Chapter 1: The Role of Business Research

1. Is it possible to make sound managerial decisions without business research? What

advantages does research offer to the decision maker over seat-of-the-pants decision making?
Yes, it is possible to make sound managerial decisions without business research.
Most often, one uses experience, skills initiation for taking decision. Everyone believes
that decision based on more information, analysis makes it more reliable. But for the
following limitation, a decision maker takes seat-of-the- decision making.
(1) time constraints,
(2) the availability of data,
(3) the nature of the decision to be made, and
(4) the value of the research information in relation to costs.
Business research helps in providing accurate information that reduces the risks or
uncertaintyin decision making. Very often, the decisions are taken without considering
the complete information or the managers think that they know enough. The seat of the
pants decision making is not reliable. As it occasionally gives success, it is not effective
in the long run and leads to losses.
The following are the advantages of market research over seat-of-the-pants:
1. Reliable and valid results every time.
2. The results of research can be reused in same situation; however, intuition
cannot guarantee success every time.
3. Less risk of monetary losses.
4. One can draw correlation, skewness, and level of significance between
certaininterrelated factors if there is necessary research data available.
2. Define business research and describe its task.
Business research is an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, inquiry or
investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers
or solutions to it. In essence, business research provides the necessary information that
guides managers to make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems.
-Uma Sekaran and
Roger Business research is the application of the scientific method in searching for
truth aboutbusiness phenomena.
-William G.
Zikmund The scientific method refers the way researchers go about using knowledge
and evidence toreach objective conclusions about the real world.
The research must be conducted systematically, not haphazardly (এএYএএেএYেএেএে). It
must be objective to avoid the distorting (এএএে এে) effects of personal bias. Business
research should be rigorous (এএ েএ/ এএএএএ), but the rigor (এএএএএএে)is always traded off
(এেএএএএএ)against the resource and time constraints that go with a particular business
decision.
The tasks that come under business research are as follows-
 The collection of data related to the number of consumers.
 The collection of data associated with the available number of products.

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  To identify the needs and the requirements of the costumers.
 To perform various types of surveys for the collection of the required information.
 To analyze the data and the information obtained in the studies and surveys.
3. Which of the following organizations are likely to use business research? Why? How?
a. Manufacturer of breakfast cereals
b. Manufacturer of nuts, bolts, and other fasteners
c. The Federal Trade Commission
d. A hospital
e. A company that publishes business textbooks
All of the organizations will be involved in business research
a. Manufacturer of breakfast cereals: They will be most interested in business research
so as to know the preference of the customer such as presweetened cereals, sugar
content etc. so that the sales can be increased by considering the consumer
preferences.
b.Manufacturer of nuts, bolts, and other fasteners: To reduce the uncertainty in the
market they use market research technique to gather the information from the
customers and the feedbacks from their sales representatives.
c. The Federal Trade Commission: They uses the business research to determine the
misleading advertisements that companies are involve in the market.
d.A hospital: To gather patient information and communicate hospital medical
facilities, to attract a greater number of customers.
e. A company that publishes business textbooks: They usually conduct secondary
research such as understanding customer needs, demographic etc. and the primary
research such as surveys, interviews with the people at large.

4. An automobile manufacturer is conducting research in an attempt to predict the type of car

design consumers will desire in the year 20XX. Is this basic or applied research? Explain.
Applied research. Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. In other
words, the research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of research
methodology areapplied to the collection of information about various aspects of a
situation, issue, problem orphenomenon. In the above case, we need to find the future
trend for 20XX for car design, which is a problem-oriented and he needs practical
solution by using Applied Research.

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 Chapter 2: Theory Building
1. What are some theories offered to explain aspects of your field of business?
There is a lot of theory in different field in Business. Some of them are:
1. Accounting Field
1. Cost Principal Theory.
2. Matching Principle
3. Cost Benefit Theory
4. Materiality
5. Monetary Unit Assumption.
2. Finance Field
1. Profitability vs Liquidity
2. Efficient Markets Hypothesis
3. Portfolio Theory
4. Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM)
5. the Modigliani-Miller theorems
(M&M) 3.Management Field
1. Scientific management theory.
2. Principles of administrative management theory. ...
3. Human relations theory. ...
4. Contingency management theory. ...
5. Theory X and Y.
4. Marketing Field
1. The Marketing Mix.
2. The Communications Mix.
3. SWOT Analysis.
4. Stakeholder Mapping.
5. Mendelow's Matrix.
2. How do propositions and hypotheses differ?
The main difference between the two is that a hypothesis must be testable and measurable,
while a
proposition deals with pure concepts for which no laboratory test is currently available,
propositions areof a qualitative nature. Differences between them are as follows-
Basis propositions hypotheses
Definition Propositions are statements explaining the A hypothesis is a formal statement explaining
logical linkage among certain concepts by some outcome of an unproven proposition
asserting a universal connection between that is empirically testable.
concepts.
Nature qualitative nature. It may be quantitative and qualitative nature.
Testable deals with pure concepts for which no testable and measurable
laboratory test
Level propositions are at the abstract level hypotheses are at the empirical level
Possible Numerous Outcome One outcome, either null hypothesis will be
Outcome accepted or alternative hypothesis.

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 Example An increase in student intelligence causes
an increase in their academic achievement.
H0= increase in student intelligence causes
75% increase in their academic achievement.
H1= increase in student intelligence will not
causes 75% increase in their academic
achievement.

4. What does the statement “There is nothing as practical as a good theory” mean? Do you agree with
this statement?

This is true in that, a good theory allows some generalization beyond individual situations or
facts, thus providing insight into general patterns of behavior.
Theory and practice are necessary together. Theory cannot be proved or refined on its own and
practice cannot be resultant without a theory. Consequently, the success of each is dependent on
each other basedon conditions. Theorists should try to supply new ideas for understanding or
conceptualizing a difficult situation, ideas which may suggest potentially productive new avenues
of dealing with that circumstance. Conversely, applied researchers should provide theorists with
key information and facts pertinent to solving a practical problem, facts that need to be
conceptualized in a detailed and logical manner. More normally, theorists should attempt to create
theories that can be utilized to solve social or practical troubles, and practitioners and researchers
in applied psychology should make use of accessible scientifictheory (Vansteenkiste1 and
Sheldon, 2006).

5. The seventeenth-century Dutch philosopher Benedict Spinoza said, “If the facts conflict with a theory,
either the theory must be changed or the facts.” What is the practical meaning of this statement?
A theory is open to testing and alterations and is not based on previous observed data or evidence
while
the facts are proven and objective. Because of a theory's subjective nature, when truthful
information differs with a theory, then the theory needs to yield and be changed. Theories are
forever being amendedover time as new findings take place. A theory is based upon formerly
observed data and still open to adaptation, therefore still subjective, while facts are concrete and
objective. Consequently, when factual information contrasts or conflicts with one's theory the
agent to be customized is the theory. Theory is thought and research that is under development
and should be permitted to change in order to comprise newly discovered objective truths.

6. Compare and contrast deductive logic with inductive logic. Give an example of both.

Parameters Induction Deduction

Definition Induction refers to the method of conducting Deduction refers to the method of
its conclusion with the help of newly generalizing the existing theory for
emerging theories. further observations to conduct the
conclusion.

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 Premises The conclusion might not follow the The conclusion follows the premise for
premises for the results the results
Knowledge It gives new knowledge, as it is based on the It does not give any new knowledge, as it
newly emerging theory is based on the existing theory
Process The process of conducting the conclusion in The process of conducting the conclusion
Induction is slow in Deduction is quick
Dependency It depends upon the new sources or theories It depends upon the existing sources and
theories
Association Induction is associated with informal logic The deduction is associated with formal
logic
Method Induction is a method of discovery The deduction is a method of verification

Chapter 3: The Business Research Process

2. Define business opportunity, business problem, and symptoms. Give an example of each as it applies
to a university business school.
A business opportunity is a situation that makes some potential competitive advantage possible. It
is a
chance created by favourable environment changes to employ organisation's resources and
capabilities for business gains. For a university business school, example of a business
opportunity is establishment of few new software units in the nearby industrial district, the
employees of which are good market for university's acclaimed courses for skill development.
A business problem is a situation that makes some significant negative consequence more likely.
It is posing hindrance for the business to achieve its strategic goals and objectives. A business
problem.is sudden decision by the government to make the essential qualifications of teachers as
post-doctoral fellowship for some courses and the university has none of them.

Symptoms are observable cues that serve as a signal of a problem because they are caused by
that problem. They are changes in periodic business results and other parameters which are judged
to assess and predict the business health. An increase in employee turnover is generally only a
symptom of a business problem, rather than the problem itself. Symptoms of poor quality of
instruction at Economics department are suddenly declining pass rate and subsequent fall in
enrolment. To add, there is increase in feedback from industry that economic graduates are not
doing well.

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4. What are the three types of business research? Indicate which type each item in the list below illustrates.
Explain your answers.
a. Establishing the relationship between advertising and sales in the beer industry
b. Ranking the key factors new college graduates are seeking in their first career position
c. Estimating the 5-year sales potential for Cat-Scan machines in the Ark-La-Tex (Arkansas, Louisiana,
and Texas) region of the United States
d. Testing the effect of “casual day” on employee job satisfaction
e. Discovering the ways that people who live in apartments actually use vacuum cleaners, and identifying
cleaning tasks for which they do not use a vacuum

The three types of business research described in our textbook are: The three different types of
businessresearch can be given as below-
Exploratory research –This is used when there is a lot of confusion about the decision or the
focus is on finding out the different concepts or ideas. As the name suggests, researchers conduct
exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a
conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been
explored before. This exploratory process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and
analysis.
Descriptive research – Descriptive research refers to research which describes a phenomenon or else
a groupunder study and it is easy to do in social sciences due to manipulating variables. The focus is
on providing the details and a comprehensive picture of a certain situation by focusing on the
traits of the objects, firms, or the people. It is mainly useful in gathering data on a certain population,
situations and events. Descriptive research is more towards collecting data and try to find out some
insight out of that data using statistical analysis.
Example of descriptive research includes population census and product marketing surveys etc.
Casual research – It allows causal inferences to be made; seeks to identify cause-and-effect
relationships. Causal research attempts to establish that when we do one thing, another thing will
follow

a. Casual –This is due to the fact that the main objective is to come up with probable growth
and to have a better knowledge of the market with respect to the beer sales and advertising
efforts. The focus is on estimating the probable change in beer sales if the advertising is
changed.
b. Exploratory – As the focus is to find out the different factors and then to provide them the
level of significance
c. Descriptive – With the help of a 5-years sales report, the managers can make the decision
with the help of reports to explain the results of the product and market. It will help in
explaining the traits of the population who may be willing to buy Cat-Scan machines
d. Exploratory – As the focus is to find out the effect on the performance of the manpower
for the casual days.
e. Descriptive – In order to get the required information two different types of analysis can
be usedand this form of research can be utilized to have a better definition of the attitude,
opinion, and conduct of the people on a certain issue.

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5. Describe the type of research evidence that allows one to infer causality.
Causal research can be chosen by event managers for knowing the impact of change in the event on
other
events. The objective of causal research is to establish the link between like when one thing is
done, another incident will follow. A researcher requires very specific evidence to draw a causal
inference. Causality can be inferred based on understanding the order of appropriate causal events
Three critical pieces of causal evidence are:

1. Temporal Sequence: Temporal sequence deals with the time order of events. In other words,
havingan appropriate causal order of events, or temporal sequence, is one criterion for causality.
Simply put, thecause must occur before the effect.

2. Concomitant Variance: Concomitant variation occurs when two events “covary” or

“correlate,” meaning they vary systematically. In causal terms, concomitant variation means that
when a change in the cause occurs, a change in the outcome also is observed. A correlation
coefficient, which we discuss in Chapter 23, is often used to represent concomitant variation.
Causality cannot possibly exist when there is no systematic variation between the variables.

3. Nonspurious Association: Nonspurious association means any covariation between a cause

and an effect is true, rather than due to some other variable. A spurious association is one that is
not true. Often, a causal inference cannot be made even though the other two conditions exist
because both the cause andeffect have some common cause; that is, both may be influenced by a
third variable.
6. What is an experimental manipulation? A business researcher is hired by a specialty retail firm. The
retailer is trying to decide what level of lighting and what temperature it should maintain in its stores to
maximize sales. How can the researcher manipulate these experimental variables within a causal design?
Experimental manipulation describes the process by which researchers purposefully change, alter,
or
influence the independent variables (IVs), which are also called treatment variables or factors, in
an experimental research design.
Researches can manipulate the variables in what is called environmental treatment - this is where
random tweaks and manipulations are made to environment to study the overall effect of the
changes. By making random changes to the environment, via lighting changes the bulbs, the
brightness, the amount of lighting, the angle of lighting can affect how consumers in an
environment. Random checks, such as custom surveys provide an unbiased reaction to the
changes. Sales, can also be evaluated based in relation to thesales.

8. Why is the “define research objectives” of the research process probably the most important stage?
Defining research objectives is probably the most important step in the research process because
it sets
the stage for the entire experiment that you are about to conduct. It identifies a clear-cut image
of theproblem/situation you are attempting to research and serves as a guideline throughout the
process.

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 Chapter 4: Organizational and Ethical Issues in Business
1. What are business ethics? How are ethics relevant to research?
Research
Business ethics is the application of morals to behavior related to the business environment or
context.
Generally, good ethics conforms to the notion of “right,” and a lack of ethics conforms to the
notion of “wrong.” Highly ethical behavior can be characterized as being fair.
Ethics is relevance to research for the trustiness of its users. Research must be free from biasness,
fabrication, manipulation or misrepresentation. It should be free from bias interpretation or
personal decision. Here arises the issue of ethics of researcher. Again, ethics hinders a researcher
from plagiarism, duplication. Here, also ethics helps to disclose a conflict of interest. Again, it
inspires a researcher for maintaining respect and confidentiality of information provider.

2. What is the difference between ethical relativism and ethical idealism? How might a person with
an idealist ethical philosophy and a person with a relativist ethical philosophy differ with respect to
includinga sales pitch at the end of a research survey?

The imminent of an individual can be portrayed under either ethical relativism or ethical
idealism. The
difference between them are-
Ethical relativism ethical idealism
Meaning Relativism is a term that reflects the degree to idealism is a term that reflects the
which one rejects moral standards in favor of degree to which one bases one’s
the acceptability of some action. morality on moral standards.
This way of thinking rejects absolute principles This is not situation-based
in favor of situation-based evaluations evaluations
an action that is judged ethical in one situation In all situation, one don’t
can be deemed unethical in another. compromise with ethical issues
Vision is logical inconsistency to relativism Vision is logical consistency to
relativism
In the sales pitch scenario, the idealist will probably think it is always wrong to do such
behavior, whilea relativist might say "it depends. an individual who is an ethical idealist post an
audit to help his thought despite the fact that the manner by which he got the survey isn't moral
while an ethical idealist passes on the first audit and the issues if any in a more ethical manner
utilizing the ethical principles.

Consequently, an ethical idealist does everything with moral norms while a ethical realist might
contendthe demonstration is OK as numerous others doing the something despite the fact that it
doesn't adhere to moral guidelines.

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 6. What is a conflict of interest in a research context? How can such conflicts of interest be avoided?

A conflict of interest in research exists where an individual may preference, or be perceived to

preference,
their own interests or obligations over their duties and responsibilities as a researcher. Conflicts of
interest may be actual, potential or perceived and involve financial and non-financial benefits.

7. What key questions help resolve the question of whether or not research participants serving as subjects
in an experiment are treated ethically?
The probable key questions are-
Has the research subject provided consent to participate in an experiment?
Is the research subject subjected to substantial physical or psychological
trauma?Can the research subject be easily returned to his or her initial
state?

Chapter 5: Problem Definition

1. What is a decision statement? How does the focus on an irrelevant decision affect the research process?
A decision statement is a written expression of the key question(s) that a research user wishes to answer. It is
the
reason that research is being considered. A decision statement provides a summarizing, well-ordered
explanationof a decision made by an individual or a team of individuals. A decision statement is often
used in business and high education to express a desired direction or idea for the entity’s future. Decision
should be best that affect the business plan and strategy.
A good manager should have appropriate decisions to the best of their knowledge and for the benefit of
the business. In the business, decision is important because this statement focus on the particular ideas
and research. The focus on an irrelevant decision affect the research process as it misleads research
denying the research process, the ability to focus on what is important or the matter in question. It creates
errors in the research processas some issues will be overlooked while other omitted.
2. Define problem recognition. How is this process like translating text from one language into another?
What role does “probing” play in this process?
Problem recognition is when a customer identifies a considerable difference between what he
wants to
purchase and realization of the actual product. It directly impacts the buying decision of the
customer.
Process of buying decision: -
The process of consumer problem recognition is different than that of translating text from one
language into another. These are: -
1. Problem recognition: - Organization determine customer's demands and needs. So according
to that criteria companies can make products so that customers will be satisfied as there will be
less problem recognition.
2. Searching of information: - Organization searches information through recommendation,
search engines or from other sources. Companies have to understand what cam satisfy a
customer, because it is not good for the company if a customer regret buying product from that
company.
3. Evaluation: -This is the step where customers have to choose a product for themselves among

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 all theother alternatives. Their choice may vary according to their personal preference, thinking,
price, aesthetics, quality etc. Customers have to think whether that product can satisfy or fulfill
their need or not.
4. Purchase of products: - As customers have already chosen their product in the last step, it’s
time forthe purchase. Organizations have to guide their customers where they can find products.
Sometimes it is seen that the decision of purchase made by the customers has some emotional
connections with the products.
5. post-purchase satisfaction: - Customers’ needs to get satisfied after buying a product. They
should not think otherwise or regret for the decision. Exactly this review is need to be viewed by
the organization that whether the customers are less satisfied, satisfied or more than satisfied
with the product. This way they can also get customer loyalty.
Probing: -
Probing is an interview technique that tries to draw progressively deeper and more elaborate
explanations from the discussion. Probing means indirectly or slightly in a different way asking
questions to the customers which they may not want other people to know. This discussion may
involvepotential problem causes. This probing process will likely be very helpful in identifying
key variables that are prime candidates for study.
This way sales person can get an idea about the customer's personal preferences. Organization,
with that data can improve their products according to the preference of the customers. When
customers get products which satisfies their needs then automatically customers become brand
ambassador of that organization. There are different types of probing questions such as open-
ended questions, close-endedquestions, trial questions, discovery questions, targeted questions,
broad questions etc.

6. What is a situation analysis? How can it be used to separate symptoms from actual problems?
A situation analysis involves the gathering of background information to familiarize researchers
and
managers with the decision-making environment. The situation analysis can be written up as
a way ofdocumenting the problem-definition process. situation analysis is an essential factor
considering marketing, accounting, human resource, and many more. It is the process of
useful decision making that aims to achieve business goals.
When the business strategy starts to fail, the actual problem arises. It becomes challenging to
identify the symptoms of the problem. Situational analysis techniques identify the symptoms
and the exact problem. It also helps in improving more effectiveness in the future to resolve the
barriers of the problemand achieving the business objective.
The ways to separate the symptoms from actual problems are given as follows :
 Gather detailed information regarding the business model for which planning is to be done.
 Identify the factors that might affect the business strategies.
 Selection of appropriate ways to minimize the effect of such factors.
 Selection of proper alternatives, so that if one of the problem-solving tools fails, then
another can beapplied to achieve business goals.

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 7. Define unit of analysis in a business research context.
The unit of analysis for a study indicates what or who should provide the data and at what level
of
aggregation. Researchers specify whether an investigation will collect data about individuals
(such as customers, employees, and owners), households (families, extended families, and so
forth), organizations (businesses and business units), departments (sales, finance, and so forth),
geographical areas, or objects (products, advertisements, and so forth). For example, for clothing
purchases, individuals are likely to be the appropriate level of analysis. In studies of home
buying, however, the husband/wife dyad typically is the best unit of analysis since this purchase
decision would be made jointly by husband and wife.

10 For each of the following variables, explain why it should be considered either
continuous orcategorical:
a. Whether or not a university played in a football bowl game during 2006
b. The average wait time a customer has before being served in a full-service restaurant
c. Letter grades of A, B, C, D, or F
d. The job satisfaction of a company’s salespeople
e. A consumer’s age

a. Whether or not a university played in a football bowl game during 2006 - It is a categorical
variable
as the only possible answers for this would be Yes / No and it is not continuous.
b. The average wait time a customer has before being served in a full-service restaurant- It is a
continuous variable as the waiting time is continuous from 0 till any number. It can even take
decimals.
c. Letter grades of A, B, C,D, or F-- It is a categorical variable as the only possible answers for
this would be within the five grade only.
d. The job satisfaction of a company’s salespeople- It is a continuous variable as the job
satisfactory depends on various matrix as environment, payoff, behavior, corporate culture etc.
that requires a rage continuous from 0 till any number. It can even take decimals.
e. A consumer’s age- It is a continuous variable as age is continuous to any number.

12. What are the major components of a research proposal? How does a research proposal assist the
researcher?
A research proposal is a written statement of the research design that will be followed in addressing
a
specific problem. The research proposal allows managers to evaluate the details of the proposed
researchand determine if alterations are needed. It always includes a statement explaining the
purpose of the study (in the form of research objectives or deliverables) and a definition of the
problem, often in the form of a decision statement.
Most research proposals include the following sections:
1. decision description,
2. purpose of the research including the research objectives,
3. research design,
4. sample design,

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 5. data gathering and/or fieldwork techniques,
6. data processing and analysis,
7. budget, and
8. time schedule.
A research proposal helps to explain what a researcher plans to research (i.e. your research topic), why it’s
worthresearching (i.e. your justification), and how researcher plan to investigate it (i.e. your practical
approach). The purpose of the research proposal (it’s job, so to speak) is to convince your research supervisor,
committee or university that your research is suitable (for the requirements of the degree program) and
manageable (given thetime and resource constraints you will face).

Chapter 6: Research Design

2. Why is it important to consider basic design issues before conducting the study and even as early as at
the time of formulating the research question?
1) The first and foremost thing is to ensure that the subject for whom the study/research is
conductedmust be effectively addressed may be being a theoretical or practical one
2) The research/data set must be checked while using for research, since for a span of 3-4 years,
the dataset can become obsolete and the research work won't be getting much reignition for
your hard work
3) The third important parameter is cost effectiveness, make sure that you have the perfect
balance ofcost required for your design beforehand since in the hand, the cost can become a
big issue.

3. "An exploratory study is just as useful as a causal study." Discuss this statement.
4. Why is the unit of analysis an integral part of the research design
It helps to identify that amount of sample size and sampling design that is most suitable for the
research. Besides, correct data collection method is also done using the unit of analysis.

Chapter 7: Qualitative and Quantitative Research

2. As a manager, you have invited a research team to come in, study, and offer suggestions on how
to improve the performance of your staff. What steps will you take to relieve staff apprehensions and
worrieseven before the research team sets foot in your department?

How to improve a performance at the staff / employees is by means of holding a program such as:
1. Improving Performance
Performance is the desired outcome of behavior. Individual Performance is the basis of
organizational performance. Preadapting in performance appraisal has increased workplace
motivation. This performance appraisal is basically a key factor in order t develop an effective
and efficient organization. Employees want and need feedback regarding their performance
and assessment provides the opportunity to provide feedback to them if performance is not in
accordancewith the standards, the assessment provides an opportunity to review the progress
of employee and todevelop performance improvement plans.

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 There are five factors in performance assessment namely:
a. Quality of work includes acquisition, accuracy, performance and acceptance of output
b. The quantity of work includes volume of output and contribution
c. Supervision required, include need advice, direction or repairs.
d. Attendance include: regularity, reliable and timely.
2. Provide Motivation
Motivation is a state in the person that drives to proceed with specific activities to achieve.
Motivationgoal basically is the process that determines how much effort will be devoted to
carrying out the work. Motivation or incentive to work is crucial to the achievement of
something objective, then the man must be able to grow as high work motivation for
employees within the company.
3. Improve discipline
Discipline itself interpreted as a willingness to someone that may arise with their own
consciousnessto follow the rules and regulations prevailing in the organization.
3. What is bias, and how can it be reduced during interviews?
Irregularities in the interview usually refers to a mistake or inaccuracy of the data collected. Deviations
can be
reduced during the interview by repeating and clarifying questions we ask so that they understand the
questions that we provide, and cites some of the answers to ensure a deep understanding of the response
person being interviewed so that we do not deviate from the answers they give.

5. Describe the key purpose of observation.

Answer:
a. Controlled versus uncontrolled observational studies A distinction can be made between
observation conducted in controlled versus uncontrolled settings. However, observation is also a
potential method of data collection within an experimental, controlled research tradition.
Controlled observation occurs when observational research is carried out under carefully arranged
conditions. Uncontrolled observation is an observational technique that makes no attempt to
control, manipulate, or influence the situation.
b. Participant versus nonparticipant observation: The researcher can play one of two roles
while gathering observational data – that of a nonparticipant or a participant observer. Participant
observation is an approach that has frequently been used in case studies, ethnographic studies,
and grounded theory studies. In participant observation, the researcher gathers data by
participating in the daily life of the group or organization under study.
The degree of participation of researchers:
1) Passive participation
2) Moderate participation
3) Active participation
4) Complete participant observation.

c. Structured versus unstructured observational studies As we have seen, observational

studies can be of either the nonparticipant observer or the participant observer type. Both of these,
again, can be either structured or unstructured. Where the observer has a predetermined set of

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 categories of activities or phenomena planned to be studied, it is a structured observational study.
Unstructured observational studies are claimed to be the hallmark of qualitative research.
Unstructured observation may eventually lead to a set of tentative hypotheses that are tested in
subsequent theory building and hypothesis testing. d. Concealed versus unconcealed
observation Concealment of observation relates to whether the members of the social group
under study are told that they are being investigated. A primary advantage of concealed
observation is that the research subjects are not influenced by the awareness that they are being
observed.

participant observation, in which the researcher gathers data by participating in the daily life of the
groupor organization under study. This enables the researcher to learn about the activities of the
group under study in a natural setting from an insider’s point of view through observing and
participating in these activities.
11. Is it possible to test hypotheses with structured observation? Why (not)?
Structured observation is focused in nature, as it looks selectively at predetermined phenomena. The
focus
of structured observation is fragmented into small and manageable pieces of information. There
are different levels of structure in structured observation. For instance, the researcher may have
decided on the observation categories in a rather precise and mutually exclusive way in advance
or start with a detailed plan of what will be observed and how, but collect the data in a less
systematic or predeterminedway. Structured observation can also be used to generate numerical
data to test hypothesis.

Chapter 9: Measurement and Scaling Techniques

1.Define measurement. How is your performance in your research class being measured?
Measurement is the process of describing some property of a phenomenon of interest, usually by
assigning
numbers in a reliable and valid way. -William G. Zikmund
Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations that are collected as a part of
research. Students' performance in a research class will be assessed through their performance on exams,
projects, presentations, etc. Each element will be assigned a score (a ratio measure), which is typically
translated into a letter grade of A, B, C, D, or F (a nominal measure)
student performance is measured in many different ways.

Consider the following options:

1. A student can be assigned a letter corresponding to his/her performance.
a. A—Represents excellent performance
b. B—Represents good performance
c. C—Represents average performance
d. D—Represents poor performance
e. F—Represents failing performance
2. A student can be assigned a number from 1 to 20.

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 a. 20—Represents outstanding performance
b. 11–20—Represents differing degrees of passing performance
c. Below 11—Represents failing performance
3. A student can be assigned a number corresponding to a percentage performance scale.
a. 100 percent—Represents a perfect score. All assignments are performed correctly.
b. 60–99 percent—Represents differing degrees of passing performance, each number
representing theproportion of correct work.
c.0–59 percent—Represents failing performance but still captures proportion of correct work.
4. A student can be assigned one of two letters corresponding to performance.
a. P—Represents a passing mark
b. F—Represents a failing mark
2. What is the difference between a concept and a construct?
A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics that are concrete
whereas a
construct
is image or idea invented for a particular theory or research problem; a construct is an abstract
concept.

Concept
A concept is an idea that is generalizable
or
agreed-upon by many people
Generally, it uses single variable
concepts extend over both actual and
possible
cases
It concretes properties as sex, age, education
and
present few problems in either definition or
measurement.
It generates idea so may not specific.
Construct
a construct is image or idea invented for
a
particular theory or research problem
A construct is a term used for concepts that
are
measured with multiple variables.
Constructs extend over actual cases
constructs may vary for the same concept
asdefinition vary.
It is more specific and less abstract than
a
concept has to be.

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4. Describe, compare, and contrast the four different levels of scale measurement.

Nominal scale Ordinal scale Interval scale Ratio scale

Meaning A Nominal Scale is a Ordinal indicates Interval scale measures Ratio scale can
measurement scale, order.It reports the size and magnitude as measure size and
in which numbers ranking and multiple factors of a magnitude as a
serve as “tags” or ordering of the defined unit. factorof one defined
“labels” only, to data without unit in terms of
identify or classify an actually another starting
object. establishing the from zero.
degree of variation
between them.
Type of Discrete Discrete Continuous Continuous
Data
Numerical Counting Counting and Common Arithmetic Arithmetic
Operation Ordering Operation (Additionand Operation (Addition,
Substruction) Substruction,
Multiplication,
Division and others)
Statistics Frequency, Mode Frequency, Mode, Frequency, Mode, Frequency, Mode,
Median, Range Median, Range, mean, Median, Range,
Variance, SD mean, Variance, SD
Example Student Id, Yes-No, Rank order, GPA, Temperature, Sales Volume, Price,
Region Position in Exam’s Number Income
competition

Chapter-14
5. Point out the mechanics of report writing and illustrate your answer with examples.

The following points deserve mention so far as the mechanics of writing a report are concerned:
1. Size and physical design:
The manuscript should be written on unruled paper 8.5× 11in size. If it is to be written
by hand, then black or blue-black ink should be used. A margin of at least one and one-
half inches should be allowed atthe left hand and of at least half an inch at the right hand
of the paper. There should also be one-inch margins, top and bottom. The paper should
be neat and legible. If the manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should be double-
spaced on one side of the page only except for the insertion of the long quotations.

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2. Procedure: Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered (All such steps
have already been explained earlier in this chapter).
3. Layout: Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the report
should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted (The layout of the research
report and various types of reports have been described in this chapter earlier which
should be taken as a guide for report-writing in case of a particular problem).
4. Treatment of quotations: Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double
spaced, forming animmediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length
(more than four or five type written lines) then it should be single-spaced and indented at
least half an inch to the right of the normal text margin.
5. The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings: The
footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in quotations in the
report and the notice of materials. Meant for cross references, citation of authorities and
sources, acknowledgement and explanation of a view . It is placed at the bottom of the
page, numbered consecutively with Single spaced
6. Documentation style: Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given
work should becomplete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the
edition used. Such documentary footnotes follow a general sequence. The common order
may be described as under:

1. Regarding the single-volume reference:

1. author's name in normal order
2. title of the work, underlined
to indicate italics3.place and
date of publication
4.pagination references Eg.1 Kothari, C.R. Quantitative Techniques, New
Delhi, VikasPublishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978, p995
2. Regarding multi-volumed reference: If it is multi volumed, number of the
volume should begiven after the publication
1. Author's name in the normal order;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Number of volume;
5. Pagination references (The page number)
3. Regarding works arranged alphabetically:
No pagination is needed for alphabetically arranged works. Eg.2"Salamanca,"
EncyclopediaBritannica, 14th edition.
4. Regarding periodicals reference:
If the reference is from periodicals, name of the periodical is given after the title.
1. Name of the author in normal order;

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 2. Title of article, in quotation marks;
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics;Volume number;
Date of issuance;Pagination.

5. Regarding second-hand quotations reference:

1. Original author and title;
2. "quoted or cited in,";
3. Second author and work. Eg.3. J.F.Jones, Life in Ploynesia, p. 16, quoted
in History of thePacific Ocean area, by R.B. Abel, p. 191.

6. Case of multiple authorship: In case of multiple authorship, et al or "and

others" should be used. Eg.4. Hughes et al, "Science or Promotion", SAGE
Journals,2013,p.13.
7. Regarding second-hand quotations reference In such cases the documentation
should be handledas follows:
o Original author and title;
o “Quoted or cited in,”;
o Second author and work.
Example J.F. Jones, Life in Ploynesia, p. 16, quoted in History of the Pacific
Ocean area, by R.B. Abel, p. 191.
7. Final drafts: Revising and rewriting the rough
draft of the reportAre the sentences clear?
Gram
matical
ly,
correct
?
Wheth
er it is
logical
?
8. Bibliography: Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as
discussed earlier. 9. Preparation of the index: At the end of the report, an index should
invariably be given, the value of whichlies in the fact that it acts as a good guide, to the
reader. Index may be prepared both as subject index and as author index. The former gives
the names of the subject-topics or concepts along with the number of pages
on which they have appeared or discussed in the report, whereas the latter gives the similar
information
regarding the names of authors. The index should always be arranged alphabetically.
Some people prefer to prepare only one index common for names of authors, subject-
topics, concepts and the like ones.

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