Government concerned. A total oI Rs.11,007.59 crore was provided
Ior the Calamity RelieI Fund Irom 2000-05.
!ursuant to the recommendations oI the Eleventh Finance Commission, apart
Irom the CRF, a National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) Scheme came
into Iorce with eIIect Irom the Iinancial year 2000-01 and would be operative
till the end oI the Iinancial year 2004-05. NCCF is intended to cover natural
calamities like cyclone, drought, earthquake, Iire, Ilood and hailstorm, which
are considered to be oI severe nature requiring expenditure by the State
Government in excess oI the balances available in its own Calamity RelieI
Fund. The assistance Irom NCCF is available only Ior immediate relieI and
rehabilitation. Any reconstruction oI assets or restoration oI damaged capital
should be Iinanced through re-allocation oI !lan Iunds.
The initial corpus oI the National Fund is Rs.500 crores, provided by the
Government oI India. This Iund is required to be recouped by levy oI special
surcharge Ior a limited period on central taxes. Assistance provided by the
Centre to the States Irom the National Fund is to be Iinanced by levy oI a
special surcharge on the central taxes Ior a limited period. A list oI items and
norms oI expenditure Ior assistance chargeable to CRF / NCCF in the wake oI
natural calamities is prescribed in detail Irom time to time.
There are a number oI important ongoing schemes that speciIically help reduce
disaster vulnerability. Some oI these are: Integrated Wasteland Development
!rogramme (IWD!), Drought !rone Area !rogramme (D!A!), Desert
Development !rogramme (DD!), Flood Control !rogrammes, National
AIIorestation & Eco-development !rogramme (NA&ED), Accelerated Rural
Water Supply !rogramme (ARWS!), Crop Insurance, Sampurn Grameen
Rozgar ojana (SGR), Food Ior Work etc.
The High !ower Committee (H!C) constituted by GOI on Disaster
Management which submitted its report in October 2001 recommended that at
least 10 percent oI plan Iunds at the national, state and district levels be
earmarked and apportioned Ior schemes which speciIically address areas such
as prevention, reduction, preparedness and mitigation oI disasters.
The Eleventh Finance Commission too paid detailed attention to the issue oI
disaster management and, in its chapter on calamity relieI, came out with a
number oI recommendations, oI which the Iollowing have a direct bearing on
the !lan:


a) Expenditure on restoration oI inIrastructure and other capital assets,
except those that are intrinsically connected with relieI operations and
connectivity with the aIIected area and population, should be met Irom
the plan Iunds on priority basis.

b) Medium and long-term measures are devised by the concerned Ministries
oI the Government oI India, the State Governments and the !lanning
Commission to reduce, and iI possible, eliminate, the occurrences oI
these calamities by undertaking developmental works.

c) The !lanning Commission, in consultation with the State Governments
and concerned Ministries, should be able to identiIy works oI a capital
nature to prevent the recurrence oI speciIic calamities. These works may
be Iunded under the !lan.

In order to move towards saIer development, development projects should be
sensitive towards disaster mitigation. With the kind oI economic losses and
developmental setbacks that the country has been suIIering year aIter year, it
makes good economic sense to spend a little extra today in a planned way on
steps and components that can help in prevention and mitigation oI disasters,
than be Iorced to spend many multiples more lately on restoration and
rehabilitation. The design oI development projects and the process oI
development should take the aspect oI disaster reduction and mitigation within
its ambit; otherwise, the development ceases to be sustainable and eventually
causes more hardship and loss to the nation.

Management Information System (MIS) is a system that provides
inIormation needed to manage organizations eIIectively. The management
inIormation system provides decision making support Ior routine, structured &
un-structured decisions. The MIS uses three decision models or techniques
namely;

a). Optimization
Find the best solution
b). SatisIying
Find a solution which meets certain criteria
c). Heuristics
Rule-based solution generation

Management inIormation systems involve three primary resources:
technology, inIormation, and people.
It's important to recognize that while all three resources are key
components when studying management inIormation systems, the most
important resource is people. Management inIormation systems are regarded as
a subset oI the overall internal controls procedures in a business, which cover
the application oI people, documents, technologies, and procedures used
by management accountants to solve business problems such as costing a
product, service or a business-wide strategy.
Management inIormation systems are distinct Irom regular inIormation systems
in that they are used to analyze other inIormation systems applied in operational
activities in the organization. Academically, the term is commonly used to reIer
to the group oI inIormation management methods tied to the automation or
support oI human decision making, e.g. Decision Support Systems, Expert
systems, and Executive inIormation systems.
Initially in businesses and other organizations, internal reporting was made
manually and only periodically, as a by-product oI the accounting system and
with some additional statistic(s), and gave limited and delayed inIormation on
management perIormance. !reviously, data had to be separated individually by
the people as per the requirement and necessity oI the organization.
Later, data was distinguished Irom inIormation, and so instead oI the collection
oI mass oI data, important and to the point data that is needed by the
organization was stored.
Earlier, business computers were mostly used Ior relatively simple operations
such as tracking sales or payroll data, oIten without much detail. Over time,
these applications became more complex and began to store increasing amount
oI inIormation while also interlinking with previously separate inIormation
systems. As more and more data was stored and linked man began to analyze
this inIormation into Iurther detail, creating entire management reports Irom the
raw, stored data. The term "MIS" arose to describe these kinds oI applications,
which were developed to provide managers with inIormation about sales,
inventories, and other data that would help in managing the enterprise.

Today, the term is used broadly in a number oI contexts and includes : decision
support systems, resource and people management applications, Enterprise
Resource !lanning (ER!), Supply Chain Management (SCM), Customer
Relationship Management (CRM), project management and database retrieval
applications.
"The Iive eras are general-purpose mainIrame and minicomputer computing,
personal computers, client/server networks, enterprise computing, and cloud
computing."
The Iirst era was ruled by IBM and their mainIrame computers, these
computers would oIten take up whole rooms and require teams to run them,
IBM supplied the hardware and the soItware. As technology advanced these
computers were able to handle greater capacities and thereIore reduce their cost.
By 1965 microprocessors began to take the market away Irom mainIrame
computers. This technology allowed small desktop computers to do the same
work that it previously would have taken a room Iull oI computers. This also
decentralized computing power Irom large data centres to smaller oIIices.
In the late 1970's minicomputer technology gave way to personal
computers, now Ior a relatively low cost anyone could have a computer in their
own home. This allowed Ior businesses to give their employees access to
computing power that 10 years beIore would have cost tens oI thousands oI
dollars. This proliIeration oI computers also helped create a need to connect
these computers together on a network giving birth to the internet. As
technology has increased and cheapened the need to share inIormation across a
large company had also grown, this gave way to the client/server era. With this
era computers on a common network were able to access shared inIormation on
a server. This allows Ior large amounts oI data to be accessed by thousands and
even millions oI people simultaneously.
The latest evolution oI InIormation Systems is cloud computing a recent
development, cloud computing lets users access data stored on a server, where
they can not only see the data but also edit, save, download or upload. This
along with high speed networks has lead to a much more mobile view oI MIS.
In cloud computing the manager does not have to be at a desk to see what their
employees are working on but instead can be on a laptop, tablet pc, or even
smart phone.

An 'MIS' is a planned system oI the collection, processing, storage and
dissemination oI data in the Iorm oI inIormation needed to carry out the
management Iunctions. In another way, it is a documented report oI the
activities that were planned and executed.
According to !hilip Kotler "A marketing inIormation system consists oI people,
equipment, and procedures to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate, and distribute
needed, timely, and accurate inIormation to marketing decision makers."
The terms MIS (Management Information Systems) and information system are
oIten conIused. InIormation systems include systems that are not intended Ior
decision making. The area oI study called MIS is sometimes reIerred to,
as inIormation technology management.
The successIul MIS must support a business's Five ear !lan or its
equivalent. It must provide Ior reports based upon perIormance analysis in areas
critical to that plan, with Ieedback loops that allow Ior titivation oI every aspect
oI the business, including recruitment and training regimens. In eIIect, MIS
must not only indicate how things are going, but why they are not going as well
as planned where that is the case. These reports would include perIormance
relative to cost centres and projects that drive proIit or loss, and do so in such a
way that identiIies individual accountability, and in virtual real-time.
Anytime a business is looking at implementing a new business system it is very
important to use a system development method such as System Development
LiIe Cycle. The liIe cycle includes Analysis, Requirements, Design,
Development, Testing and Implementation.

The Role of MIS
InIormation technology is partly responsible Ior the !ARADIGM shiIt (A
change, a new model,) Irom support contributing organizations proIitability.
From eIIicient data processing shops
to understanding the goals and objectives oI an Organization
to participate directly in the decision making and strategy
Iormulation

The role oI the MIS Executive:
Systems !lanning
Data Center Management & Operations
Management oI Remote Equipment
IdentiIication oI Opportunities Ior New Systems
Systems Analysis, Design, and Construction oI New
Systems
Distributed Systems: The migration oI equipment to user areas and control
(selection, purchase, and ownership).
Types of Information Management Systems
There are many types oI inIormation management systems that provide a
wide range oI beneIits Ior companies / organisations. Strategic inIormation
management system, Customer relation management systems and Enterprise
resource planning systems are some oI them.
The Iollowing are some oI the beneIits that can be attained Ior diIIerent types oI
inIormation management systems.
Advantages of information management systems
(1) The company is able to highlight their strength and weaknesses due to the
presence oI revenue reports, employee perIormance records etc. The
identiIication oI these aspects can help the company to improve their business
processes and operations.
(2) The availability oI the customer data and Ieedback can help the company to
align their business processes according to the needs oI the customers. The
eIIective management oI customer data can help the company to perIorm direct
marketing and promotion activities.
(3) InIormation is considered to be an important asset Ior any company /
organisation in the modern competitive world. The consumer buying trends and
behaviours can be predicted by the analysis oI sales and revenue reports Irom
each operating region oI the company.


The Management InIormation System Ior Disaster Management gathers all the
inIormation`s and data`s so that analysis and problem solving can be easily
carried out. All aspects oI disaster management like search & rescue,
evacuation, preparedness, prevention, rehabilitation and recovery can be carried
out by means oI this MIS approach. It is also possible to analyse the damage
caused by the disaster and the impact oI the disaster by designing and
developing MIS Ior disaster prone areas or the areas that are having high
chances oI Iacing disasters.
Functions of the Management
a). !lanning - Devise short range and long range plans (objectives)
and set goals to achieve those plans (objectives)
b). Organising - How to use the resources (rules & regulations)
c). StaIIing - Supervising
d). Directing - Guiding employees to perIorm their work at ease
e). Controlling - Monitoring process towards the goal

Decision Support System
Decision support systems are the value added systems or the extensions
oI the MIS, which Iacilitate more inIormed decision making, problem solving
and Ior the analysis oI the policies. In a specialised Iield like disaster
management, DSS play a very signiIicant role Ior more eIIective, eIIicient and
Iaster decision making and analysis process.
A Decision Support System is an interactive, Ilexible, and adaptable
system, specially developed Ior supporting the solution oI a non-structured
management problem Ior improved decision making. It utilizes data, it provides
easy user interIace, and it allows Ior the decision maker`s own insights.
DSS may utilize models, is built by an interactive process (Irequently by end-
users), supports all the phases oI the decision making, and may include a
knowledge component.

Characteristics and Capabilities of DSS
1. !rovide support in semi-structured and unstructured situations, includes
human judgment and computerized inIormation
2. Support Ior various managerial levels
3. Support to individuals and groups
4. Support to interdependent and (or) sequential decisions
5. Support all phases oI the decision-making process
6. Support a variety oI decision-making processes and styles
7. Are adaptive
8. Have user Iriendly interIaces
9. Improve eIIectiveness oI decision making
10. The decision maker controls the decision-making process
11. End-users can build simple systems
12. Utilizes models Ior analysis
13. !rovides access to a variety oI data sources, Iormats, and others
14. Decision makers can make better, more consistent decisions in a timely
manner
DSS Components
There are three Iundamental components oI DSSs.

a). Database management system (DBMS). A DBMS serves as a data bank Ior
the DSS. It stores large quantities oI data that are relevant to the class oI
problems Ior which the DSS has been designed and provides logical data
structures (as opposed to the physical data structures) with which the users
interact. A DBMS separates the users Irom the physical aspects oI the database
structure and processing. It should also be capable oI inIorming the user oI the
types oI data that are available and how to gain access to them.


b). Model-base management system (MBMS). The role oI MBMS is analogous
to that oI a DBMS. Its primary Iunction is providing independence between
speciIic models that are used in a DSS Irom the applications that use them. The
purpose oI an MBMS is to transIorm data Irom the DBMS into inIormation that
is useIul in decision making. Since many problems that the user oI a DSS will
cope with may be unstructured, the MBMS should also be capable oI assisting
the user in model building.

c). Dialog generation and management system (DGMS). The main product oI
an interaction with a DSS is insight. As their users are oIten managers who are
not computer-trained, DSSs need to be equipped with intuitive and easy-to-use
interIaces. These interIaces aid in model building, but also in interaction with
the model, such as gaining insight and recommendations Irom it. The primary
responsibility oI a DGMS is to enhance the ability oI the system user to utilize
and beneIit Irom the DSS. In the remainder oI this article, we will use the
broader term user interIace rather than DGMS.

While a variety oI DSSs exists, the above three components can be Iound in
many DSS architectures and play a prominent role in their structure. Interaction
among them is illustrated. Essentially, the user interacts with the DSS through
the DGMS. This communicates with the DBMS and MBMS, which screen the
user and the user interIace Irom the physical details oI the model base and
database implementation.

a. Data Management Subsystem
b. Model Management Subsystem
c. Knowledge-based (Management) Subsystem
d. User InterIace Subsystem
e. The User
DSS Classifications
Alter`s Output ClassiIication (1980)
W Degree oI action implication oI system outputs (supporting decision)

Holsapple and Winston`s ClassiIication
1.Text-oriented DSS
2. Database-oriented DSS
3. Spreadsheet-oriented DSS
4. Solver-oriented DSS
5. Rule-oriented DSS
6. Compound DSS
The key factors for DSS Success & Failure
For DSS Success
a. Management Support
b. Users Involved in Design & Development
c. Early BeneIits Shown
For DSS Failure
d. Lack oI Management Support
e. Users Ignored in Design & Development
I. No Early BeneIits Shown
Other Systems for decision support
There are various other support systems. Some oI them are listed below:

Knowledgebased decision support systems:

Another important emerging DSS is the knowledge-based decision
support systems (KBDSS), which are hybrid systems oI DSS and ES that helps
to solve a broad range oI organizational problems.

In integrating DSS and ES, two basic approaches are expert support systems
(ESS) and intelligent support systems (ISS).

The key diIIerences between these two systems are as Iollows:


ESS is to replace human expertise with machine expertise, while ISS are to
ampliIy the memory and intelligence oI humans and groups. A broad range oI
real-world managerial problems can be better solved by using the analysis oI
both quantitative and qualitative data. The new integrated system (ESS or ISS)
can support decision makers by harnessing the expertise oI key organizational
members. A bottleneck in the development oI knowledge-based systems such as
ESS is knowledge acquisition, which is a part oI knowledge engineering the
process includes representation, validation, inIerence, explanation and
maintenance.

Group DSS/Group support systems/Electronic meeting systems:

Single user DSS and group DSS can be distinguished in many diIIerent ways in
terms oI purpose and components (hardware, soItware, people, procedures).



First, group DSS and single user DSS have distinguishable purposes. A single
user DSS can be simply deIined by replacing 'a set oI decision makers working
together as a group' with 'a decision maker' (see TEAMS AND TEAMWORK).

Second, to support a set oI decision makers working together as a group, group
DSS have special technological requirements oI hardware, soItware, people and
procedures. Each member oI the group usually has a personal computer which
is linked to the personal computers oI other group members and to one or more
large public viewing screens, so that each member can see the inputs oI other
members or let other members see their work. Group DSS soItware also need
special Iunctional capabilities, in addition to the capabilities oI single user DSS
soItware, such as anonymous input oI the user's ideas, listing group members'
ideas, voting and ranking decision alternatives. The people component oI group
DSS should include a group Iacilitator, who leads the session by serving as the
interIace between the group and the computer systems.

Computer based inIormation systems to support group activities have been
conducted under the titles oI group decision support systems (GDSS),
computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW), group support systems (GSS),
collaboration support systems (CSS), and electronic meeting systems (EMS).
GDSS have Iocused on decision making/ solving problems, while CSCW
provide primarily a means to communicate more eIIiciently.
However, these two types oI systems, decision making Iocused systems and
communication-Iocused systems, are becoming indistinguishable.

Characteristics of GDSS:

W Special design
W Ease oI use
W Flexibility
W Decision-making support
Delphi approach (decision makers are geographically dispersed)
Brainstorming
Group consensus
Nominal group technique
W Anonymous input
W Reduction oI negative group behavior
W !arallel communication
W Automated record keeping
W Cost, control, complexity Iactors

Components of a GDSS and GDSS Software

W Database
W Model base
W Dialogue manager
W Communication capability
W Special soItware (also called GroupWare)
W E.g., Lotus Notes
people located around the world work on the same project,
documents, and Iiles, eIIiciently and at the same time

Advantages of GDSS:

W Anonymity drive out Iear leading to better decisions Irom a diverse
hierarchy oI decision makers.
W !arallel Communication eliminate monopolizing providing increased
participation, better decisions.
W Automated record keeping no need to take notes, they`re
automatically recorded.
W Ability for virtual meetings only need hardware, soItware and people
connected.
W !ortability - Can be set up to be portable.
W Global !otential - !eople can be connected across the world.
W No need for a computer guru although some basic experience is a
must.


Disadvantages of GDSS:

Cost inIrastructure costs to provide the hardware and soItware/room/network
connectivity can be very expensive
Security especially true when companies rent the Iacilities Ior GDSS; also,
the Iacilitator may be a lower-level employee who may leak inIormation to
peers
Technical Failure power loss, loss oI connectivity, relies heavily on
bandwidth and LAN/WAN inIrastructure properly setup system should
minimize this risk
Keyboarding Skills reduced participation may result due to Irustration
Training learning curve is present Ior users, varies by situation
!erception of messages lack oI verbal communication could lead to
misinterpretation.

Future Implications of GDSS:

W Integrating into existing corporate Iramework
GDSS brings changes which must be managed
W GDSS will incorporate ArtiIicial Intelligence and Expert Systems the
soItware will 'learn and help the users make better decisions
W Decreasing cost will allow more organizations to use GDSS
W Increasing implementation oI GDSS with the customer
Customer voice their needs in non-threatening environment
W GDSS may play a large role in the Iuture oI the virtual companies
W GDSS can help the virtual companies do business in the global business
environment
W GDSS can help promote a culturally diverse work environment
W Telework seems to make a lot oI sense using GDSS

Executive Support System:

A specialized DSS that includes all the hardware, soItware, data,
procedures, and people used to assist senior-level executives within the
organization.


Characteristics of ESSs:

W Tailored to individual executives
W Easy to use
W Drill down capabilities
W Support the need Ior external data
W Help with situations with high degree oI uncertainty
W Futures orientation (predictions, Iorecasting)
W Linked with value-added business processes

Capabilities of an ESS:

Support Ior
deIining overall vision
strategic planning
strategic organizing and staIIing
strategic control
crisis management

Enterprise Decision Support Systems

W DSS to provide enterprise-wide support
W Executives
W Many decision makers in diIIerent locations
W Enterprise Resource !lanning (ER!) systems

Enterprise Systems: Concepts and Definitions

W Executive inIormation systems (EIS)
W Executive support systems (ESS)
W Enterprise inIormation systems (EIS)

Executive Information System EIS)

W A computer-based system that serves the inIormation needs oI top
executives
W !rovides rapid access to timely inIormation and direct access to
management reports
W Very user-Iriendly, supported by graphics
W !rovides exceptions reporting and "drill-down" capabilities
W Can be easily connected to the Internet.


Executive Support System ESS)

Comprehensive support system that goes beyond EIS to include the
Iollowing speciIications, such as

W Communications
W OIIice automation
W Analysis support
W Intelligence

Enterprise Information System EIS)

Enterprise InIormation System is that which provides a wide range oI
applications in the corporate sector as listed below:

W Corporate-wide system
W !rovides holistic inIormation Irom a corporate view
W !art oI enterprise resource planning (ER!) systems Ior business
intelligence
W For leading enterprise inIormation portals and knowledge management
systems

Organizational decision support systems

An organizational decision support system is deIined as 'a DSS that is
used by individuals or groups at several work stations in more than one
organizational unit who make interrelated but autonomous decisions using a
common set oI tools' . According to the same source, an important goal oI
organizational DSS is to provide 'a hand that holds a large organization together
and keeps its parts marching toward common goals'. The two key Iactors to
achieving these outcomes are:

(1) Transmittal oI consistent, timely inIormation up and down the
organizational hierarchy in Iorms that are appropriate to each decision
maker; and
(2) A set oI decision-aiding models that use this inIormation and that are
appropriate Ior the decisions being made by each decision maker.


Common Characteristics of ODSS:
W Focus is on an organizational task or activity or a decision that aIIects
several organizational units or corporate problems
W Cuts across organizational Iunctions or hierarchical layers
W Almost always involves computer-based technologies, and may involve
communication technologies
W Can Integrate ODSS with Group DSS and Executive InIormation
Systems
W ODSS are an enterprise inIormation system directly concerned with
decision support
Modeldriven DSS:
W A modeldriven DSS emphasizes access to and manipulation oI a
statistical, Iinancial, optimization, or simulation model. Model-driven
DSS use data and parameters provided by users to assist decision makers
in analyzing a situation; they are not necessarily data intensive. Dicodess
is an example oI an open source model-driven DSS generator (Gachet
2004).
W Other examples:
W A spread-sheet with Iormulas in
W A statistical Iorecasting model
W An optimum routing model
Datadriven retrieving) DSS
W A data-driven DSS or data-oriented DSS emphasizes access to and
manipulation oI a time series oI internal company data and, sometimes,
external data.
W Simple Iile systems accessed by query and retrieval tools provides the
elementary level oI Iunctionality. Data warehouses provide additional
Iunctionality. OLA! provides highest level oI Iunctionality.


W Examples:
W Accessing AMMIS data base Ior all maintenance
W Accessing INTER!OL database Ior crimes
W Accessing border patrol database Ior all incidents.
Communicationdriven DSS:
W A communication-driven DSS use network and communication
technologies to Iacilitate collaboration on decision making. It supports
more than one person working on a shared task.
W Examples: include integrated tools like MicrosoIt's NetMeeting or
Groove (Stanhope 2002), Video conIerencing.
W Communication-driven DSS is related to group decision support system.
Documentdriven DSS:
W A document-driven DSS uses storage and processing technologies to
document retrieval and analysis. It manages, retrieves and manipulates
unstructured inIormation in a variety oI electronic Iormats.
W Document database may include: Scanned documents, hypertext
documents, images, sound and video.
W A search engine is a primary tool associated with document driven DSS.
Knowledgedriven DSS
W A knowledge-driven DSS provides specialized problem solving expertise
stored as Iacts, rules, procedures, or in similar structures. It suggests or
recommends actions to managers.
W MCIN: A rule based reasoning program which help physicians diagnose
blood diseases.

Remote Sensing:

Remote sensing is the science oI obtaining and interpreting inIormation
Irom a distance, using sensors that are not in physical contact with the object
being observed.
Though you may not realize it, you are Iamiliar with many examples.
Biological evolution has exploited many natural phenomena and Iorms oI
energy to enable animals (including people) to sense their environment.
our eyes detect electromagnetic energy in the Iorm oI visible light. our
ears detect acoustic (sound) energy, while your nose contains sensitive
chemical receptors that respond to minute amounts oI airborne chemicals
given oII by the materials in our surroundings. Some research suggests that
migrating birds can sense variations in Earth`s magnetic Iield, which helps
explain their remarkable navigational ability.

The science oI remote sensing in its broadest sense is that which includes
aerial, satellite, and spacecraIt observations oI the surIaces and atmospheres
oI the planets in our solar system. The term is customarily restricted to
methods that detect and measure electromagnetic energy, including visible
light, which has interacted with surIace materials and the atmosphere.

Remote sensing oI the Earth has many purposes, including making and
updating plan metric maps, weather Iorecasting, and gathering military
intelligence and many other useIul data`s and inIormation`s that are required.
The important characteristics oI images Irom diIIerent types oI sensors, and
some common methods oI processing images are to enhance their
inIormation content.

The Iield oI remote sensing began with aerial photography, using visible
light Irom the sun as the energy source. But visible light makes up only a
small part oI the electromagnetic spectrum, a continuum that ranges Irom
high energy, short wavelength gamma rays, to lower energy, long
wavelength radio waves. The electromagnetic spectrum is useIul in remote
sensing oI the Earth`s surIace.


The Earth is naturally illuminated by electromagnetic radiation Irom the Sun.
The peak solar energy is in the wavelength range oI visible light (between 0.4
and 0.7 m). It`s no wonder that the visual systems oI most animals are
sensitive to these wavelengths! Although visible light includes the entire range
oI colours seen in a rainbow, a cruder subdivision into blue, green, and red
wavelength regions is suIIicient in many remote sensing studies. Other
substantial Iractions oI incoming solar energy are in the Iorm oI invisible
ultraviolet and inIrared radiation. Only tiny amounts oI solar radiation extend
into the microwave region oI the spectrum. Imaging radar systems used in
remote sensing generate and broadcast microwaves, then measure the portion oI
the signal that has returned to the sensor Irom the Earth`s surIace.
All remote sensing systems designed to monitor the Earth`s surIace rely on
energy that is either diIIusely reIlected by or emitted Irom surIace Ieatures.
Current remote sensing systems Iall into three categories on the basis oI the
source oI the electromagnetic radiation and the relevant interactions oI that
energy with the surIace.

Reflected solar radiation sensors:
These sensor systems detect solar radiation that has been diIIusely
reIlected (scattered) upward Irom surIace Ieatures. The wavelength ranges that
provide useIul inIormation include the ultraviolet, visible, near inIrared and
middle inIrared ranges. ReIlected solar sensing systems discriminate materials
that have diIIering patterns oI wavelength-speciIic absorption, which relate to
the chemical make-up and physical structure oI the material. Because they
depend on sunlight as a source, these systems can only provide useIul images
during daylight hours, and changing atmospheric conditions and changes in
illumination with time oI day and season can pose interpretive problems.
ReIlected solar remote sensing systems are the most common type used to
monitor Earth resources, and are the primary Iocus.

Thermal infrared sensors:
Sensors that can detect the thermal inIrared radiation emitted by surIace
Ieatures can reveal inIormation about the thermal properties oI these materials.
Like reIlected solar sensors, these are passive systems that rely on solar
radiation as the ultimate energy source. Because the temperature oI surIace
Ieatures changes during the day, thermal inIrared sensing systems are sensitive
to time oI day at which the images are acquired.


Imaging radar sensors:
Rather than relying on a natural source, these 'active systems
'illuminate the surIace with broadcast microwave radiation, then measure the
energy that is diIIusely reIlected back to the sensor. The returning energy
provides inIormation about the surIace roughness and water content oI surIace
materials and the shape oI the land surIace. Long-wavelength microwaves
suIIer little scattering in the atmosphere, even penetrating thick cloud cover.
Imaging radar is thereIore particularly useIul in cloud-prone tropical regions.

GEOGRA!HICA INFORMATION SYSTEM

The handling oI spatial data usually involves processes oI data
acquisition, storage and maintenance, analysis and output. For many years, this
has been done using analogue data sources and manual processing. The
introduction oI modern technologies has led to an increased use oI computers
and inIormation technology in all aspects oI spatial data handling. The soItware
technology used in this domain is Geographic InIormation Systems (GIS). GIS
is being used by various disciplines as tools Ior spatial data handling in a
geographic environment.

INTRODUCTION

At the beginning oI the twenty Iirst century with the Iast growing trends
in computer technology inIormation systems and virtual world to obtain data
about the physical and cultural worlds, and to use these data to do research or to
solve practical problems. The current digital and analog electronic devices
Iacilitate the inventory oI resources and the rapid execution oI arithmetic or
logical operations. These InIormation Systems are undergoing much
improvement and they are able to create, manipulate, store and use spatial data
much Iaster and at a rapid rate as compared to conventional methods.

An InIormation System is a collection oI data and tools Ior working with those
data, contains data in analog Iorm or digital Iorm about the phenomena in the
real world. Our perception oI the world through selection, generalization and
synthesis give us inIormation and the representation oI this inIormation that is,
the data constitute a model oI those phenomena.


Fundamentals of Geographical Information System

Fundamentals oI Geographical InIormation System data, the database is a
physical repository oI varied views oI the real world representing our
knowledge at one point in time. InIormation is derived Irom the individual data
elements in a database, the inIormation directly apparent i.e. inIormation is
produced Irom data by our thought processes, intuition (Ieeling) or whatever
based on our knowledge. ThereIore in a database context the terms data,
inIormation and knowledge are diIIerentiated. It can be summarized that the
data are very important and add value as we progress Irom data to inIormation,
to knowledge.
The data, which has many origins and Iorms, may be any oI the Iollowing:

a. Real, Ior example the terrain conditions etc.
b. Captured, i.e. recorded digital data Irom remote sensing satellites or aerial
photographs oI any area.
c. Interpreted, i.e. land use Irom remote sensing data.
d. Encoded, i.e. recordings oI rain-gauge data, depth oI well data etc.
e. Structured or organized such as tables about conditions oI particular
watershed.

S!ACE AND TIME IN S!ATIA INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Spatial inIormation is always related to geographic space, i.e., large-scale
space. This is the space beyond the human body, space that represents the
surrounding geographic world. Within such space, we constantly move around,
we navigate in it, and we conceptualize it in diIIerent ways.
Geographic space is the space oI topographic, land use/land cover, climatic,
cadastral, and other Ieatures oI the geographic world. Geographic inIormation
system technology is used to manipulate objects in geographic space, and to
acquire knowledge Irom spatial Iacts.
Geographic space is distinct Irom small-scale space, or tabletop space. In other
words, objects that are smaller than us, objects that can be moved around on a
tabletop, belong to small-scale space and are not subject oI our interest.
The human understanding oI space, inIluenced by language and cultural
background, plays an important role in how we design and use tools Ior the
processing oI spatial data. In the same way as spatial inIormation is always
related to geographic space, it relates to geographic time, the time whose eIIects
we observe in the changing geographic world around us.


Spatial information systems

The handling oI spatial data usually involves processes oI data acquisition,
storage and maintenance, analysis and output. For many years, this has been
done using analogue data sources, manual processing and the production oI
paper maps. The introduction oI modern technologies has led to an increased
use oI computers and inIormation technology in all aspects oI spatial data
handling. The soItware technology used in this domain is geographic
inIormation systems (GIS).

The Iirst problem we encounter is that the maps and data have to be
collected Irom diIIerent sources at diIIerent locations (e.g., mapping agency,
geological survey, soil survey, Iorest survey, census bureau, etc.), and that they
are in diIIerent scales and projections.
In order to combine data Irom maps they have to be converted into working
documents oI the same scale and projection.

This has to be done manually, and it requires much time and money. With the
help oI a GIS, the maps can be stored in digital Iorm in a database in world co-
ordinates (meters or Ieet). This makes scale transIormations unnecessary, and
the conversion between map projections can be done easily with the soItware.
The spatial analysis Iunctions oI the GIS are then applied to perIorm the
planning tasks. This can speed up the process and allows Ior easy modiIications
to the analysis approach.

GIS and the spatial information theory

Spatial data handling involves many disciplines. We can distinguish disciplines
that develop spatial concepts, provide means Ior capturing and processing oI
spatial data, provide a Iormal and theoretical Ioundation, are application-
oriented, and support spatial data handling in legal and Fundamentals oI
Geographical InIormation System management aspects. The classiIications oI
some oI these disciplines are grouped according to how they deal with spatial
inIormation. The list is not meant to be exhaustive.

ClassiIication oI disciplines involved in spatial analysis and Development oI
spatial concepts are,

Geography
Cognitive Science
Linguistics
!sychology
Means Ior capturing and processing spatial data Remote Sensing
Surveying Engineering
Cartography
!hotogrammetry
Formal and theoretical Ioundation
Computer Science
Expert Systems
Mathematics
Statistics
Applications Archaeology
Architecture
Forestry
Geo-Sciences
Regional and Urban !lanning
Surveying
Support
Legal Sciences Economy

The discipline that deals with all aspects oI spatial data handling is called
GeoinIormatics.
It is deIined as: GeoinIormatics is the integration oI diIIerent disciplines dealing
with spatial inIormation.
GeoinIormatics has also been described as 'the science and technology dealing
with the structure and character oI spatial inIormation, its capture, its
classiIication and qualiIication, its storage, processing, portrayal and
dissemination, including the inIrastructure necessary to secure optimal use oI
this inIormation. It is also deIined as 'the art, science or technology dealing
with the acquisition, storage, processing, production, presentation and
dissemination oI geoinIormation.

There is no clear-cut deIinition Ior GIS. DiIIerent people deIined GIS according
to capability and purpose Ior which it is applied.
Few oI the deIinitions are:
'A computer - assisted system Ior the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis and
display oI spatial data, within a particular Organization (Stillwell & Clarke,
1987).
'A powerIul set oI tools Ior collecting, storing, retrieving at will,
transIorming and displaying spatial data Irom the real world (Burrough, 1987).

A GIS is also deIined as Iollows (AronoII, 1989):

- A GIS is a computer-based system that provides the Iollowing Iour sets oI
capabilities to handle geo-reIerenced data:
- Input,
- data management (data storage and retrieval),
- manipulation and analysis, and
- Output

'A system Ior capturing, storing, checking, manipulating, analyzing and
displaying data which are spatially reIerenced to the Earth.

Fundamentals of Geographical Information System

'An automated set oI Iunctions that provides proIessionals with advanced

capabilities Ior the storage, retrieval, manipulation and display oI
geographically located data.

'A system with advanced geo modeling capabilities.

Although the above deIinitions cover a wide range oI subjects, the activities
best reIer to geographical inIormation. Sometimes it is also termed as Spatial
InIormation Systems as it deals with located data, Ior objects positioned in any
space, not just geographical, a term Ior world space. Similarly, the term a
spatial data` is oIten used as a synonym Ior attribute data (i.e. rainIall/
temperature/ soil chemical parameters/ population data etc.).

Frequently used technical terms in spatial data handling are:

Geographic (or geographical) InIormation System (GIS),
Geo-inIormation System,
Spatial InIormation System (SIS),
Land InIormation System (LIS), and
Multi-purpose Cadastre.
Geographic inIormation systems are used by various disciplines as tools Ior
spatial data handling in a geoinIormatics environment.
Depending on the interest oI a particular application, a GIS can be considered to
be a data store (application oI a spatial database), a tool- (box), a technology, an
inIormation source or a science (spatial inIormation science). The discipline that
provides the background Ior the production oI the tools in spatial data handling
is spatial inIormation theory (or SIT).

HISTORY OF GIS

The GIS history dates back to 1960 when computer based GIS have been used
and their manual procedures were in liIe 100 years earlier or so. The initial
developments originated in North America with the organizations such as US
Bureau oI the Census, The US Geological Survey and The Harvard Laboratory
Ior computer graphics and Environmental Systems Research Institute
(commercial). Canadian Geographic InIormation Systems (CGIS) in Canada,
Natural Experimental Research Center (NREC), Department oI Environment
(DOE) and other notable organizations in U.K. were involved in early
developments. Commercial agencies started to develop and oIIer GIS soItware.
Among them were today`s market leaders ESRI, Intergraph, Laserscan,
Autodesk etc. A sound and stable data structure to store and analyze map data
became dominant in the early 1970`s. This has lead to the introduction oI
topology into GIS. Topology and the related graph theory proved to be eIIective
and eIIicient tools to provide logically consistent two-dimensional data
representations.

In India the major developments have happened during the last one decade with
signiIicant contribution coming Irom Department oI Space emphasizing the GIS
applications Ior Natural Resources Management. Notable among them are
Natural Resource InIormation System (NRIS), Integrated Mission Ior
Sustainable Development (IMSD) and Bio-diversity Characterization at
National Level.
IIRS is also playing a major role in GIS through education and training
programs at the National and International level. Recently the commercial
organizations in India have realized the importance oI GIS Ior many
applications like natural resource management, inIrastructure development,
Iacility management, business/market applications etc. and many GIS based
projects according to the user organization requirements were developed.

GIS OB1ECTIVES

Maximize the eIIiciency oI planning and decision making
!rovide eIIicient means Ior data distribution and handling
Elimination oI redundant data base - minimize duplication
Capacity to integrate inIormation Irom many sources
Complex analysis/query involving geographical reIerenced data to generate
new inIormation.


For any application there are Iive generic questions a GIS can answer:
a. Location - What exists at a particular location?
b. Condition - IdentiIy locations where certain conditions exist.
c. Trends - What has changed since?
d. !atterns - What spatial pattern exists?
e. Modelling - What iI .... ?

Elements of A GIS:
The GIS has been divided into Iour elements. They are hardware, soItware,
data, and liveware.

Elements of GIS

1. Hardware Type oI Computer !latIorms

Modest !ersonnel Computers
High perIormance workstations
Minicomputers
MainIrame computers
Input Devices
Scanners
Digitizers
Tape drivers
CD
Keyboard
Graphic Monitor
Output Devices
!lotters
!rinters

2. SoItware Input Modules

Editing
MR! Manipulation/ Analysis Modules
Modeling Capability

3. Data Attribute Data

Spatial Data
Remote Sensing Data
Global Database

4. Liveware

!eople responsible Ior digitizing, Implementing using GIS Trained personnel.

DATA MODES

Conversion oI real world geographical variation into discrete objects is done
through data models. It represents the linkage between the real world domain oI
geographic data and computer representation oI these Ieatures. Data models
discussed here are Ior representing the spatial inIormation.

Data models are oI two types: Raster and Vector.

In raster type oI representation oI the geographical data, a set oI cells located by
coordinate is used; each cell is independently addressed with the value oI an
attribute. Each cell contains a single value and every location corresponds to a
cell. One set oI cell and associated value is a LAER. Raster models are simple
with which spatial analysis is easier and Iaster. Raster data models require a
huge volume oI data to be stored, Iitness oI data is limited by cell size and
output is less.

Vector data model uses line segments or points represented by their explicit x, y
coordinates to identiIy locations. Connecting set oI line segments Iorms area
objects. Vector data models require less storage space, outputs are appreciable,
Estimation oI area/perimeter is accurate and editing is Iaster and convenient.
The vector model is extremely useIul Ior describing discrete Ieatures, but less
useIul Ior describing continuously varying Ieatures such as soil type or
accessibility costs Ior hospitals. The raster model has evolved to model such
continuous Ieatures. A raster image comprises a collection oI grid cells rather
like a scanned map or picture.

Both the vector and raster models Ior storing geographic data have unique
advantages and disadvantages. Modern GIS packages are able to handle both
models.


ayers and Coverage`s
The common requirement to access data on the basis oI one or more classes has
resulted in several GIS employing organizational schemes in which all data oI a
particular level oI classiIication, such as roads, rivers or vegetation types are
grouped into so called layers or coverage`s. The concept oI layers is to be Iound
in both vector and raster models. The layers can be combined with each other in
various ways to create new layers that are a Iunction oI the individual ones. The
characteristic oI each layer within a layer-based GIS is that all locations with
each layer may be said to belong to a single Arial region or cell, whether it be a
polygon bounded by lines in vector system, or a grid cell in a Raster system.
But it is possible Ior each region to have multiple attributes.

Data Structures
There are number oI diIIerent ways to organize the data inside the inIormation
system. The choice oI data structure aIIects both Data storage volume and
processing eIIiciency. Many GIS soItware`s have specialized Customers,
Buildings, Streets, Reality and capabilities Ior storing and manipulating
attribute data in addition to spatial inIormation. Three basic data structures are
Relational, Hierarchical and Network.

Relational data structure organizes the data in terms oI two-dimensional tables
where each table is a separate Iile. Each row in the table is a record and each
record has a set oI attributes. Each column in the table is an attribute. DiIIerent
tables are related through the use oI a common identiIier called KE. Relation
extracts the inIormation, which are deIined by query.

Hierarchical data structure stores the data in a way that a hierarchy is
maintained among the data items. Each node can be divided into one or more
additional node. Stored data gets more and more detailed as one branches
Iurther out on the tree.

Network data structure is similar to hierarchy structure with the exception that
in this structure a node may have more than one parent. Each node can be
divided into one or more additional nodes. Nodes can have many parents. The
network data structure has the limitation that the pointers must be updated every
time a change is made to database causing considerable overhead.


Errors in GIS

Uncertainties and errors are intrinsic (essential) to spatial data and need to be
addressed properly, not sweeping away the users by high quality colour outputs.
Data accuracy is oIten grouped according to thematic accuracy, positional
accuracy and temporal accuracy occurring at various stages in spatial data
handling. Given below are some oI them while creating the spatial database and
analysis.

Errors in GIS environment can be classified into following major groups:

Age oI data - Reliability decreases with age
Map scale - Non-availability oI data on a proper scale or Use oI data at diIIerent
scales
Density oI observation - Sparsely distributed data set is less reliable
Relevance oI data - Use oI surrogate data leads to errors
Data inaccuracy - !ositional, elevation, minimum map able unit etc.
Inaccuracy oI contents - Attributes are erroneously attached

Errors associated with processing:

Map digitization errors - due to boundary location problems on maps and errors
associated with digital representation oI Ieatures

Rasteurization errors - due to topological mismatch arising during
approximation by grid

Spatial Integration errors - due to map integration resulting in spurious polygons

Generalization errors - due to aggregation process when Ieatures are abstracted
to lower scale Attribute mismatch errors.

Spatial Analysis

It can be described as a supporting tool Ior decision-making process. GIS is
used to perIorm a variety oI Spatial analysis, including overlaying combinations
oI Ieatures and recording resultant conditions, analyzing Ilows or other
characteristics oI networks; proximity analysis and deIining districts in terms oI
spatial criteria. GIS can interrogate geographic Ieatures and retrieve associated
attribute inIormation, called identiIication. It can generate new set oI maps by
query and analysis. It also evolves new inIormation by spatial operations.



Following are the analytical procedures applied with a GIS. GIS operational
procedure and analytical tasks that are particularly useIul Ior spatial analysis
include:

Single layer operations
Multi layer operations/ Topological overlay
Geometric modelling
calculating the distance between geographic Ieatures
calculating area, length and perimeter
Geometric buIIers.
Network analysis
SurIace analysis
Raster/Grid analysis

There are many applications such as Iacility management, planning,
environmental monitoring, population census analysis, insurance assessment,
and health service provision, hazard mapping and many other applications.

The Iollowing list shows Iew applications in natural resource management:

Agricultural development
Land evaluation analysis
Change detection oI vegetated areas
Analysis oI deIorestation and associated environmental hazards
monitoring vegetation health
mapping percentage vegetation cover Ior the management oI land
Crop acreage and production estimation
Wasteland mapping
Soil resources mapping
Groundwater potential mapping
Geological and mineral exploration
Snow-melt run-oII Iorecasting
monitoring Iorest Iire
monitoring ocean productivity, etc.

REMOTE SENSING, GIS & its Contribution:

Remote sensing provides spatial coverage by measurement oI reIlected
and emitted electromagnetic radiation, across a wide range oI wavebands, Irom
the earth`s surIace and surrounding atmosphere. The improvement in technical
tools oI meteorological observation, during the last twenty years, has created a
Iavourable substratum Ior research and monitoring in many applications oI
sciences oI great economic relevance, such as agriculture and Iorestry.

Each waveband provides diIIerent inIormation about the atmosphere and
land surIace: surIace temperature, clouds, solar radiation, processes oI
photosynthesis and evaporation, which can aIIect the reIlected and emitted
radiation, detected by satellites. The challenge Ior research thereIore is to
develop new systems extracting this inIormation Irom remotely sensed data,
giving to the Iinal users, near-real-time inIormation.

Over the last two decades, the development oI space technology has led
to a substantial increase in satellite earth observation systems. Simultaneously,
the InIormation and Communication Technology (ICT) revolution has rendered
increasingly eIIective the processing oI data Ior speciIic uses and their
instantaneous distribution on the World Wide Web (WWW).

The meteorological community and associated environmental disciplines
such as climatology including global change, hydrology and oceanography all
over the world are now able to take advantage oI a wealth oI observational data,
products and services Ilowing Irom specially equipped and highly sophisticated
environmental observation satellites.

An environmental observation satellite is an artiIicial Earth satellite
providing data on the Earth system and a Meteorological satellite is a type oI
environmental satellite providing meteorological observations. Several Iactors
make environmental satellite data unique compared with data Irom other
sources, and it is worthy to note a Iew oI the most important:

a. Because oI its high vantage point and broad Iield oI view, an
environmental satellite can provide a regular supply oI data Irom those
areas oI the globe yielding very Iew conventional observations;

b. The atmosphere is broadly scanned Irom satellite altitude and enables
large scale environmental Ieatures to be seen in a single view;

c. The ability oI certain satellites to view a major portion oI the atmosphere
continually Irom space makes them particularly well suited Ior the
monitoring and warning oI short-lived meteorological phenomena; and

d. The advanced communication systems developed as an integral part oI
the satellite technology permit the rapid transmission oI data Irom the
satellite, or their relay Irom automatic stations on earth and in the
atmosphere, to operational users.

These Iactors are incorporated in the design oI meteorological satellites to
provide data, products and services through three major Iunctions:

1. Remote sensing oI spectral radiation which can be converted into
meteorological measurements such as cloud cover, cloud motion vectors,
surIace temperature, vertical proIiles oI atmospheric temperature,
humidity and atmospheric constituents such as ozone, snow and ice
cover, ozone and various radiation measurements;

2. Collection oI data Irom in situ sensors on remote Iixed or mobile
platIorms located on the earth`s surIace or in the atmosphere; and

3. Direct broadcast to provide cloud-cover images and other meteorological
inIormation to users through a user-operated direct readout station.

The Iirst views oI earth Irom space were not obtained Irom satellites but
Irom converted military rockets in the early 1950s. It was not until 1 April 1960
that the Iirst operational meteorological satellite, TIROS-I, was launched 10
Satellite Remote Sensing and GIS Applications in Agricultural Meteorology by
the USA and began to transmit basic, but very useIul, cloud imagery. This
satellite was such an eIIective prooI oI concept that by 1966 the USA had
launched a long line oI operational polar satellites and its Iirst geostationary
meteorological satellite.

In 1977 geostationary meteorological satellites were also launched and
operated by Japan and by the European Space Agency (ESA).

Thus, within 18 years oI the Iirst practical demonstration by TIROS-I, a
Iully operational meteorological satellite system was in place, giving routine
data coverage oI most oI the planet. This rapid evolution oI a very expensive
new system was unprecedented and indicates the enormous value oI these
satellites to meteorology and society.

Some Iour decades aIter the Iirst earth images, new systems are still being
designed and implemented, illustrating the continued and dynamic interest in
this unique source oI environmental data.

System in 1978.

By the year 2000, WMO Members contributing to the space-based
subsystem oI the Global Observing System had grown. There were two major
constellations in the space-based Global Observing System (GOS).

One constellation was the various geostationary satellites, which operated
in an equatorial belt and provided a continuous view oI the weather Irom
roughly 70N to 70S.

The second constellation in the current space-based GOS comprised the
polar-orbiting satellites operated by the Russian Federation, the USA and the
!eople`s Republic oI China.

System in 2000.

The ability oI geostationary satellites to provide a continuous view oI
weather systems make them invaluable in Iollowing the motion, development,
and decay oI such phenomena.
Even such short-term events such as severe thunderstorms, with a liIe-
time oI only a Iew hours, can be successIully recognized in their early stages
and appropriate warnings oI the time and area.

Since 71 per cent oI the Earth`s surIace is water and even the land areas
have many regions which are sparsely inhabited, the polar-orbiting satellite
system provides the data needed to compensate the deIiciencies in conventional
observing networks. Flying in a near-polar orbit, the spacecraIt is able to
acquire data Irom all parts oI the globe in the course oI a series oI successive
revolutions.
For these reasons the polar-orbiting satellites are principally used to
obtain:
(a) daily global cloud cover; and
(b) accurate quantitative measurements oI surIace temperature and oI the
vertical variation oI temperature and water vapour in the atmosphere.

There is a distinct advantage in receiving global data acquired by a single
set oI observing sensors.
Together, the polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites constitute a truly
global meteorological satellite network.

Satellite data provide better coverage in time and in area extent than any
alternative. Most polar satellite instruments observe the entire planet once or
twice in a 24-hour period. Each geostationary satellites instrument cover about
/ oI the planet almost continuously and there are now six geostationary
satellites providing a combined coverage oI almost 75.

Satellites cover the world`s oceans (about 70 oI the planet), its deserts,
Iorests, !olar Regions, and other sparsely inhabited places. SurIace winds over
the oceans Irom satellites are comparable to ship observations; ocean heights
can be determined to a Iew centimetres; and temperatures in any part oI the
atmosphere anywhere in the world are suitable Ior computer models. It is
important to make maximum use oI this inIormation to monitor our
environment. Access to these satellite data and products is only the beginning.

The existing network oI environmental satellites, Iorming part oI the
GOS oI the World Weather Watch produces real-time weather inIormation on a
regular basis. This is acquired several times a day through direct broadcast Irom
the meteorological satellites by more than 1,300 stations located in
125countries.

In addition to their current satellite programmes in polar and
geostationary orbits, satellite operators in the USA (NOAA) and Europe
(EUMETSAT) have agreed to launch a series oI joint polar-orbiting satellites
(METO!) in 2005. These satellites will complement the existing global array oI
geostationary satellites that Iorm part oI the Global Observing System oI the
World Meteorological Organization.

This Initial Joint !olar System (IJ!S) represents a major cooperation
programme between the USA and Europe in the Iield oI space activities. Europe
has invested 2 billion Euros in a low earth orbit satellite system, which is
operational Irom 2006 to 2020.

The data provided by these satellites will enable development oI operational
services in improved temperature and moisture sounding Ior numerical weather
prediction (NW!), tropospheric/stratospheric interactions, imagery oI clouds
and land/ocean surIaces, air-sea interactions, ozone and other trace gases
mapping and monitoring, and direct broadcast support to now casting.
Advanced weather prediction models are needed to assimilate satellite
inIormation at the highest possible spatial and spectral resolutions.

Ocean circulation Iorecasts require the knowledge oI an accurate wind
Iield. Wind measurements Irom space play an increasing role in monitoring oI
climate change and variability.
The chemical composition oI the troposphere is changing on all spatial
scales. Increases in trace gases with long atmospheric residence times can aIIect
the climate and chemical equilibrium oI the Earth / Atmosphere system.


What is Disaster Risk Reduction?

There are many practical ways to reduce the risk oI disasters. These
include careIul assessment oI the areas where hazards and socioeconomic
vulnerability combine to produce the greatest risks; public education to help
people avoid areas oI risk, protect their communities, and know what to do
when disaster threatens; building codes tailored (modified) to local conditions
and ensure resistance to storms; good land use management and Ilood controls
to reduce the levels oI Ilooding in settlements; early warning systems that
provide all people with meaningIul inIormation, and well-organised public
services with the mandate (permission) to reduce disaster risks. These are called
'disaster risk reduction measures and are practiced all over the world.

!ublic Awareness and Disaster Risk Reduction: 1ustinTime Networks
and earning

Improving public awareness through education has been recognized
widely as a basis Ior reducing the risk Ior disasters.1 A just-in-time ( JIT)
educational strategy can be used as a means Ior rapid dissemination oI disaster
knowledge and education within days, iI not hours, during or aIter an event.

Media such as television and newspapers, oIten show the dramatic components
oI the disaster to 'pump up ratings and to be critical oI governments. OIten, the
media only scare rather than educate the public by selecting only the most
sensational aspects Ior coverage. At the same time, communities and individuals
must learn about and Irom the disaster. Who can be trusted more than educators,
academics, and scientists to be the source oI this education shortly aIter a
disaster?
The nature oI disasters draws public attention. No one knows when and where
the next tsunami, earthquake, or terrorist attack will happen. Their sudden onset
and unpredictable outcomes raise many questions that cannot be predicted
beIorehand.

What is an earthquake? Where can my children be saIe in the aItermath oI a
Iire? How can I Iind the status oI my relatives? What schools are open? How
devastating and deadly is the hurricane? How many people are in need? Who
are the victims? What should we do with the bodies? How can I help? How will
business be aIIected? Will there be another quake?
There oIten is a combination oI uncertainty, stress, and Iear. This is bad Ior the
economy, health oI a population, and recovery eIIorts.
Fears are educated into us, and can if we wish be educated out
-Menninger

Improving public awareness through education has been recognized
widely as a basis Ior reducing the risk oI disasters. Some oI the Iirst disaster
just-in-time ( JIT) education modules were built within 36 days aIter the south
Asia tsunami, Hurricane Katrina, and the Bam, !akistan, and Indonesia
earthquakes through a Super course. Web monitoring showed that visitors
represented a wide spectrum oI disciplines and educational levels Irom 120
developed and developing countries. Building disaster networks using an
educational strategy seizes the opportunity oI increased public interest to teach
and Iind national and global expertise in hazard and risk inIormation.
To be eIIective, an expert network and a template Ior the delivery oI JIT
education must be prepared beIore an event occurs, Iocusing on developing core
materials that could be customized rapidly, and then be based on the
inIormation received Irom a recent disaster. The recyclable process oI the
materials would help to improve the quality oI the teaching, and decrease the
time required Ior preparation. The core materials can be prepared Ior disasters
resulting Irom events such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, Iloods, and
bioterrorism.

The goal oI disaster JIT education is to increase the public awareness oI
the natural and man-made hazards, vulnerabilities, and risk inIormation. It
teaches people that earthquakes or tsunamis are not acts oI God, and that risks
can be minimized in order to live saIely. A wide variety oI communication
methods can be used to educate, ranging Irom simply designed pamphlets,
banners, and/or radio messages, to advanced e-learning programs. The golden
time Ior public interest must not be missed.


1IT Educational Modules

Based on the Super coursean open-source library oI about 3,200 !ower!oint
lectures on prevention displayed on the Web, supported by 45 mirror sitesa
group oI multi-national, multi-disciplinary scientists worked together through
the Internet to develop the lectures just a Iew days aIter the aIorementioned
events and continuously updated them. The lectures used recent events as
examples to teach how communities and countries can prevent and mitigate the
risk oI disasters. To be pro-active, the potential users were inIormed about the
existence oI such lectures through a pre-established, Web-based network oI
about 30,000 public health proIessionals Irom 174 countries who were asked to
pass the lectures on to at least Iive other educators. Some lectures were
translated into Spanish, Chinese, and Arabic in order to minimize the time
between lecture development and classroom presentation. The Web monitoring
showed that JIT lectures were some oI the most watched/downloaded lectures
as measured by Google page rankings.

In general, Ior most oI the JIT lectures, the page rankings are in the top 20, as
the Supercourse tsunami lecture was 99.99 more likely to be viewed than all
other tsunami lectures available on the Web.4 Monitoring oI the Web statistics
showed that visitors hailed Irom a wide variety oI disciplines and educational
levels, Irom 120 countries. The actual number oI those that viewed the lectures
is much greater, as a large number oI the !ower!oint Iiles were downloaded Ior
teaching purposes, and were watched by students in the class. To be the most
eIIective, template JIT education must be prepared beIore an event, Iocusing on
developing core materials about the nature oI a speciIic hazard and how to
prevent or mitigate the related risk Ior an event or the damage and loss oI
Iunctions that may result. The core material would be customized rapidly based
on the inIormation received Irom a recent disaster. The recycling process oI the
materials would improve the quality oI each lecture, and reduce the production
time Ior new lectures.
The core materials can be prepared Ior the most Irequent and devastating
hazards, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, Iloods, and acts oI terrorism.
Building a network oI experts beIorehand is a crucial part oI the preparedness in
order to develop, update, and disseminate these materials. The network could
consist oI experts Irom diIIerent disciplines (public health, risk management,
epidemiology, meteorology, seismology) at the international, national, and local
levels.


Local JIT lectures can be prepared Ior house Iires, limited Ilooding, and/or Iood
poisoning, each designed by experts and used as teaching materials Ior all oI us
to help people learn about the Iacts oI these kinds oI 'mini disasters. New
developments in inIormation technology are on the horizon. Just-in-Time
lectures can be posted on the video Websites, as can virtual disaster drills.
Building disaster networks using JIT educational strategy seizes the opportunity
oI public interest to teach and Iind national and global expertise in hazards and
risk inIormation. Although it can be applied by any means oI communication,
the Internet is an eIIicient approach to provide educators with scholarly, user-
Iriendly, low-cost, and online-oIIline training materials. The increasing trend in
the use oI the Internet access, cellular phones, and virtual communication even
in developing countries can be the backbone oI education now and even more
so in the Iuture. With customized lectures, the network can 'spring into action
to produce a lecture within hours. This network has helped target a wide range
oI audiences; educators, proIessionals, managers, and policy-makers.

Even small-scale disasters draw public interest. For instance, a non-destructive
earthquake measuring 5.5 on the Richter scale, which has shaken a wide area oI
a country, is enough to make people IearIul and attract them to a television Ior
hours, hoping to hear inIormation about the possibility oI a strong aItershock.
This time could be used to teach them how to make their building earthquake
resistant, in which areas it is saIe to construct buildings, about the height oI
erection, strength oI materials, etc.,

Disaster Information Network
%he disaster information provider is an intermediary who generates data and/or
processes data supplied by others to generate 'actionable information
products` distributed to support emergency management decision-making

A multiIaceted (complex) community oI providers supports disaster
inIormation needs. !roviders include organizations responsible Ior acquiring in
situ and remotely sensed data, exploiting these data, generating inIormation
products, and developing projections and Iorecasts that convey dynamics
associated with a disaster event. The disaster inIormation industry prepares
inIormation under the most stressIul situations during crisis response and
recovery. It also develops and maintains vital baseline data used during earlier
stages oI disaster mitigation and preparedness. During times oI crisis,
emergency response teams depend on providers Ior event-related inIormation
such as maps that delineate aIIected areas and detail critical inIrastructure,
identiIication oI people at risk, estimates oI projected inundation, and weather
reports.

!urpose of Initiative
The Global Disaster InIormation Network (GDIN) is a public-private
partnership, created in 1998 by the United Nations, Canada, and the United
States to reduce the impact oI national disasters. GDIN was Iormed to increase
access to, or in some cases create inIormation Ior decision-makers. This was
accomplished by using remote sensor devices to generate valuable round the
clock inIormation, not only in a passive mode, but also on an active, continual
basis. GDIN's clients include disaster managers at all levels, international
organizations, and private voluntary organizations, as well as national and sub-
national bodies. Since its creation, GDIN has implemented pilot projects, held
conIerences and targeted meetings to develop more eIIective means oI
identiIying critical disaster inIormation needs and innovative methods oI
distribution, especially in remote locations with poor telecommunications.
Governments: Canada, Italy, Mexico, Russia, Australia, South AIrica, Turkey,
U.S. Department oI DeIence, Interior, and State.
International Organizations: United Nations and OECD.

Targets:
GDIN has two goals:
i). to identiIy new ways oI obtaining and sharing operational inIormation that
can be used to reduce the impact oI natural disasters as they occur, and
ii). to solidiIy GDIN's delivery oI eIIective international capacity-building with
a diverse technical team oI disaster inIormation experts.
!rogress Towards Targets
GDIN is Iostering the development oI a GDIN InIormation Facilitator Network
linking various Native American communities, the Iirst peoples oI Canada and
an existing network in Southern AIrica. The eIIort will be tied to an existing
partnership between the Department oI State and OECD's Future's !roject, as
well as the UN International Strategy on Disaster Reduction, managed by the
United Nations.
The U.S. Government has also sponsored a pilot project with Russia to simulate
the impact oI an earthquake aIIecting Russian oil resources, and the sharing oI
disaster response inIormation with AIrica, Asia, and Latin America.

Since 1998, the Department oI State and other U.S. Government agencies
have been co-hosting or Iully sponsoring GDIN conIerences. GDIN
conIerences have been held in Australia, Italy, Mexico, Turkey, and the United
States. The 2004 conIerence was held in Washington, DC in March. Results oI
the conIerence included the creation oI a standing-committee on Native
American Disaster InIormation needs and an international working group
addressing the use oI un-manned aerial vehicles in disaster management.
Over the last two years, the Department oI State supported GDIN exploratory
Iield trips designed to begin development oI a disaster inIormation intranet,
production oI a selI-assessment study oI native American disaster inIormation
needs, linking the South AIrican Development Cooperation disaster eIIorts with
the native American disaster inIormation intranet, and integration oI GDIN
networks with the Indian Network with International Strategy on Disaster
reduction and the UN Working Group on Emergency Telecommunications.
GDIN will Iocus in the Iuture on completing these eIIorts.
During the 2004 international disaster inIormation management conIerence in
Washington, DC, and during a subsequent expert meeting with the !ueblo and
Navajo nations in New Mexico and Arizona, disaster managers gained
agreement to design an intranet service that would provide the Native American
community with relevant disaster inIormation Ior the early warning and
response phases oI disasters, thus mitigating morbidity and mortality Irom these
unexpected events.

Resources
The U.S. Government has contributed technical assistance, personnel resources
and more than $3 million dollars in cash and in-kind services since 1998. Other
GDIN partners have provided more than $1 million dollars in technical and
Iinancial assistance, as well as disaster experts.


Information resources:
The emergency InIormation InIrastructure (EII) would include best
available environmental, socioeconomic, and inIrastructure inIormation with
coverage oI the area oI interest, as well as metadata identiIying government,
research community, and related commercial data. The inIormation might be
organized around any number oI schemas, ranging Irom the traditional FR!
emergency support Iunctions to taxonomy initiatives such as that oI the
National Emergency Response InIormation Network (NERIN). Regardless how
inIormation resources are arrayed at key nodes, they will be built around
existing legacy database management systems and catalogs and must leverage
the substantial institutional investment.
This is the Iramework within which the GDIN can supplement current support
Iunctions. The GDIN can make a critical contribution to the DM community,
supporting the deIinition, identiIication, and availability oI essential inIormation
Ior community resilience. With this objective, the GDIN will enhance
inIormation preparation and delivery with improved access to and Ior the DM
community. It oIIers a building-block approach oI robust, agile services Ior
disseminators and inIormation providers to meet user needs Ior accurate
capability assessment and IortiIication oI community resilience.

The GDIN should be deIined and designed within the context oI operational
assumptions about the DM user community. A sampling oI operational
assumptions shaping the vision oI the Emergency InIormation InIrastructure
(EII) include:

a). #emote Execution of Simulation %ools For timely decision support,
emergency managers need access to simulation tools (e.g., chemical release
models; earthquake ground Iailure, liqueIaction, and landslide models; nuclear
plant release models; Ilood inundation models) maintained by distant
institutions or operations centers.

b) Wireless Interfaces Unrestricted access to on-scene commanders and Iirst
responders will be needed to support the transIer oI imagery and overlays to
portray a composite picture oI areas impacted by an event. Such access extends
situational awareness oI the EOC to the Iield in the response and recovery
phases.



For improved user capability throughout the comprehensive disaster
management cycle, the disaster manager must be a Iull partner with both the
inIormation provider and the network and communication technologists. All-
source data Iusion, image analysis techniques, and simulation and modelling are
among the currently available and emerging resources that would beneIit the
DM community.

Communication plays a vital role in transIerring inIormation between sensors,
experts, archives, models, and key decision-makers involved in Government
Emergency Telecommunications System, coupled with the current worldwide
political climate, has made our public telecommunications systems more
vulnerable to disruption by disasters. GETS is an integrated service and a cost-
eIIective means to allow emergency oIIicials to obtain priority access to
telephone dial tone during everyday usage, an emergency, crisis, or war. GETS
is managed by the OIIice oI the Manager, National Communications System
(OMNCS), to satisIy National InIormation InIrastructure (NII) and disaster
inIormation inIrastructure needs.
GETS uses the major long-distance, local, and Government-leased networks to
provide service. GETS interoperates with other Government-leased services to
include the Federal Telecommunications Service (FTS-2000), the DeIence
Switched Network (DSN), and the Diplomatic Telecommunications Service
(DTS). GETS is accessed through a simple dialling plan and a personal
identiIication number. There are Iive modes oI communication that support the
interconnectivity inIrastructure Ior disaster inIormation management;
The design oI an inIormation inIrastructure supporting comprehensive disaster
management must weigh the relative merits oI each mode in satisIying its
speciIic requirements.
For example, the physical maniIestation oI an 'internet depends on the public
and private telecommunications. However, Iax, phone, and pager technologies-
all part oI telecommunications modeare useIul alternatives because they
conIorm to diIIerent sets oI standards and provide diIIerent Iunctionality.
Disaster-related inIormation inIrastructure relies in part on all these modes oI
communication; the Iuture inIrastructure, however, will need to address
shortcomings present in its current maniIestation.

Internet:
The Internet is a global network oI networks enabling computers oI all
kinds to directly and transparently communicate and share services throughout
much oI the world. It constitutes a shared global resource oI inIormation,
knowledge, and means oI collaboration among countless diverse communities.
The Internet evolved Irom the AR!ANET project in the late 1960s and later
research investments oI the National Science Foundation. The Internet consists
oI more than one million network domains in more than 90 countries.

Gateways that allow at least e-mail connectivity extend this reach to 160
countries. From its start in the late 1960s, the Internet has grown Irom 235
connected hosts to more than 20 million computers with an estimated total oI
over 100 million users. Network growth continues at around 10 percent per
month. Data passing through the major network access points and metropolitan
area exchanges exceed 700 terabytes oI Internet traIIic per month.

The most common Internet services are Iile transIer, WWW, e-mail, and
remote computer access. Other popular services include inIormation discovery
services, real-time written interactions, audio and video conIerencing, directory
services to discover the addresses oI people, or even multicasting oI audio and
video programs such as Internet Talk.

Categorizing networks is not clear cut since one Iorm may be a component oI
another (e.g., public/private telecommunications are the internal links oI the
Internet, intranets, and even portions oI broad - casting systems).

The seven basic modes Ior disseminating disaster inIormation:

Decentralized: Very loose coordination among government, private sector, and
academic organizations to develop standards and manage operations. No control
oI content or organization; anyone can publish what they want.

Widely Deployed: Other than the telephone and TV/radio broadcasts, the
Internet is available to more people than most other means oI inIormation
delivery.

Best EIIort Delivery: II bandwidth and end system capacity is available,
delivery is made, but congestion and route Iailures can cause losses.

Local Control/Global Knowledge: Subject-matter experts have control over
posting data; it is then available Ior access by a worldwide audience.

Limited Timeliness Guarantee: Current protocols do not prioritize traIIic or
reserve bandwidth; thus, data may be delayed due to congestion.

No Inherent Security: Access control, authentication, data integrity, and
conIidentiality are added as needed.

Vulnerable to (Last Mile) Disruption: While routing around network link
Iailures is automatic, the Iinal connection to end systems is oIten a single point
oI Iailure.

Intranet:
An intranet is a segregated community oI network nodes with strictly
controlled access, typically managed by a single organization. Access to and
Irom the Internet is provided through security Iirewalls. It may also be called a
virtual private network (V!N).

Strict Control oI Access: Usually only members oI the owning organization can
have access. Internally, this occurs using userids and passwords. Firewalls limit
external access to only speciIic subnets, protocols, and applications.

TraIIic Management: Since users are all Irom one entity, large traIIic peaks can
be identiIied and controlled more easily.

Security: Optional encryption prevents eavesdropping.

Wider Bandwidth: At a price, the net is scalable and the expeditious handling oI
large Iiles on demand is enabled.

Robustness: II required, the net can be made resistant to interruption.

Extranet:
An extranet is a specialized Iorm oI intranet that allows cross-
organizational communications such as between a manuIacturer and its
suppliers. Access control may be at a Iiner resolution (i.e., at the directory, Iile,
or record level). As discussed later, this type oI network is highly suited to
needs oI the diverse DM community.

Wireless Broadcast: Broadcast includes mass media (TV, cable services
|CATV|, and radio) and special-purpose inIormation systems (NOAA weather
radio, EMWIN, etc.).

Broad Coverage: Warnings through public/private alert system can reach the
vast majority oI citizens nationwide and worldwide.

One-Way Transmission: Broadcast media are not interactive (video
conIerencing is considered below).
OIten Wider Bandwidth.

Fixed Telecommunications: Fixed telecommunications include commercial and
government voice, video, and data networks using cable, circuit, and packet
switching.

Limited !riority Calling: GETS/TS! gives precedence Ior authorized priority
users (military systems allow pre emption oI lower priority callers).

Dedicated Use Circuits: Give privacy, but do not permit cost sharing.
Usually Ilat rate, distance-sensitive pricing.

Variable Bandwidth: Available at a price.

Internet uses Ior disaster-related applications can be categorized as Iollows:

(1) !ublic inIormation announcements,
(2) ScientiIic analysis and collaboration,
(3) Disaster management training, and
(4) Real-time disaster event management.

Disaster Management Collaboration Initiatives

IISIS (Interactive Intelligent Spatial InIormation System): A decision support
system currently under development at the University oI !ittsburgh that
integrates Iield data with stored knowledge using logical inIerence by the
computer to produce likely consequences oI planning and response actions. The
system supports inter organizational learning among response organizations
through a continuous process oI updating inIormation, thereby Iacilitating
training and perIormance evaluation.

E!IX (Emergency !reparedness InIormation Exchange): E!IX is operated by
the Centre Ior !olicy Research on Science and Technology (C!ROST), Simon
Fraser University, Vancouver, Canada. The purpose oI E!IX is to Iacilitate the
exchange oI ideas and inIormation among Canadian and international public
and private sector organizations about the prevention oI, preparation Ior,
recovery Irom, and/or mitigation oI risk associated with natural and socio
technological disasters.

RIMS (CaliIornia`s Response InIormation Management System): Coordinates
and manages response to disasters and emergencies. It is a collaborative,
distributed client/server system that electronically links the multiple levels oI
disaster management. RIMS automate the state`s Standardized Emergency
Management System (SEMS). RIMS are based on Lotus Notes/Domino and
utilize an intranet and the Internet Ior communications and interactive access at
over 65 locations. RIMS applications include resource management,
intelligence reporting, cost accounting, and a purchasing system. It uses various
GIS to display interactive maps, photos and access geographical, political, and
demographic inIormation relevant to a disaster.

EENET (Emergency Education Network): A satellite-based distance learning
system utilized by FEMA to bring interactive training programs into virtually
any community nationwide. All programming is open and is in the public
domain so that any community with access to a C-band or Ku-band satellite
dish, or community cablevision provider, can receive the broadcast and
participate in the training programs.

CATV (Cable TV): !rovide a major broadcast venue Ior populations at risk.
The advent and proliIeration oI high-bandwidth cable modems, value-added
services such as WebTV, and low-cost network computers suggest the cable
industry as a primary inIormation disseminator oI warnings and public
inIormation Ior the Ioreseeable Iuture.

EAS (Emergency Alert System): Follow-on to the Emergency Broadcast
System (EBS); uses commercial broadcast stations to send alerts and warnings.

EMWIN (Emergency Managers Weather InIormation Network): A system Ior
broadcasting a live data stream oI basic weather data and providing access to
stored sets oI basic data Ior EM. EMWIN`s multilayered approach disseminates
the basic data stream by radio, Internet, and satellite (currently GOES 8, GOES
9, and Galaxy 4).

JBS (Joint Broadcast System): A DoD joint broadcast satellite system used to
support U.S. and NATO Iorces in Bosnia. TraIIic includes live, compressed
video, imager , intelligence reports, maps, and weather data uplinked Irom a
central site in Washington. Receiver equipment consists oI a 1m dish, a slightly
modiIied commercial satellite TV receiver, a router, M!EG2 card, and KG94
encryptor.

Documents: These include printed material, physical media (tape, Iloppy disks,
video, etc.).

Archival Features: InIormation can be retained indeIinitely.

Slow Delivery: Need to transport physically makes updates diIIicult.

Laborious to Catalog/Retrieve: Mostly sequential access and usually no on-line
index.

High Capacity: Variable-volume, high-capacity media have historically been
transmitted this way.

!recisely Tailored Content: Material can be Iocused and designed by author to
meet the needs oI the audience.

Capable oI Reaching Large Audiences: One oI the most common mechanisms
Ior broad distribution (e.g., mass mailings, libraries, retail stores).

The interconnectivity inIrastructure consists oI much more than
communication circuits and network hardware. InIormation search and browse
tools, directory services, intelligent agents, and other emerging Web services
are all part oI matching a user`s inIormation need with a provider`s data
resource. Full integration among data organization, deIinitions, Iormats, and
access tools is critical to eIIiciently making this match.

When comparing the Ieatures oI the modes with the needs oI providers and
users oI DM inIormation, one Iinds that certain modes or models are better
suited to particular scenarios and the needs oI the speciIic disaster phase in
question. The best use oI analytic expertise may be via video conIerencing,
which dictates use oI real-time, high-bandwidth systems. On the other hand,
tornado or earthquake warnings generally need lower bandwidth and wide
distribution in a short time. Both broadcast and Iixed telecommunications
(mainly telephones) provide wide coverage, but telephones are obviously
unsuitable Ior rapid, mass warnings.