From the Ground Up Workbook From the Ground Up Workbook

Companion Study Guide to 3rd Edition

From the Ground Up, 29th Edition ISBN 978-0-9730036-8-0
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Table of Contents
1 Aircraft Operations ......................... 1
1.1 The Airplane .............................. 2
1.2 Theory of Flight........................... 4
1.3 Flight Instruments ....................... 10
1.4 Aero Engines.............................13

2 Air Law......................................19
2.1 Aerodromes, Air Rules & Procedures......20

3 Meteorology ................................27
3.1 Aviation Weather (Theory) ............... 28
3.2 Aviation Weather (Applications)..........34

4 Navigation & Communications ...........43

4.1 Navigation (Theory)......................44
4.2 Navigation (Cross-Country)...............48
4.3 Radio ....................................58

5 General Airmanship....................... .65

5.1 Weight & Balance ........................66
5.2 Aircraft Performance .....................68
5.3 Human Factors ...........................71

From the Ground Up Workbook

 About From the Ground Up
Aviation Publishers's release of the latest edition of From the
Ground Up continues a publishing tradition for one of the
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and educational resource books for pilots.
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Packed with information as never before, From the Ground Up
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Radio Navigation, Airmanship, Human Factors, and Air Safety.
Appendices include a sample Examination and an extensive
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 1rcraft
Operations
aircraft/ n. (pl. same)
a machine capable of flight, esp.
an airplane or helicopter.
operation/ n. 1 a the action or
process or method of working or
operating. b the state of being active
or functioning. c the scope or range
of effectiveness of a thing's activity.
2 an active process; a discharge of
a funtion. 3 a piece of work, esp.
one in a series.
Aircraft Operations: The Airplane

1 Aircraft Operations
1.1 The Airplane
1. Name the labelled parts on the drawing of the wing in the diagram below. (Ref: FGU 4)
(a): A:

(b): B:
(c): C:

(d): D:
(e): E:
(f): F:

2. Name the labelled parts on the drawing of the empennage in the diagram below. (Ref. FGU 5)
(a): A:

(b): B:
(c): C:

(d): D:
(e): E:

(f): F:

3. The operating principle of a simple oleo is to take up shock by compressing air in the upper cylinder. The lower cylinder is
filled with oil. There is a small orifice between the two cylinders. What is its purpose? (Ref' FGU 7)

4. Why should the park brake be left OFF if the aircraft is left unattended for a period of time? (Ref FGU B)

5. Most light airplanes have an adjustable trim tab on the elevator. What is the function of the trim tab? (Ref: FGU 9)

6. The load factor is the ratio of the actual load acting on the wings to the ,. , of the airplane. The load
factor of an airplane in straight and level flight is often expressed as lG. If you subject an airplane having a gross weight of
1,500 pounds to a 2G turn, what will be its weight while those 2Gs are being applied? (Ref FGU 12)

7. Most light airplanes have a positive load factor limitation of 4 to 4.5, which means that you may exert that much acceleration
without damaging the machine. If, at high speed, you were to move the control column rapidly through its full travel, it is
possible to exceed that limitation. Because light airplanes do not normally come. equipped with a G meter (accelerometer),
the manufacturer publishes a limiting speed above which abrupt control movement must not be applied. What is this speed
called and what is its abbreviation? (Ref: FGU 12)

8. List the four parts r;2f the Technical Log. (Ref FGU 13)
(a): Part 1:
(b): Part 2:
(c): Part 3:
(d): Part 4:

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 Aircraft Operations: The Airplane

9. What is the purpose of the Journey Log? (Rej FGU 13)

10. What aircraft logbook do you carry on board the aircraft if you plan to land away from your home base? /Ref FGU I 3J

11. Define "Air Time". (Ref rcu 13)

12. Define "Flight Time". (Rcj FGU 13)

13. In which Log do you, as pilot, record defects?,� / FGU 13)

ANSWERS

l. (a): Leading edge. (b): Wing tip. (c): Front spar. 7. Man□euvering speed or V,. .
(d) Rear spar (e)' Aileron. (f): Chord
8 Airframe. Engine. Propeller. Installation and Modifications
2 (a). Fin. (b): Stabilizer (c). Rudder. (d): Rudder
9. The Journey Log records the air and .flight time of the
tnm tab. (e): Elevator. (f): Elevator tnm tab.
"journeys" made by the airplane and keeps a daily
3. lt restricts the flow of oil from, and to, the lower running account of the serviceability status.
cylinder thus cushioning the landing shock preventing
10. Journey Log.
the airplane from rebounding (as would a spring).
11. Air Time begins when the airplane leaves the surface and
4. An increase in temperature could cause the trapped hydraulic
ends when it touches down at the next point of landing.
fluid to expand creating sufficient pressure to rupture the
seals. A decrease in temperature could release the brakes 12. Flight Time begins when the airplane first starts to
move and ends when it comes to rest at the end of
5. The trim tab relieves the pressure on the elevator control.
the flight. Therefore. it includes taxiing time.
6. All Up Weight (AUW). 3,000 pounds.
13. Journey Log.

From the Ground Up Workbook

Aircraft Operations: Theory of Flight

1.2 Theory of Flight

1. On the drawing below, sketch and label the four forces acting on an airplane in flight. (Ref. FGU 15 & 20)

2. How does an aerofoil produce lift? (R,'f FGU 16)

3. How does your answer to question 2 above correlate with Newton's third law of motion� Newton's Third Law states: "To each
action there is an equal and opposite reaction". (Ref rcu 16)

4. At what angle of attack is maximum lift generated? (ReJ FGU 16. Fig -1, & FGU 18, Ft� 10)

5. There are two types of DRAG, parasite and induced. Parasite drag includes two componen�s.
• Form drag is the resistance
created by the form or shape of the airplane as it passes through the air and refers to the
tendency of the air to cling to the surface of a body over which it is flowing. What is induced drag? (Rt·/ FGL' l 7)

6. How are wing tip vortices caused? (Ref FGU I7J

7. If wing tip vortices are reduced, is reduced. An example of an aerofoil with little induced drag is
the wing on a The opposite extreme is the Concord with its delta wing; its high angle of attack
and high wing loading (weight) on take off produce vortices capable of breaking up a light airplane. (Ref fGU 17)

8. The wing tip vortices produced by a Boeing 747 passenger-carrying aircraft are greater on take off than they are on landing.
Why is this so? (Ref FGU 17 & 282)

9. At Vancouver, you are approaching to land behind a Boeing 737 from Victoria. How should you plan and execute your
approach path and landing presuming you are obliged to use the same runway? (Ref FGU 282)

10. What is the minimum wake turbulence separation specified in the regulations for a light airplane behind a heavy airplane?
(Ref FGU :>82)

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 Aircraft Operations: Theory of Flight

11. The ratio of LIFT and DRAG is important. If the wing is producing sufficient LIFT to maintain altitude and, at the same time,
the DRAG is reduced to a minimum, the wing will be operating at its most efficient angle of attack. This is known as the BEST
or MAXIMUM LIFT/DRAG RATIO. (Ref. FGU 18)
(a): At what angle of attack will a conventional wing attain its Maximum L/D ratio? Fig.10 (FGU page 18) indicates
a zero degree angle of attack for the Clark Y airfoil section. See the ANSWERS for further information.

(b): In a glide, you should fly at a speed to give the

12. What is the Boundary Layer? (Ref. FGU 19)

13. As the aerofoil approaches its stalling angle: (Ref. FGU 16)
(a): What happens to the airflow over the top of the wing?

(b): What happens to the Center of Pressure?

14. To reduce aileron drag, most light airplanes have both and
capacity in the design of their ailerons. (Ref' FGU 19)

15. Engine failure causes the nose to automatically drop. What forces form a couple to assist this movement? (Ref: FGU 20)

16. Describe the following: (Ref FGU 16, fig S & FGU 21, Fig 20)

(a): The angle of incidence

(b): The angle of attack

17. Wash Out not only reduces the stalling angle at the wing tip thus retaining aileron control into the stall, it also does what?
(Ref. FGU 21)

18. A flap increases the camber of the wing, increasing the lift but also the drag. What are the advantages of using flaps on
approach and landing? (Ref: FGU 22)

19. What are the disadvantages of using flaps on approach and landing in a light airplane? (Ref. FGU 23)

20. An aft Center of Gravity will cause instability. (Ref FGU 25)

21. Methods by which lateral stability is achieved are dihedral, sweepback and (Ref. FGU 25)

From the Ground Up Workbook

Aircraft Operations: Theory of Flight

22. An airplane with a 3 degree dihedral drops a wing due to turbulence. What must occur for that airplane to return to level
flight with no corrective action by the pilot? (Ref FGU 25)

23. If directional stability is to be achieved, the keel surface must be aft of the C of G than ahead of
it. (Ref FGU 26)

24. What two forces tend to yaw a propeller-driven single-engine airplane to the left in a climb? (Rej FGU 26)

25. Best Rate of Climb (Vvl is defined as (Ref FGU 27)

26. Best Angle of Climb (V xl is defined as (Ref FGU 27)

27. When is an airplane NOT in a state of equilibrium? (Ref" FGU 1s. FGU 29. Fig. 36)

28. In a level turn at a constant airspeed, if the bank is increased, the load factor
the rate of turn , the radius of turn , and the stall speed (VJ
(Ref FGU 29)

29. The stall speed increases with the application of G or load factor. If V5 at 40 knots is 1 G, what will V5 become when in a 60
degree bank level turn? (Ref fGU 30)

30. Why does the use of anti-spin aileron (right aileron in a left spin) aggravate the spin? (Ref. FGU 32)

31. Lift acts through the . As the angle of attack increases, the C of P moves forward until the wing
reaches the stalling angle, then it moves . This movement tends to rotate the airplane and
the angle of attack. (Ref FGU 16, fig 4)

32. For a particular wing, what single item never varies at the stall? (Ref FGU 30)

33. What force makes the airplane turn when it is banked? (Ref FGU 29, Fig 36)

34. What is the "Clean Aircraft Concept"? (Ref. FGU 31 & 266)

35. How does frost on the top of the wing reduce lift and increase drag? {Ref rcu 30)

36. Besides reducing lift and increasing drag, what other factors may the pilot encounter if the airplane acquires a load of clear
ice during a flight? (Ref FGU 30, 31 & 266)

37. Who is responsible for ensuring that ALL surface contaminants are removed before take-off? (Ref FGU 266)

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 Aircraft Operations: Theory of Flight

38. What is the method usually applied when the airplane cannot be stored inside and the ambient temperature and weather
conditions are conducive to the formation of heavy frost? (Ref FGU 267)

39. After landing, why does clear ice sometimes form on the upper surface of a wing outlining the fuel tanks? (Ref FGU 31)

40. What is the procedure for recovery from a spin? (Ref" FGU 32)

41. What is the procedure for recovery from a spiral dive? (Ref FGU 32)

42. Wheelbarrowing is a situation where the airplane runs down the runway on its nose wheel. (Ref. FGU 291)
(a): What could be the end result of wheelbarrowing?

{b): What causes wheelbarrowing?

(c): How does one prevent wheelbarrowing?

43. The following questions deal with Ground Effect. (Ref: FGU 294)
(a): Why is Ground Effect less pronounced on a high wing than on a low wing airplane?

(b): With a low wing airplane, approximately by how much could you reduce the
induced drag if, on take off, you raised the nose well above normal?

(c): At what height is the majority (about 85%) of the ground effect no longer effective?

(d): In winter, if you do not remove the frost from the wing and you attempt
to take off, what problems might you encounter?

(e): In flight training, where is ground effect utilized to the pilot's advantage?

44. The laminar flow wing is nearly symmetrical with its thickest part near the center of the chord. It is thinner than a
conventional wing and is flush riveted. (Ref FGU 19 & 295)
(a): What is its primary advantage over a conventional aerofoil?

(b): What is its disadvantage?

from the Ground Up Workbook

Aircraft Operations: Theory of Flight

ANSWERS

1. Forces acting on an airplane: 13. As the aerofoil approaches its stalling angle:

(a): The boundary layer separates from the upper surface

Lift
creating a turbulent layer over the surface of the wing.

(b): It moves forward.

Thrus1
14. Differential and Jrise.

15. The couple between Lift and Weight.

We1gh1
16. They are:
2. Air .flows faster over the upper surface creating an
(a): The angle the wing makes with the longitudinal axis.
area of low pressure while the air below the wing is
compressed. The resulting forces lift the wing. (b): The angle the chord makes with the relative airflow.

3. The camber and angle of attack force the air behind the
wing down, the opposite reaction is to force the wing up.
4. Maximum lift is generated just prior w the stall, with
a conventional wing. This is 16 to 18 degrees angle
of attack. (Do not forget that lift is always at right
angles to the relative air.flow, NOT to the chord.)
17. Reduces wing tip vortices and, consequently, the induced drag.
18. The use of flaps results in a shorter landing roll. By
reducing the Vs and allowing a slower approach speed
(with a safe margin above stall), the airplane lands at a
slower touch down speed. Flaps allow a steeper approach,
with improved visibility because the nose is lower

5. Induced drag is skin friction. The drag produced 19. The increased lift makes the airplane more susceptible to
as a result of the wing producing lift. gusts. The lower speeds, and the blanking effect that the
flaps have on the rudder, reduce the crosswind capability.
6. Air .flowing inward over the top and outward from under
the bottom of the wing cause wing tip vortrces. At the tip, 20. Longitudinal.
the air rolls over the tip in an inward circular motion. 21. The pendulous effect of having the weight
7. Induced drag. Glider. slung below on high wing airplanes.

8. The strength of vortices is directly proportional to 22. A side slip must take place.
weight. On take off, the Boeing 747 is fully loaded. 23. Greater.
On landing, it has burned off most of its fuel.
24. Slipstream and asymmetric thrust tend to yaw a prope!ler­
9. Approach at least 100 feet above the Boeing 737's glide path dnven single-engine airplane to the left in a climb.
and land farther down the runway beyond the point where
the nose wheel of the 737 was lowered to the ground. 25. The most gain in height for the least time
is known as the Best Rate of Climb.
10. 6 miles.
26. The most gain in height for the least distance
11. (a): +4 degrees. (b): MAX LID RATIO. is known as the Best Angle of Climb.
Note: Copies of the Lift/Drag curves talcen from the RAF AP 27. In a turn and airplane is not in equilibrium.
129 and the CF CFP 169 (1) which show the Max LID Ratio
28. Increases. Increases. Decreases. Increases.
at +4 degrees follow. Refer to them for your answer to (a).
29. 56 knots. (40 times the square root of 2G : 40 x 1.4 = 56).

30. It increases the angle of attack of the downgoing wing,

n

. I
[L/0..:_"1\A)(
accentuating its stall condition, increasing its drag and

. �
\'
rs..
reducing its lift. The end result is that the spin tightens
up; the airplane rolls about the spin axis Jaster.

31. Centre of Pressure. Backwards. Decreases

1�.....:..._MA)c;

V "'-.:.:":,;--,..
32. The angle of attack.
0

AN3LE DF ATTA0<-0;:CiRl;.lleS
" .I - 33. The inward component of lift makes the
airplane turn when it is banlced.

12. The boundary layer is a thin layer of air over the surface 34. The CARs prohibit take off when frost, ice or snow
of the wing that moves at less than the free stream are adhering to any critical surface of the aircraft.
speed. Its flow is smooth and follows the curvature
of the wing. As it nears the trailing edge, it breaks
away and a small turbulent wake is formed.

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35. The roughness spoils the smooth airflow and causes
separation of the boundary layer. When that happens,
the low pressure on the top of the wings breaks down,
reducing lift. Further. the rough surface amplifies the many
little vortices on the trailing edge, increasing the drag.
36. The stall speed increases, controllability is reduced,
the flight characteristics are altered. weight is
increased, the C of G may substantially shift and the
stall warning system may no longer be accurate.
37 The pilot-in-command.
38. The best method is to spray the airplane with de-icing fluid, a
solution of heated water and Freezing Point Depressant (FPD).
Note: The basis of FPD is ethylene glycol, the same
product you put into the radiator of your car.
39. During a flight at uery low temperatures, the fuel cools
to below freezing. The cold fuel in the tanks can so chill
the aluminum wing surface that moisture in humid
air or rain will turn to clear ice ouer the fuel tank (cold
soaking). This ice is hard to see because it is frozen
from perfectly clean water, the surface is even and
the ice layer is thm It does, however, have the same
deleterious effect as a substantial !ayer of frost.
40. Close the throttle, apply full opposite rudder, control column
forward. When the spin breaks, centrnhze the rudder,
level the wings with aileron and ease out of the dive.
41. Close the throttle, level the wings with aileron, keep
straight with rudder and ease out of the dive
from the Ground Up workbook
Aircraft Operations: Theory of Flight
42. Wheelbarrowing is a situation where the aeroplane
runs down the runway on its nose wheel:
(a): Any slight disturbance to directional control will cause the
airplane to ground loop (pivot violently about the nose wheel).
(b): The pilot holds the control column hard
forward on take off so the main wheels become
mrborne, OR the pilot shoves the nose down when
attempting to land at too high an airspeed
(c): Follow the recommended take off and
landing speeds and techniques
43. With respect to Ground Effect·
(a): The wings of a high wing airplane are not so near
the ground as those of a low wing airplane, consequently
the reduction in the induced drag is not so pronounced.
(b): About 48�o-
(c): One half of the wing span.
(d): The frost causes the boundary layer to break up so
that lift 1s not being generated by the top of the wing. If
the pilot raises the nose high enough, the airplane becomes
airborne because of the ground effect but has insufficient
lift to sustain .flight when the ground effect disappears.
(e): Soft Field Take Off
44 With respect to the laminar flow aerofoil:
(a): It has less drag.
(b): An abrupt change in angle of attack
can cause a violent stall.
Aircraft Operations: Flight Instruments

1.3 Flight Instruments

1. With reference to the diagram below, what pressure operates the following? (Ref FGU 33 & 34)

A!tJmctcr Ver11cal Veloc1t) Auspecd

Stattc Pon

P11ot Tube

(a): Altimeter:
(b): Vertical Speed Indicator:
(c): Airspeed Indicator:

2. When the sub scale is set to the Altimeter Setting for the location, the altimeter reads
Adjustment of the sub scale corrects for only. (Ref: FGU 35)

3. You park your airplane on Friday night. On Sunday, when you prepare to fly, you find that the altimeter has decreased 300
feet from 1,200 feet (the field height) to 900 feet. (Ref rcu 35)
(a): What is the barometric pressure change in inches of mercury?
(b): Assuming there is no FSS, what do you set on the altimeter7
(c): What is the weather likely to be?

4. Density Altitude is Pressure Altitude corrected for temperature and is used for calculating
and also for calculating performance. (Ref FGU 36 & 37)

5. True altitude is the exact height above mean sea level. On January 1, you are flying from Calgary to Vancouver at 12,000 feet
indicated, with an altimeter setting of 30.42 Hg from Calgary (which is 3,557 feet above sea level). The OAT is -40 degrees C.
What is your True Altitude? (Ref FGU 21,1;

6. How will a strong wind funnelled through a mountain valley affect your altimeter? Explain your answer. (Ref. FGU 36)

7. The Airspeed Indicator measures the difference between and

pressure and displays it as Indicated Airspeed (!AS). (RcJ FGU 37)

8. The Airspeed Indicator is colour coded. What do the following codes indicate? (Ref FGU 37 & 38)
(a): Upper end of white arc
(b): Lower end of green arc
(c): Red line

9. You have flight planned at 6,000 feet. The OAT (outside air temperature) is +4 degrees C and your TAS is 100 knots. What
should the !AS be? (Ref FGU 38 & 201)

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 Aircraft Operations: Flight Instruments

10. FGU states that a frozen pitot pressure source may cause a complete loss of airspeed indication. This is not always the case.
It depends where, and on how fast, the ice forms. If, during a climb, the pitot pressure source does freeze solid, so as to trap
the pitot pressure, what will the airspeed indicator read as you continue to climb? (Ref FGU 38/

11. The Vertical Speed Indicator operates on the principle of a slow bleed off of static pressure between the aneroid and the case.
What will the VS! read if the static pressure source freezes over? (Ref FGU 39)

12. If the static pressure source freezes over and you have no alternate source of static pressure, what can you do to make the
instruments operate reasonably accurately? (Ref FGU 38)

13. What are the characteristics of a gyro that enable its use in modern gyro instruments? (Ref FGU 40)

14. Explain gyroscopic precession: (Ref FGU 40)

15. You aligned the Heading Indicator with the Compass before take off but, after 15 minutes flying, you find it is in error by 5
degrees. What caused the HI to move off the correct heading? (Ref FGU 41)

16. At 100 knots, what bank is required to secure a rate one turn? (Ref see Answers)

17. On acceleration, there is a slight error in the Attitude Indicator. (Ref see Answers)

18. After completing a steep turn of 180 degrees, with the wings again level, the Al will show (Ref. see Answers)

19. In most light aircraft, what power source operates the following gyro instruments: (Ref: FGU 40)
(a): Turn Coordinator
(b): Heading Indicator
(c): Attitude Indicator

20. What two forces act on the ball in the Turn and Slip Indicator and the Turn Coordinator? (Ref FGU 43)

21. How does the Turn Coordinator, which is primarily a rate of turn instrument, indicate direction of bank when roll is applied?
(Ref FGU 43)

22. The primary directional control instrument is the (Ref FGU 181)

23. What causes northerly turning error in the Magnetic Compass? (Ref FGU 183)

24. On turns to the north, the compass and, on turns to the south, it (Ref. FGU 183)

25. There is no turning error on headings of east and west. There is, however, acceleration and deceleration error. If you lower the
nose or accelerate on an easterly heading, the apparent turn will be to the (Ref FGU 184/

From the Ground Up Workbook

Aircraft Operations: Flight Instruments
ANSWERS
l. (a)· Static. (b): Static. (c): Static and Pitot
2. Indicated height above sea leueL Pressure.
3. (a): 0.3 Hg. (b): Field height (c): Good.
4 Take Off Climb
5. 10,400 feet.
Step 1. Calculate the Pressure Altitude (30.42 • 29.92 = .5 =
500 feet). Pressure Altitude is 12,000 • 500 or 11,500 feet.
Step 2. Usmg the computer, apply the temperature correction
to the column of cold air. (11,500 • 3,557 (height of altimeter
set source) = 8,000 feet). Corrected cold air column is
6,850. Add field height of 3,557. 'True altitude is 10,407.
Note: You must apply the temperature correction
to the column of cold air between you and the
ground and NOT to the full Pressure Altitude.
6. The altimeter will ouer read. The funnelling effect of the
wind sweeping down the mountain valley produces a venturi
effect which lowers the pressure. Since the altimeter setting
is not changed (because you did not know there was a
pressure change), your actual altitude is lower than indicated.
1,000 feet of error is not unusual 3,000 feet is possible.
7. Static. Pitot.
8. The colour codes indicate:
(a). Maximum speed for j1ap extension (V,,)
(b): Power off stall speed, clean (V. ).
(c): Neuer exceed speed (V,,,).
9. 94 KJAS.
Step 1. Calculate the CAS on the computer.
Step 2. Use the Airspeed Correction
Table to convert CAS to !AS.
10. As you climb, the airspeed indicator will ouer read. If
the pressure source is frozen and the pitot pressure
is trapped, this pressure remains constant as you
climb. The static pressure continues to decrease with
altitude. As a result, the airspeed indicator, measuring
the difference, shows an increase in JAS.
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11 The VS! returns to zero and stays there. The bleed port allows
the pressure to equalize on each side of the diaphragm.
12. Break the glass on the VSI. This will give you an alternate
static source from inside the cockpit. However, entry to
the static plumbing is through the calibrated orifice There
will be considerable lag in both altimeter and ASL
13 Rigidity m Space (Gyroscopic Inertia) and Precession.
14 When a force is applied to a spmning gyro, the movement
will occur at 90 degrees to the direction of rotation.
15. Precession caused by bearing friction, aggravated by rough
flying, can cause the HI to move off the correct heading.
16. 17 degrees. The formula is based on TAS rather than
IAS. In a light aircraft at low leuel, the TAS and !AS
are quite close together; therefore, use the JAS for
convenience. Formula: 10�� x TAS + 7 = Angle of Bank.
17. Nose up. The acceleranon causes the pendulous vanes,
which are abeam the direction of movement, one to
open and the other to close. This creates a lateral force
which moves 90 degrees to the iong1tudina! position (see
Question 14) and creates a nose up indication on the AI.
18. A slight bank in the opposite direction to the turn and
a nose up indication. The forces applied on the gyro
in the turn exceed the capacity of correcting forces of
the Al pendulous vanes. About 15 seconds of straight
and levei flight will bring the Al back to leuel.
19. (a). Electric. (b): Vacuum. (c): Vacuum.
20 Grauity and Centrifugal Force.
21. The gym is mounted at 35 degrees to the
vertical, giving it the properties of an Attitude
Jndicator in a secondary capacity
22 Compass.
23. Dip.
24. Lags. Leads.
25. North. The acronym ''.ANDS" stands for Acceleration
(apparent turn) North, Deceleration (apparent turn) South.
 Aircraft Operations: Aero Engines

1.4 Aero Engines

1. From the Ground Up shows a Continental horizontally opposed engine. (Ref FGU 48)

(a): How is it cooled?

(b): Where is the carburetor?
(c): How many magnetos are there?
(d): How many spark plugs are there per cylinder and where are they located?

2. What is the correct nomenclature for each stroke of a four-stroke cycle aircraft engine? (Ref FGU 49)

3. The timing is set so that the spark plugs fire before top dead centre. Why] (Ref FGU 52. F,g H)

4. Your airplane engine has a maximum oil capacity of 6 US quarts. When you check the level, it is only half full. Oil is available
from your fuel supplier in litres. (ReJ. see Answers)
(a): How many litres do you need to add to bring the level to full?
(b): What should be the minimum oil level for a local one hour flight?

5. Why does the power output of a normally aspirated engine decrease in a climb? (Ref see Answers)

6. In the gravity fuel system as shown in From the Ground Up on page 56, Figure 18? (Ref FGU 56)
(a): Why is only one tank vented to the atmosphere?
(b): Why should the primer be locked after use?

7. Why should the fuel tanks be kept full when the airplane is not in use? (Ref FGU ::64)

8. Light airplanes normally use three grades of fuel, 80, l00LL and 100. (Ref FGU 57)

(a): What are their colours?

(b): What is the significance of the number 80?

(c): If you could not get fuel of the correct octane rating, would you use tractor gas, car gas, diesel fuel, aviation
fuel of the next higher octane rating or the next lower octane rating?

9. Detonation is not a problem if you operate the engine as recommended by the manufacturer. However, not everyone does.
(Ref FGU 58)

(a): What is detonation?

(b): What causes it?

From the Ground Up Workbook

Aircraft Operations: Aero Engines

(c): How do you recognize it?

{d): How do you correct for it?

10. Why is a RICH mixture used in a climb? (Ref FGU 60)

11. What is the approximate ratio of fuel to air by weight when the aircraft engine is leaned for its lowest rate of fuel consumption?
(Ref FGU 59)

12. What is the function of the venturi in the carburetor? (R,J FGU 53)

13. How do you lean the mixture to get the "lean mixture best power" setting? (R•J- FGU 60)

14. Under certain atmospheric conditions, ice may form in the carburetor at temperatures ranging anywhere from
to (Ref FGU 62)

15. When you set Carburetor Air to HOT, you have accomplished two functions. First, you have selected an alternate source of
air and, second, you have supplied the carburetor with hot rather than cold air. The significance of the first function is often
overlooked by the more dramatic effect of the second function (supplying hot air). (Ref FGU 64, ng. -::1 & An$we,s)
{a): What are the advantages of being able to select an alternate source of engine air?

(b): During run up, how do you check for carburetor ice?

16. Why is it advisable to apply carburetor heat before starting a descent at a low power setting? /11ef FGU 6-!l

17. Why do you enrich the mixture before descent? {Ref FGU 64)

18. When flying an airplane with a constant speed propeller and a manifold pressure system, what is the first indication that
carburetor ice is forming? (Ref FG U 6:1

19. Fuel injection engines do not use a carburetor to deliver fuel to the aircraft engine's cylinders. What are 5 advantages of the
fuel injection system for aircraft applications. (Ref FGU 65)

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 Aircraft Operations: Aero Engines

20. If you turn off the Master Switch in flight, what will happen to the engine? Why? (Ref FGU 69)

21. Why do aircraft engines have dual ignition systems? (Ref FGU 68)

22. Why is the battery in a light airplane only half as big as the one in your car? {Ref FGU 68)

23. What is the primary advantage of an alternator over a generator? (Ref FGU 69)

24. With the propeller set to fine pitch, it will develop the best performance during and
. In coarse pitch, its performance will be best in and at
(Ref. FGU 70)

25. With a fixed pitch propeller, why does engine RPM increase as you accelerate on take off? (Ref FGU 70, Fig. 35)

26. With a constant speed propeller, where do you set the RPM control for take off? (Ref' FGU 71)

27. On the Tachometer, what does the yellow colour code signify? (Rej FGU 7-l, Fig 4:)

28. How does water vapour (humidity) reduce the power output? (Ref FGU 76)

29. Why should you stop the engine if the oil pressure has not registered on the oil pressure gauge within 10 seconds of the engine
being started? (Ref' FGU 79)

30. On starting the engine, there is a loud bang (a backfire) and you see evidence of burning and smoke at the front of the engine.
(Ref' FGU 79 & 80)
(a): What happened?

(b): What action do you take?

(c): Suppose that the engine won't start. What do you do?

31. When you move both switches to OFF during an engine test, it is called the magneto check and
is more properly done at RPM just before shutdown. (Ref. FGU 80)

from the Ground Up Workbook

Aircraft Operations: Aero Engines
32. When you inspect the propeller, it is a good idea to run your hand along the leading edge. Why? (Ref. FGU 72)
33. Why do pilots turn the engine over several times by hand (that is, turn the prop by hand) prior to attempting a start in
extremely cold weather? (Ref FGU 81)
ANSWERS
1. (a) It is air cooled. (b): On the underside. It is an updraft
carburetor. (c): TuJo. (d): nuo, top and bottom of each cylinder.
2. Induction, compression, power and exhaust.
3. Timing is set before top dead centre in order to begin
combustion a little before the piston starts on the
down stroke. When the piston is on the way down,
maximum gaseous expansion (power) will occur.
4. (a): Three. (b)· Four quarts.
5. As you climb, the air becomes less dense. Efficient
engine operation requires about 15 pounds of air to
1 pound offuel. As aircraft powered by normal!y
aspirated engines (engines that are not supercharged or
turbocharged) climb to higher altitudes, the air becomes
less dense. The "charge'' has less burning capacity
and, as a result, the power stroke is weakened.
6. With reference to the grauity fuel system:
(a): The right tank is vented to the left tank. ln
most airplanes, the caps are also vented.
(b): To ensure that air will not be drawn into
the fuel system through the primer.
7. Fuel tanks should be kept full to prevent condensation
forming inside the tank and water contamination of the fuel.
8 With reference to aircraft fuels:
(a): 80 - red, 100LL - blue, 100 - green
(b): The number 80 represents the percentage of
"octane" in the fuel, as compared to heptane (which
would be 20%). Octane is a substance possessing
minimum detonating qualities. Heptane 1s a substance
possessing maximum detonating qualities.
(c): Fuel of the next higher octane rating. Howeuer, in an
emergency, the engine will run on automobile gas (MOGAS).
9. With reference to detonation:
(a) Explosive burning of the mixture.
(b): Mixture too lean or use of a fuel
that is of too low an octane.
(c): The power decreases There is uibration and/
or high cylinder head temperature.
(d): Reduce power, enrich the mixture. Use
fuel of a higher octane rating.
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10. A RICH mixture is used in a climb because it is close to the
best power ratio (1.14), and it assists in engine cooling.
When a RICH mixture is selected, some of the cold fuel 1s not
burned, therefore, it has a cooling effect on the cylinders
11 1:18.
12. The carburetor's venturi speeds up the .flow of air creating a
low pressure which draws fuel from the nozzle in a fine spray.
13. Moue mixture control towards LEAN until RPM
peaks. Continue towards LEAN until the RPM
just starts to drop. Ease the control back towards
RICH until the RPM returns to its peaked position.
This will giue you the correct fuel/air ratio.
14. -5 °C. 30'C.
Note: Carburetor icing may cause complete engine
failure, if the ice builds up and substantially reduces
the induction flow of air into the engine.
15. With reference to carburetor icing and hot air selection·
(a): If the intake filter has become plugged with foreign
material (rain, snow, sand, grasshoppers, etc.), the
engine would, of course. stop, due to air deprivation. An
alternate source of air would keep the engine running.
The alternate source is usually in a position where it
will not be fouled, even though it may ingest some
foreign particles. Dirty mr is better than none.
(b): Set the RPM to run up power. Moue the carburetor air
control to HOT. There will be a drop in RPM whether or
not there is ice. Wait 15 seconds. Moue the carburetor air
control to COLD. If the RPM returns to its original setting,
there was no ice. If a higher RPM is attained, there was ice.
Note: If there is substantial ice when the control is moued to
HOT, there will be a considerable decrease in the engine RPM
and it will run rough. As the ice clears, the RPM will increase.
16. The engine is more susceptible to ice at low power settings
when the engine is not producing as much heat. Even a small
amount of ice could freeze the butter.fly (throttle) ualve closed
preventing it from opening it when you need to add power.
17. As you descend, air becomes denser but the fuel input remains
the same if you do not enrich the mixture. Consequently, the
fuel/atr mixture becomes much leaner. Detonation and even
engine failure are risks when you open the throttle to level off
18. A drop in manifold pressure is the first
indication of carburetor ice forming.

19. Even distribution offuel to all cylinders. Better cooling. Fuel
saving. Increased power. Elimination of carburetor icing.
20. Nothing. It will continue to run as before. The master
switch controls only the current from the battery to the
electrical system. The aero engine (unlike the engine of a
car) derives the spark to the plugs from the magnetos or
from solid state ignition packs which are powered by the
alternator. Both are separate from the electrical system.
21 If one ignition system fails, the other will keep the engine
running, but at a reduced power of about 15 °�.
:22. The load on the aircraft battery is much less as the
aircraft's ignition system (magnetos or solid state)
supplies the power (spark) to ignite the fuel/air mixture
in the cylinders. In a car, that power is supplied by the
battery which must, therefore, have greater capacity.
23. The alternator will produce maximum
current at low operating speeds.
24. (Fine Pitch) Take Off Climb. (Coarse
Pitch) Cruise High Altitude.
25. When the throttle is fully open but the airplane is not
moving, the engine is under maximum load and the
propeller has its maximum angle of attack. As the airplane
accelerates, some of the relative airj1ow comes from in
front. This decreases the angle of attack, off loading
the engine with a resultant increase in the RPM.
26. Fully forward (the full fine angle of attack position).
From the Ground Up Workbook
Aircraft Operations: Aero Engines
27. Caution range (All yellow colour codes indicate CAUTION.)
28. The water vapour displaces some of the air, thus
reducing the "charge" (the fuel/air mixture).
29. if oil pressure does not register, it means that oil is not
being dehuered in sufficient quantity to the bearings
Without sufficient oil, the bearings will quickly erode.
30. With reference to a baclifire:
(a). There was fuel in the intake which
ignited back through the intake value.
(b): Continue cranking the engine When it starts, the
fire will be sucked through and blown out the exhaust.
(c): Stop cranking. Moue the switches to OFF, the fuel to OFF,
the mixture to OFF. Get out of the aircraft and put out the
fire with your fire extinguisher. Just slam the base of the
extinguisher through the filter and squirt in the intake.
31. Live. Idle
32. Small nicks are not easily seen but they
can be felt with the hand
33. Aviation oils not only congeal when very cold but will also
form a seal between the mouing parts. In extreme cold, the
drag from heavy oil on pistons prevents the crankshaft from
turning freely. Rotating the propeller (turning the engine
over) by hand before start up helps break the seal.frees
moving parts and distributes oil (lubrication) to them. It
also reduces the load on the battery and starter motor.
Air Law
law/ n. 1 a rule enacted or customary
in a community and recog nized as
enjoining or prohibiting certain actions
f
and enforced by the im position o
f
penalties. b a body o such rules.
2 the controlling influence o laws;
f
a state of respect for laws. 3 laws

collectively as a socia system o

l r
subject of study. 4 bindin g force

or effect (their wor d is law).

Air Law: Aerodromes, Air Rules & Procedures

2 Air Law
2.1 Aerodromes, Air Rules & Procedures
1. In the Southern Domestic Airspace, runways are numbered to the nearest
bearing. In the Northern Domestic Airspace, which is north of a line running from
w , w , w
the runways are numbered to the nearest , bearing. (Ref. FGU 89 & 98)

2. You are to fly into an unfamiliar aerodrome. What publication should you consult to find the necessary aerodrome data? (Ref:
FGU 188)

3. You approach the uncontrolled aerodrome (Haphazard) reproduced in the diagram below from the southwest with the
intention of landing. (Ref" FGU 93)

(a): What frequency should you use to alert local traffic of your presence? (Ref" FGU 94)

(b): When should you call "Haphazard Traffic"?

(c): At what height should you cross the field to observe the windsock and runway? (Ref: FGU 94)

(d): What do the two crosses on the southeast end of runway 30 mean? (Ref: FGU 91)

(e): At what altitude do you fly the circuit? (Ref FGU 94)

(f): What runway should you use?

(g): When you are joining the circuit at the airport, at what altitude and from where,
should you cross the runway from the upwind side? (Ref FGU 93)

(h): Approximately how much serviceable runway is available? (Ref. Diagram)

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 Air Law: Aerodromes, Air Rules & Procedures

4. The colour of the runway lights is , the taxiway lights are

Across the approach end of the runway, there is a row of , lights and across the upwind end
a row of , lights. (Ref. FGU 91)

5. The VASIS is set at 2.5 degrees to 3 degrees glide slope. Pencil in the red lights in the diagram below when you are on the glide
slope. (Ref FGU 92. Ftg 4)

08
6. You are on approach to a runway served by a PAPI installation. All 4 lights of the wing bar show red. What is your position
relative to the approach slope ] (Ref FGU 92)

7. What is the purpose of a "Mandatory Frequency"? In what publication will you find listed the radio frequency that is
prescribed for use in the specified area where a mandatory frequency is in place? (Ref. FGU 94 & 188)

8. What are the approximate dimensions of the Altimeter Setting Region? (Ref FGU 99, Fig 10)

(a): Horizontally

(b): Vertically

9. What do you set on the subscale of the altimeter when you are flying in the following? (Ref. FGU 99)
(a): Standard Pressure Region?

(b): Altimeter Setting Region?

10. The Canadian Domestic Airspace is divided into seven classifications, each identified by a single letter of the alphabet. Class
A Airspace includes all controlled high level airspace between 18,000 feet ASL and FL 600 inclusive. Class B Airspace includes
all controlled low level airspace between 12,500 feet ASL and up to but not including 18,000 feet ASL. As a Private Pilot under
training, you will not use either of these two classes of airspace. Class F Airspace includes Restricted or Advisory Areas.
Describe the airspaces in which you will fly when under training under their respective letters: C, D, E & G. (Ref FGU 101 • 105)
Class C

Class D

Class E

Class G

From the Ground Up Workbook

Air Law: Aerodromes, Air Rules & Procedures

11. , are low level airways that extend out from and into VHF Omnirange
stations. They are approximately , nautical miles wide. They are based at
, and extend up to the base of the . ATC control is
provided for , traffic. (R,f. FGll :ooJ

12. Near Vancouver, there is an area on the map that is marked CYA 125 (T). What do the letters and numbers mean and in what
airspace will this area now be included? (Ref FGV IN)

13. A VFR position report should include /Ref. rcu 111J

(a):

(b):
(c):
(d):

(e):

(f):

14. You plan a VFR trip from Victoria to Squamish to go skiing at Whistler. Must you file a flight plan? (Ref- FGU 1111

15. You find it impossible to file a flight plan from Rosetown to Shaunavon, Sask. What do the regulations require with regard to
this flight} (Ref FGU Ill)

16. Halfway to Shaunavon, you decide to divert to Moose Jaw to attend the band festival. You land at a friend's farm and head for
town, forgetting to call your responsible person at Rosetown. What should this person do? (Ref FGU 114)

17. You file from Edmonton to Port Angeles, Washington, and include ADCUS (advise customs) on your flight plan. When you
land, there are no Customs personnel waiting for you. Why not? (Ref FGU 114)

18. You plan to fly the Victor Airway from Regina to Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. You have no ADF equipment, but do have VOR.
(Ref FGU 102 & 105)
(a): What is the class of airspace you will use?
(b): What is the minimum altitude at which you should fly?
(c): What action must you take with regard to your flight plan at Saskatoon?

19. What is an air traffic control clearance? (RrJ- FGU 110)

What is an air traffic control instruction? /Rtf FGU 1!11

20. This question deals with Minimum VFR altitudes. (Ref FGU 117)

{a): What is the minimum altitude you must maintain over open water in the Gulf of Georgia in Class G airspace?

(b): What is the minimum altitude at which you may fly over a town?

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 Air Law: Aerodromes, Air Rules & Procedures

(c): What is the minimum altitude at which you may overfly an aerodrome 1

(d): What is the minimum altitude at which you may overfly a penitentiary}

21. You are flying westbound on aVFR flight from Toronto to Thunder Bay, Ontario. What should be your cruising altitude? (Ref
FGU 115)

22. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate VFR weather minima. (Ref FGU 116)

Class C:
Visibility ; Cloud: Horizontally Vertically
Class D:
Visibility ; Cloud: Horizontally Vertically
Class G above 1,000 feet above the surface:
Visibility ; Cloud: Horizontally Vertically

23. What is the visibility limit for SpecialVFR? (Ref" FGU 115 & 116)

24. When Flying SpecialVFR, /Ref FGU 116 & 117)

(a): What is the vertical visibility requirement?
(b): Who is responsible for obstacle clearance?
(c): Where is it authorized?

25. You depart Hornby Island (near Comox) forVictoria. As you nearVictoria, the weather deteriorates and the ceiling drops to
600 or 700 feet above the water level. There is some fracto stratus hanging below the general ceiling which you fly around.
The visibility is reduced to about 1 mile. (Ref FGU 116 & 1 J?)
(a): Are you legallyVFR?
(b): Will ATC clear you intoVictoria to land?
(c): Why?
(d): What course of action is open to you if you are prohibited from entering the control zone
because of conflicting IFR traffic?

26. To conduct a VFR Over the Top (VFR OTT) flight, your departure and climb, descent and arrival must be conducted in
; conditions, even though the cruise portion is conducted at least
over a cloud layer. (Ref FGU 117)

27. VFR flight may be conducted in Class B Airspace. What are the applicable conditions? (ReJ FGU 117)

(a):

(b):

28. In addition to the basic information that is required on aVFR Flight Plan, what additional information must be clearly defined
forVFR flight in Class B Airspace? (Ref. FGU 117)

29. No person shall operate an aircraft over land unless there is carried on board survival equipment, sufficient for the survival
on the ground of each person on board, given the geographical area, the season of the year and the anticipated climatic
variations, that provide a means for (Ref FGU 119)
(a):

(b):
(c):

(d):

From the Ground Up workbook

Air Law: Aerodromes, Air Rules & Procedures

30. You are inbound to Vancouver from Port Hardy, in the TCA, being vectored by ATC. It appears that your present heading and
altitude will take you straight into a mountain near Horseshoe Bay. Who is responsible for terrain clearance and what action
do you take? (Ref- see An�wers)

31. The Certificate of Airworthiness must be renewed annually. How is this done? (Ref. FGU 107)

32. What do each of the following light signals mean to an aircraft in flight? (Ref FGU 97)

(a): Steady Green

(b): Steady Red
(c): Flashing Green
(d): Flashing Red

(e): Red Flare

What do the following light signals mean to an air craft on the ground?
(f): Flashing Green
(g): Steady green
(h): Flashing red
(i): Steady red

33. Define "night". (Ref FGU 108)

34. Must you wear a parachute when flying aerobatics in Canada? (Ref FGU 109)

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ANSWERS
1. Ten degrees magnetic. lnuvik, Yellowknife,
Churchill, Iqualuit. 10 degrees true.
2. The Canada Flight Supplement.
3. (a): Use the assigned MF or ATF. (b): Call before entering
the specified area, downwind, on final and when clear
of the runway. (c): Cross well above (at least 500 feet)
circuit height (d): They indicate that the portion of the
runway, between the two crosses, is unsuitable for aircraft
use. (e): 1,350 feet. (f): Runway 30. (g): Cross about
2/3 of the way down at circuit height. (h) • 1,000 feet.
4. White. Blue. Green. Red.
5. With reference to VAS!S.
08
6. Too low and below the approach slope.
7 It isa discreet frequency for use within 5 miles of the
airport for which airport data and traffic advisories are
broadcast. Pilots are to report on the MF, so that all traffic
in the vicinity is known. Canada Flight Supplement
8. (a). It is the same as the Southern Domestic
Airspace. (b)· From the surface to 17,999 feet.
9. (a): 29.92" Hg. (b): The altimeter setting
of the nearest station en route.
10 Airspace descriptions:
C: Control Zones and some TCA's, with
positive control of all aircraft.
D: Controlled airspace below B and outside of C.
This includes all the low level areas and airways up
to 12,500feet, the Control Zones not designated as
C and most TCAs. The airspace above FL600.
E: Essentially the same as Class D except not above
FL600. No separation is provided for VFR aircraft.
G: Uncontrolled airspace.
11. Victor airways. 8.68. 2,200 feet AGL
Overlying high level airspace. !FR.
12. Vancouver Advisory Area Number 125, wherein there
is extensive flight training up to 2000 feet. Class F.
from the Ground Up Workbook
Air Law: Aerodromes, Air Rules & Procedures
13. VFR position reports should include:
(a): Identification; e.g. Cessna 172 Charlie Golf
Oscar Uniform Charlie (not "Old Uncle Charlie").
(b): Position; e.g. 10 east, OR Over
Denby (not "Oh, pretty close").
(c): Time; e.g. 1644 (not "a quarter to five").
(d): Altitude; e.g. Four thousand five hundred (not "4.5").
(e): VFR Flight Plan.
(f): Destination. This is the place you intend
to land, not your next reporting point.
14. You are required to file a Flight Plan or leave a
Flight Itinerary with a responsible person.
15. You must leave a Flight Itinerary with a responsible person.
16. Tuientyjour hours after your scheduled ETA, the
person with whom you left the Flight Itinerary
should notify someone in authority (ATC, RCC,
FSS, CF, RCMP) that you have not reported in.
17. In practice, transborder pilots have found that ADCUS
on a flight plan simply does not work unless there is 24
hour customs service established at the airport. In some
cases, even then Customs has not been notified of your
arrival. Rather than be embarrassed and delayed, it is
wise to phone Customs before leaving if there is any
doubt as to their availability at your port of entry.
18. (a): D. (b)- 6,500. (c): File an arrival report with ATC.
19. An authorization from ATC to proceed within controlled
airspace, under specific conditions and, once accepted,
must be complied with. A directive by ATC for air
traffic control and must be complied with provided
the safety of the aircraft is not jeopardized.
20. (a): 500 feet. (b): 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within
2,000 feet of the aircraft. (c): 2,000 feet (d): All penitentiaries
are in restricted airspace. You may not fly over them.
21. Even thousands plus 500 feet.
22. C: 3 miles flight and ground visibility. Cloud - 1
mile horizontally and 500 feet vertically.
D 3 miles f light visibility. Cloud - 1 mile
horizontally and 500 feet vertically.
G above 1,000 feet AGL: Visibility - 1 mile by day, 3 miles at
night. Cloud - 2,000 feet horizontally and 500 feet vertically.
Note: Flight Visibility must be 2 miles in certain
mountainous regions. See AIM RAC 2.12.
23 For Special VFR (SVFR): Flight and ground
visibility of at ieast 1 mile.
Air Law: Aerodromes, Air Rules & Procedures
24. (a).· You must be able to see the ground or
water. (b): The pilot. (c): In Control Zor.es
25. (a): No. (b): Yes, providing there is no !FR conflict.
(c): Because the weather is equal to Special VFR limits.
(d): Return to Hornby and next time
check the weather forecast.
26. VFR. 1,000 feet.
27 (a): In Class B Airspace, VFR flight must be conducted
in accordance with the procedures for !FR flight.
(b): It must be conducted in VFR conditions.
28. VFR Altitude Route
29. (a). Starting a fire. (b). Prouiding shelter. (c): Providing
or purifying water. (d). Visually signaling distress
30. You, as pilot-in-command, are responsible for
terrain clearance. You must take the appropriate
action: turn away and tel! the Controller.
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31. The aircraft must be maint�ined in accordance with CARS
Part V. The owner must ensure that ADs and modifications
that are carried out are recorded in the Journey Log.
Note: The C of A is intended to be a permanent document.
It is kept in force and is ualid only by the entries of the
work above so entered and certified in the Journey Log.
32. (a): Clear to !and. (b): Do not land. Continue in the
circuit. Give way to other aircraft. (c). Recall (d): The
airport is unsafe. Do not land. (e): Do not land for the
time being. (fJ: Cleared to taxi. (g). Cleared for take­
off (h): Taxi clear of the landing area. (i): Stop.
33. "Night" is defined as that time when the centre of the
sun's disc is 6 degrees or more below the horizon. OR, One
half hour after sunset to one half hour before sunrise.
34 No.
Meteorology
Meteorology/ n. 1 the study of the
processes and phenomena of the
atmosphere, esp. as a means of
forecasting the weather. 2 the
atmospheric character of a region.
Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Theory)

3 Meteorology
3.1 Aviation Weather (Theory)
1. The name given to the atmospheric layer in which aircraft fly is the
The top of this layer is called the (Ref FGU 123 & 124)

2. The !CAO standard atmosphere for sea level is? (Ref FGU 124)
(a): Pressure
(b): Temperature
(c): Lapse Rate

3. Clouds are broken into four major categories: high (above 20,000 feet), middle (6,500 to 20,000 feet), low (surface to 6,500 feet)
and clouds of vertical development. Name the different types oflow and vertical clouds. (Ref FGU 12s & 126)
LOW VERTICAL
(a):

(b):
(c):

4. What is the name given to the various types of sky condition. What is the extent of cloud? (Ref: rcu 126)
NAME ABBREVIATION CLOUD
(a):
{b):
(c):
(d):
(e):

5. In the diagram below, label the Low, High, Trough, Col and Ridge. (Ref FGU 128)

10,e-----

-------1020

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 Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Theory)

6. Wind blows about a LOW and about a HIGH. At altitude,

the circulation (wind) is to the contours. Near the surface, friction causes the wind to
change direction. (Ref: FGU 130 & 131)
(a): Which way?
(b): How much?
(c): Is this called "backing" or "veering"?

7. On the accompanying diagram, show the direction of winds about a LOW and a HIGH. Use broken arrows to indicate the
direction of upper winds and solid arrows to show the direction of surface winds. (Ref: FGU 129)

8. At night or when there is a covering of snow, the sides of a mountain experience radiation cooling. The air in contact
with the surface cools and becomes denser and heavier and flows down the slope into the valley. This is called a(n)
wind. When the slopes are subject to radiation heating during the day, the wind blows up
from the valley, this is a(n) wind. (Ref FGU 131)

9. A mountain wave produces and clouds. In

mountain wave conditions, the altimeter can read over feet in error on the
side. (Ref FGU 131)

10. We know the wind backs from surface friction (Question 6 & Question 7). If there is a deep LOW just south of the Queen
Charlotte Islands and you are approaching Vancouver Airport to land on runway 26, how will the wind affect your approach?
(Ref. FGU 133)

11. The jet stream across Canada is often associated with the Maritime Arctic front and tucks in just below the T'.ropopause. It is
shaped like a ribbon, is 3,000 to 7,000 feet thick and 300 miles wide. Winds within the jet stream may be as great as 250 knots.
If you are flying a light jet into this wind, what would be your best option to escape it? (Ref: FGU 134)

12. What is Clear Air Turbulence? (Ref FGU 135)

13. What is the name given to the process whereby water vapour changes into water droplets? When this happens, does it give
off or absorb heat? (Ref: FGU 136)

14. What is sublimation l (Ref' FGU 136)

15. The relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of a given volume of air can hold compared
to what it could hold if saturated. As temperature decreases, the relative humidity . Fog or low
clouds will usually form at a temperature just above the saturation point, which is called the
(Ref: FGU 137)

From the Ground Up workbook

Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Theory)

16. With reference to Question 15, it is apparent that temperature is an important factor in weather. Cooling and heating of the
lower atmosphere can produce or dissipate clouds or fog. How is this cooling and heating accomplished? (RcJ- FGU 137)

17. The ISA lapse rate of 1.98 degrees C per 1,000 feet is the figure used to calibrate the altimeter. If the lapse rate is less than
the !SA figure, the air mass is considered to be , if above it is
Unsaturated air has a lapse rate of . It is called the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate {and is a favourite
examination question). The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate is . (Ref- FGU 138-139)

18. If the temperature is +14 degrees C, the Dew Point +2 degrees C and there is some surface heating producing convective cloud,
what is the base of that cloud? (Ref FGU 139)

19. Air is considered to be stable when it is {warmer or cooler) than the air mass
surrounding it. Clouds formed in stable air will be of the type. (Ref FGU 139 & 140)

20. In the northern hemisphere, a frontal wave moves from west to east. Using the approved symbols, on the diagram below,
label the fronts, the low, relative temperatures and indicate the airflow. (Ref FGU 143)

21. At a warm front, moist and stable air {in Canada mP in winter and mT in summer) advances on the retreating cold air. This
warm air ascends over the cold air in a gentle slope of about 1:200 forming layer type clouds. Label the clouds, air masses,
warm frontal surface and precipitation in the diagram below. (Ref. FGU 144)

___
�
_._
--
•..•
11'1

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 Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Theory)

22. At the cold front, the cold air pushes in under the warm air. Because it moves quickly, the frontal surface is steep causing an
abrupt lifting effect. As a result, the clouds are of the vertical development type. Label the clouds, air masses and cold frontal
surface and precipitation in the diagram at the top of the following page. (Re] FGU 14.J)

23. The clouds and weather at the warm front may extend over thousands of square miles. If the air is stable, the cloud coverage
will be layer type cloud with no turbulence. The degree of frontal lift, the moisture content and stability determine the
severity of the weather. Describe the weather conditions associated with a warm front as they relate to the headings listed
below: (Ref fGU H6 & 1•P)
(a): Wind
(b): Temperature
(c): Visibility
(d): Turbulence
(e): Precipitation
(f): Icing

24. When a body of air rises, it and . When this happens, its relative
humidity increases. When the relative humidity reaches 100% or the level, clouds form and the
water vapour into droplets. What other factor must be present in the atmosphere to enable the
vapor to condense? (Ref FGU 12')

25. List the lifting processes associated with cloud formation. (Ref FGU 126)

26. List the various types of precipitation with their symbols? (Ref FGU 165)

27. What is fog? (Ref. FGU 148)

28. List the six types of fog. (Ref FGU 1--18 & H9)

29. Instability, moisture content and the lifting agent determine the intensity of thunderstorms. List seven dangers associated
with flying into thunderstorms. (Ref. FGU 15�)

From the Ground Up Workbook

Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Theory)

30. Jfyou must fly through a thunderstorm, what technique do you use? (Ref FGU 153)

31. Large water droplets freeze when the temperature drops slightly below freezing; small droplets may not freeze but remain in
liquid form down to -40 degrees C. The accretion of rime ice formed by contact with small droplets is usually slow and not
dangerous. Give four reasons why the accretion of dear ice is dangerous. (Ref: FGU 156}

32. List the four classifications of turbulence. (Ref FGU 158}

ANSWERS

1. Troposphere. Tropopause. 7. See diagram below.

2. (a): 29.92" Hg. (b): +15 degrees C.

(c). 198 degrees C per 1, 000 feet.

3. LOW VERTICAL

(a): Stratus Cumulus

(b): Stratocumulus Towering Cumulus

(c): Nimbostratus Cumulonimbus

4. NAME ABBREVlATlON CLOUD 8. Ka taba tic. Anabatic.

(a): Clear CLR/SKC Nil below 1,0000 feet/Nil 9. Lenticular. Rotor. 3,000. High.
(b) Few FEW 2/8 or less 10. As you descend through 1,200 feet to 800

(c): Scattered SCT 3/8 to 4/8 feet, you will pick up some right drift.

(d) Broken BKN 5/8 to 7/8 11. Climb to the north.

(e): Overcast ovc 8/8 12. Clear Air Turbulence is turbulence that occurs in
cloudless skies. lt is associated with wind shear near
5. See diagram below.
a jet stream, a sharp trough or a mountain wave.

13. Condensation. Jt gives off heat.

14 Sublimation is the process by which water

vapour changes directly into ice crystals OR ice
crystals change directly into water vapour.

15. Water vapour Increases. Dewpoint.

16. From below by radiation cooling and radiation heating

of land surfaces OR as a result of the movement
of moist air over cold or warm surfaces.

6. Antic!ock.wise. Clockwise. Parallel. 17. Stable. Unstable. 3 degrees c per 1,000

feet. 1.5 degrees C per 1,000 feet.
(a)· inwards into a LOW and outwards out of a HIGH.
18. 4,000 feet AGL.
(b): 30 degrees.
Step 1. DALR = 3 degrees C per 1,000 feet
(c): Backing
Step 2. Temperature spread to Dewpomt is 12 degrees.

Step 3. 12 divided by 3 = 4. Thus, the answer is 4,000 feet.

19. Cooler. Layer.

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 Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Theory)

20. See diagram below. 23. (a): Wind: Gradual veer with frontal passage.
(b): Temperature: Gradual rise. (c)· Visibility: Restricted in
precipitation and fog. (d): Turbulence: Usually smooth, some
light to moderate in embedded cumulus.
(e): Precipitation: Continuous from 50 to 100 miles ahead
of the front. (f)· Icing· ln winter, there can be freezing
rain in the cool sector below the frontal surface.

24. Expands. Cools. Condensation.

Condenses. Condensation nuclei.

25. Orographic, convective, frontal, turbulence, convergence

21 See diagram below.
26. Dnzzle, DZ; Snow Pellets, GS; Rain, RA, lee Pellets,
PE, Hail, GR; Snow Grains, SG; Snow, SN.

27. Cloud, usually stratus, based at ground level.

28. Radiation, advection, upslope, steam,frontal, ice.

29. Turbulence, lightning, hail, icing, gusts,

unreliable altimeter readings.

30. Hold the attitude and power constant and

22. See diagram below. ride with the up and down drafts.

31. The rate of accumulation can be very fast. Loss of

lift by changing the shape of the wing. Increased
weight to overload Increased drag. Vibration.

32. Light. moderate, severe and extreme.

WARM AIR

From the Ground Up Workbook

Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Applications)

3.2 Aviation Weather (Applications)

Using the Graphic Area Forecast (GFA), Aerodrome Forecast (TAF), Upper Level Winds and Temperature Forecast (FD), and the
Aviation Weather Reports (METAR), all of which are provided within this chapter, answer the following questions. (Book references
for this section are found in FGU 160 to 174.)

1. For each of the GFA charts, what is the local time in Toronto, which corresponds to the charts valid time?

2. O n which GFA chart is the !FR Outlook found?

3. Describe what, if any, icing conditions are forecast at 9,000 feet on the GFA for Ottawa at 18002.

4. What is the direction and speed of the warm front over Northwestern Ontario depicted on the 00002 GFA?

5. On the 06002 GFA, what is forecasted as the cause of the turbulence between the surface and 4,000 feet just north of Lake
Superior?

6. Based on the pressure gradient indicated by the isobars on the 18002 GFA, would you expect the surface winds over Kingston
to be light or strong?

7. What is the lowest forecast visibility for the London area at 18002. What is causing the reduction in visibility?

8. At 00002, what is the lowest cloud layer forecast in the GFA over the Muskoka area (Georgian Bay)? Could these forecasted
cloud conditions create a ceiling?

9. At 06002, what type of icing does the GFA indicate over Ottawa at 12,000 feet?

10. What !FR weather does the GFA Outlook forecast over Northwestern Ontario after 06002?

11. Is the TAF for London Ontario valid for 12 or 24 hours?

12. What do the letters AMD stand for at the beginning of the Muskoka TAF?

13. Is the TAF for Petawawa based on weather observations that are taken by a human or a machine?

14. Based on the TAF, what is the lowest visibility forecast for Trenton airport at 1200V

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 Meteorology: Auiation Weather (Applications)

15. Using the blank space provided below, draw a cross section of the clouds and weather depicted by the GFA for the Toronto
area at 18002.

16. Decode the 17002 METAR for London.

17. What are the forecast temperature, wind direction and wind speed for Ottawa at 9,000 feet at 18002?

18. Based on the forecast upper winds for Ottawa from 0600-17002, how would you describe the winds as you ascend from 3,000
feet to 18,000 feet?

From the Ground Up Workbook

Meteorology: Auiation Weather (Applications)

References For Questions 1 To 18

METAR-TAF
LONDON
SPEC! CYXU 301430Z 18004KT 3SM BR BKN008 OVC110 RMK SF5AC2
METAR CYXU 3015002 21003KT 45M BR BKN010 OVC100 23/21 A3015 RMK SC6AC2 SLP206
SPEC! CYXU 3015352 19003KT 5SM HZ BKN014 OVClO0 RMK SC7AC1
METAR CYXU 3016002 26003KT 5SM HZ BKN016 OVC280 25/21 A3015 RMK SC7CI0 SLP206
METAR CYXU 3017002 29003KT SSM HZ OVC022 25/21 A3014 RMK sea SLP203

TAF CYXU 3017312 3018/3118 VRB03KT SSM HZ BKN020 TEMPO 3018/3118 P6SM NSW BKN025
FM302000 12004KT P6SM BKN025 TEMPO 3020/3103 6SM HZ SCT025
FM310300 12003KT 6SM BR SCT025 TEMPO 3103/3107 3SM BR BKN010
FM310700 16005KT SSM BR FEW150 TEMPO 3107/3114 15M BR BKN00S
RMK NXT FCST BY 002=

TORONTO PEARSON
METAR CYYZ 3015002 26008KT SSM HZ BKN016 OVC0S0 25/20 A3014 RMK SC7SC1 SLP204
METAR CYYZ 3016002 27005KT 65M HZ SCT022 BKN120 26/20 A3013 RMK SC3AC2 SLP202
METAR CYYZ 301700Z 31002KT 6SM HZ BKN024 OVC070 26/20 A3012 RMK SC7AC1 SLP199

TAF CYYZ 3017312 3018/3118 32005KT P6SM BKN025 TEMPO 3018/3020 SSM HZ BKN020 BECMG 3018/3020 18005KT
FM302000 14003KT P6SM BKN025 TEMPO 3020/3104 65M HZ
FM310400 12003KT P6SM SCT025 TEMPO 3104/3113 25M BR BKN015 BECMG 3107/3109 18004KT
RMK NXT FCST BY 212=

TRENTON
METAR CYTR 3015002 21009KT 6SM HZ BKN060 24/20 A3013 RMK SC4 SLP203
METAR CYTR 3016002 21008KT 6SM HZ BKN075 24/20 A3013 RMK AC4 SLP202
METAR CYTR 301700Z 21009KT 6SM HZ BKN075 24/20 A3013 RMK ACS SLP201

TAF CYTR 3017302 3018/3118 21010KT P6SM BKN080 TEMPO 3018/3022 5SM HZ
FM302200 VRB03KT P6SM FEW030 TEMPO 3022/3106 SSM HZ BKN020
FM310600 VRB02KT P6SM FEW030 TEMPO 3106/3113 2SM BR BKN030
FM311500 21008KT P6SM SCT030
RMK NXT FCST BY 00Z=

KINGSTON
METAR CYGK 301S00Z 19010KT 7SM FEW030 SCT100 BKN280 22/20 A3016 RMK CU1AC2 CJ2 SLP211
METAR CYGK 3016002 19011KT ?SM FEW025 SCT100 BKN280 23/20 A3015 RMK CU1AC2Cl2 SLP210

TAF AMO CYGK 301752Z 3017/3102 19010KT P6SM SCT0S0 BKN100 TEMPO 3017/3020 BKN030
FM302000 18005KT P6SM BKN025 TEMPO 3020/3102 4SM HZ BKN020
RMK NXT FCST BY 202=

OTTAWA
METAR CYOW 3015002 26010G15KT 35M HZ FEW020 BKN060 24/19 A3012 RMK HZ2CF1SC4 SLP199
METAR CYOW 301600Z 27008KT 3SM HZ SCT020 OVC0S0 23/19 A3014 RMK HZ2CF2SC4 SLP204
METAR CYOW 3017002 27007KT 3SM HZ FEW020 BKN057 24/19 A3012 RMK HZ2CF1SC4 SLP199

TAF CYOW 3017312 3018/3118 27005KT 35M HZ BKN020 TEMPO 3018/3021 6SM HZ BKN040
FM302100 22005KT P6SM BKN030 TEMPO 3021/3108 SCT025
FM310800 18005KT P6SM SCT025 TEMPO 3108/3114 SSM BR BKN02S
RMK NXT FCST BY 212=

MUSKOKA
SPEC! CYQA 3014162 28005KT 3SM BR BKN009 OVC030 RMK SF6SC2 CU ASOCTD VSBY VRBL 2-4
METAR CYQA 3015002 28004KT 3SM HZ BKN009 OVC025 21/19 A3014 RMK SF6SC2 CU ASOCTD VSBY VRBL 2-4 SLP205
SPEC! CYQA 3015232 28004KT 3SM HZ BKN012 OVC025 RMK SF6SC2 CU ASOCTD VSBY VRBL 2-4
METAR CYQA 301600Z 32003KT 3SM HZ BKN012 OVC025 21/19 A3014 RMK SF6SC2 CU ASOCTD VSBY VRBL 2-4
SLP206

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 Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Applications)

SPEC! CYQA 3016332 28004KT 3SM HZ BKN016 OVC025 RMK SF5SC3 CU ASOCTD VSBY V RBL 2-4
METAR CYQA 3017002 26002KT 4SM HZ BKN016 OVC025 22/18 A3014 RMK SFSSC3 cu ASOCTD OCNL BRK IN ave SLP206
AMO TAF CYQA 3016042 3016/3102 32005KT P6SM BKN025 TEMPO 3016/3018 3SM HZ OVC020 BECMG 3018/3019 FEW030
RMK NXT FCST BY 202=

PETAWAWA
SPEC! CYWA 3014542 AUTO 12003KT 3SM BKN013 BKN093 22/20 A3010
METAR CYWA 3015002 AUTO 12003KT 3 1/2SM OVC013 OVC093 22/20 A3010 RMK SLP194
SPEC! CYWA 301546Z AUTO 11004KT 3 1/2SM BKN016 23/20 A3010
METAR CYWA 3016002 AUTO 12004KT 3 1/2SM BKN016 22/20 A3010 RMK PCPN O.SMM PAST HR SLP195
SPEC! CYWA 3016482 AUTO 09003KT 3 1/2SM BKN028 BKN056 22/20 A3010
METAR CYWA 3017002 AUTO 14003KT 3 1/2SM BKN028 BKNOS6 23/20 A3010 RMK SLP194

TAF CYWA 3013302 3014/3102 VRB03KT SSM BR FEW030 BKN240 TEMPO 3014/3015 lSM BR
FM301500 VRB03KT P6SM SCT030 TEMPO 3015/3018 4SM HZ BKN020
RMK FCST BASED ON AUTO OBS. NXT FCST BY 202=

SUDBURY
METAR CYSB 3015002 05009KT 15SM FEW250 18/11 A3018 RMK Cll SLP221
METAR CYSB 3016002 02010KT 15SM FEW036 FEW250 19/11 A3018 RMK C U1Cl1 CLOS TR SLP222
METAR CYSB 3017002 02006KT 15SM FEW036 FEW250 20/11 A3017 RMK CU1Cll CLOS TR SLP220

TAF CYSB 3013302 3014/3102 01010KT P6SM FEW040 BECMG 3015/3017 35005KT
RMK NXT FCST BY 20Z=

SAULT STE. MARIE

METAR CYAM 3015002 08003KT 12SM SKC 19/12 A3019 RMK SLP227
METAR CYAM 3016002 19005KT 15SM FEW240 21/12 A3019 RMK CI1 SLP227
METAR CYAM 3017002 1300SKT 15SM FEW240 22/11 A3018 RMK CI1 SLP221

TAF CYAM 3013302 3014/3102 VRB01KT P6SM FEWlOO TEMPO 3014/3015 4SM BR BECMG 3019/3021 15008KT
RMK NXT FCST BY 202=

Upper Wind and Temperature Forecasts (FDs) - Low Level

FCST BASED ON 301200 DATA VALID 301800 FOR USE 1700-21002

3000 6000 I 9000 12000 18000

YAM 9900 3006+14 I 2917+10 2924+04 2829-07
YOW 2611 2715+13 I 2718+09 2720+04 3022-07
YQG 0805 0206+15 0212+11 0114+07 3412-05

FCST BASED ON 301200 DATA VALID 310000 FOR USE 2100-06002

3000 6000 9000 12000 18000

YAM 1909 2516+15 2722+10 2726+04 2632-06
YOW 2707 2909+13 2913+10 3016+06 3020-05
YQG 0808 0607+16 0509+12 0409+07 3509-04

FCST BASED ON 301200 DATA VALID 311200 FOR USE 0600-17002

3000 6000 9000 I 12000 18000

YAM 2237 2435+19 2436+12
I 2438+05 2542-06
YOW
YQG
2211
1912
2513+13
1708+16
2613+10
9900+13
II 2714+06
9900+08
2819-05
9900-03

Upper Wind and Temperature Forecasts (FDs) - High Level

DATA BASED ON 301200Z

VALID 3018002 FOR USE 1700-21002. TEMPS NEGABV 24000

YOW
24000
2926-22
30000
293338
34000
283547
39000
273755
I 45000
283861
53000
292262
YYB 2830-21 283238 293347 293456 293761 292661
YYZ 2924·20 293836 294045 294055 293763 301963

From the Ground Up Workbook

Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Applications)

DATA BASED ON 3012002

VALID 3100002 FOR USE 2100-06002. TEMPS NEG ABV 24000

YOW
24000
3024-21
30000
312939
I 34000
313448
I 39000 45000 I 53000
I 313857 303661 292361
YYB 3132-20 324337
I
325047 325457 304863 I 292962
YYZ 3322-20 333736 334246 334357 323963 I 312064

DATA BASED ON 3012002

VALID 3112002 FOR USE 0600-17002. TEMPS NEG ABV 24000

24000 I 30000 II 34000 39000 I 45000 53000

YOW 2722-18 I 292235 312845 323656 I 322666 311965
YYB 2634-18 I 274034 I 284144 283955 I 293266 282264
YYZ 2608-17 I 281034 311444 321756 321167 290966

SIG MET WSCN33 CWTO

There are no SIGMET {S) in effect

AIRMET WACN33
There are no AIRMET (S) in effect

For complete weather briefings, c:ontact a Flight Information Centre (FIC).

Data provided by Environment Canada

ANSWERS

1. 18002 14:00 local. 00002 - 20:00 local. 06002 - 02:00 local 14. The lowest visibility at 12002 for Trenton is
forecast to be 2 statute miles in mist.
2. The !FR Outlook is always found on the last of the
three Clouds and Weather charts (12 hour forecast). 15. See drawing below:

3. lcing is not forecast ouer Ottawa at 9,000 feet. In

fact, the temperature is forecast to be + 9 degrees.

4. The warm front is forecast to moue to the east at 10 II.nots.

5. A low level jet (LL]) is forecast to cause the turbulence.

6. Since the isobars are quite far apart, the pressure

gradient would be considered weak. This means
that the surface winds would likely be light.

7. The uisibility is forecast to be as low as 2 statute

miles. The visibility is bemg reduced by Haze.

, /:'?fgfp'
8. The lowest 00002 (and only) cloud layer for the Muskoka ,,, ,, , "

area on the 00002 GFA has a forecast base of 4,000 •w •·•

feet ASL. Yes, since the cloud conditions are forecast
to be patchy broken, they could form a ceiling.
16. Wind 290 degrees true at 3 knots, visibility 5 statute miles in
9. The GFA does not forecast any icing over Ottawa at 06002. haze, Overcast cloud at 2,200 feet above ground, temperature
.25 degrees C, dewpoint 21 degrees C, altimeter setting 30.14
10. The !FR Outlook forecasts patchy !FR conditions due
inches of mercury, remarks stratocumulus cloud couering 8/8
to thunderstorms, rain, mist and low ceilings over
of the sky and the mean sea leuet pressure is 1020. 3 millibars
northwestern Ontario from 06002 til 18002.
17. Wind is forecast to be from 270 degrees true at 18 knots.
11. The London TAFis valid for 24 hours.
Temperature is forernst to be + 9 degrees C at 9,000 feet.
12. "AMD" means that the TAF was amended.
18. Based on the upper winds forecast, the winds will tend
13. The Petawawa TAF is based on weather to veer and increase as you ascend over Ottawa.
observations taken by a machine (AWOS).

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 Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Applications)

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 Meteorology: Aviation Weather (Applications)

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From the Ground Up Workbook

Navigation &
Communications
navigation/ n. 1 the act or process of
navigating. 2 any of several methods
of determining or planning a ship's or
aircraft's position and course by geometry,
astronomy, radio signals, etc.
communication/ n. 1 a the act of
communicating, esp. imparting news.
ban instance of this. c the information
etc. communicated. 2 a means of
connecting different places. 3 routine
exchange of information. 4 a the science
and practice of transmitting information
esp. by electronic or mechanical means.
b a field of study encompassing writing
and broadcasting skills as they apply to
media and business. c the function of
communicating information to the public
by a company, organization etc.
Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Theory)

4 Navigation & Communications

4.1 Navigation (Theory)
1. The 49 °N Parallel of Latitude is the border between Canada and the USA from Vancouver to the Great Lakes. Using the space
below, draw a cross section of the earth showing its approximate location. (Ref" FGU 177)

2. The Meridians of Longitude are measured East and West from the Prime Meridian which runs
through . Where is it located? . The obverse of the Prime Meridian
is the . Where is it located? . (Ref" FGU 177)

3. Hourly time zones are degrees of longitude in width. The time zone for Vancouver, B.C., which
longitude is 123° West, is UTC hours. If UTC is 1700, Pacific Standard time is
hours and Pacific Daylight Saving time is hours. (Ref- FGU 178)

4. A straight line on the surface of the earth whose plane passes through the centre of the earth is
called a . It is the distance between two points on that line. (Ref. FGU 179)

5. One minute of Latitude equals (Ref: FGU 185)

6. Variation is the angle between True and north. When you draw a line on
a VFR Navigation Chart (VNC), it is measured m degrees . Because the wind is reported
in degrees , when you apply it to the measured track, the calculation produces the
heading to fly. Because the Compass does not read True Headings, you must therefore apply the
variation to get a magnetic heading. You then use the Compass Correction Card to determine the heading to steer. Near
Vancouver, the variation is 23 degrees East. Appreciable error would occur if it were not applied. An impossible error would
occur if it were applied backwards. A memory aid follows: (Ref: FGU 181)

Variation West - Magnetic Best

Variation East - Magnetic Least

7. If the measured Track is 014° T, the drift 3 degrees right and the variation 23° East, what is the Magnetic Heading to fly?
(Ref" FGU 180 & 181)

8. When the Compass is swung, the deviation is largely removed. The Compass Correction Card, shown in Fig. 14 on page 182 in FGU,
shows the deviation for that aircraft's compass. Using Fig. 14, determine the compass heading to steer for a magnetic heading
of 348 degrees. (Ref FGU 182)

9. The VNC is a Lambert Conformal Projection whose scale is or about

nautical miles to the inch. (Ref: FGU 186)

10. A straight line drawn on a VNC is part of a great circle. This means that, although your track line looks straight, it is slightly
curved. For this reason, you should measure it near the to determine the average track. (Ref" FGU 186)

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 Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Theory)

11. A World Aeronautical Chart (WAC), a Lambert Conformal Projection, has a much greater coverage on a single sheet
than a VNC. It has less detail and is normally used for high level flights. Its scale is or about
nautical miles to the inch. (Ref FGU 187)

12. A VFR Terminal Chart (VTA), a Transverse Mercator Projection, is designed to be used in
The scale is (4 miles to the inch) and it includes such data as reporting points, frequencies, etc., to
enable you to fly safely into major airports. (Ref. FGU 188)

13. Using the double track error method, list the steps to regain and hold track in the following situation: Heading - 248 degrees.
Time - 10 minutes. Track Error - 4 degrees left. (Ref: FGU 195)
(a):
(b):
(c):

14. In 9 minutes, you locate your position as 18 miles from the point at which you set heading. What is your ground speed and
your time to destination if you have 2B miles to go? (Ref' FGU 196)

15. How would you use drift lines for navigation purposes when more than half way along a leg? (Ref: FGU 195)

16. List the 6 variables in the Triangle of Velocities. (Ref FGU 198, Fig. 44)

17. There are a number of electronic calculators on the market that do the job of the E6B more quickly and more accurately.
Transport Canada accepts them in Heu of the manual E6B. The evolution in the triangle of velocities computation began with
plotting and progressed to the E6B to the electronic calculator. Complete the problem below using each method to see if you
get the same results: Given: Track of 045 °T; W/V 360°T at 20 KT; TAS 90 KT. (Ref: FGU 199)
Determine: Heading and Ground Speed

18. For practice, calculate the following Triangle of Velocity problems. (Ref. FGU 199)
TRACK TAS W/V G/S HDG

140 90 230/10

280 120 040/20

230 100 90 235
090 270/15 046
073 280/20 105

19. One side of the E6B Computer is a circular slide rule. For practice, complete the following problems. (Ref FGU 200)
TIME DIST G/S

10 40

32 90
260 100

20. Work the following fuel consumption problems. (Ref" FGU 201)

CONSUMPTION
TIME FUEL
(GPH)
4.3 3:45
2:40 48.6
6.8 4 0.0

From the Ground Up Workbook

Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Theory)

21. FGU quotes a number of conversion factors. See page 269 for the conversion factor for litres to pounds (1:1.59). Presume your
fuel is at +15 degrees C and calculate the following problems. (Ref FGU W1)
FUEL QUANT[TY WEIGHT
86 litres
12.5 US gals

Imp gals 555

Note /,!emonze the Jo!lowmg we,�hts

Fud temperature is +lS'C
1 litre weighs l 59 pounds
l US y,;llon weighs 6 pounds
1 fmprnal gLllion w�ighs �-� po,mds

22. Pressure Altitude is required in order to calculate Density and True Altitude and Calibrated or True Airspeed. In flight, just
dial in 29.92 on the sub scale of the altimeter and read PALT directly from the altimeter. It may also be calculated using the
formula: 1" = 1,000 feet; 0.1'' = 100 feet; 0.01" = 10 feet. Calculate the PALT in the following situations. (Ref fGU WI)

I !ALT ALT SET (Vancouver) PALT TEMP ("C) TALT (See Q. 23)
8.000 30.32 ·10
7,000 29.92 +5

9,000 28.64 0
14,000 30.92
I -40

Note. IALT is lndirnt£d Altitude. PALT 1s Fressure Altitude TALT is Trne Alt1t,1de. Ttie ALT SET ,our« ;s sea icvd ,1t \',1t,couwr

23. When you are planning a flight into mountainous regions, it is important in your flight planning that you calculate your True
Altitude (actual height above sea level) or you could blunder into the top of a mountain. Calculate the True Altitude in the
table above using the Pressure Altitude and the Temperature. In this table, the Altimeter Setting source is Vancouver which is
at sea level, so you apply the temperature correction to the entire column of air. Look back to Question 5 in Section 1.3, Flight
Instruments. (Ref FGU :?01)

24. FGU describes the calculation to determine TAS from !AS whereas a more logical flight planning approach is to start with TAS
and calculate CAS and then !AS. Complete the table below using the data provided in the Airspeed Correction Table. (Ref FGU
201 & 202)

AIRSPEED CORRECTION TABLE

IAS 90 100 110 120 130 140
------1------j-------j-------r------------r--
CAS 88 98 110 122 133 143

r PALT
- ·- TEMP TAS CAS !AS

8,000 +3 110
6,000 +8 140
12,000 -2 5 120
4,000 +6 91
1,000 +25 88

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 Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Theory)

ANSWERS

1. Cross-section of the earth: 19

TIME DIST G/5

10 opposite 40. G/S

10 40 240
opposite 60.
60 opposite 90. Dist
32 48 90
opposite 32.
60 opposite 100.
2:36 260 100
Time opposite 260.

20.

CONSUMPTION (GPH) TIME FUEL

2. Greenwich. Just east and south of London, England. 4.3 3:45 16,1
60 opposite 4.3. Fuel
opposite 3:45.
International Date Line, which is the 180 degree meridian
2:40 opposite 48.6.
of Longitude. Through the Pacific Ocean west of Hawaii. 18.2 2:40 48.6
Consumption opposite 60.
60 opposite 6.8.
3 15 degrees. -8 hrs. 0900 hrs. 1,000 hrs. 6,8 5:50 40
Time opposite 40.

4. Great Circle. Shortest. 21.

5. One nautical mile FUEL QUANTITY WEIGHT

86 litres 136
6 Magnetic. True. True. True.
12.5 US gals 75
7. 348 degrees Magnetic (014 - 3 = 011 - 23 = 348). 77 Imp gals 555

8. 351 degrees Compass. 22. & 23.

9. 1:500,000. 8

10. Centre. To prove this to yourself, measure the distance

!ALT

8,000
ALT SET
(Vancouver)
30.32
I PALT

7,600
TEMP

-10
TALT

7,300
between two meridians at the bottom of the VNC and 7,000 29.92 I 7,000 +5 7,100
the top of rt. You will find they converge at the top. 9,000 28.64 I 10,280 0 10,500

Therefore, a straight line on the VNC must cut the 14,000 30.92 I 13,000 -40 11,550

meridians at slightly different angles Thus, it cannot be Note: 14,000 foot example: 30.92 - 29.92 = 1.0 =
a rhumb line, but is closer to a great circle. Since you wrll 1,000 feet. PALT = 13,000 ft. Use TALT Computation
have only three degrees change in the width of a VNC, Window: 13,000 opposite -40. Read TALT on outer
the average track is dose enough for pilot navigation. scale opposite PALT on inner scale - 11,550 ft.
11. 1:1,000,000 16. 24
12. Terminal Areas, 1 ·250,000. PALT TEMP TAS I CAS I IAS
8,000 +3 110 i 97 98
13. a): Alter heading to 256 °. (b): fly 10 minutes on
6,000 +8 140 127 124
this heading. (c): Alter heading to 252 .
°

12,000 -25 120 107 107

14. 120 knots. 14 minutes. 4,000 +6 95 90 92
1,000 +25 94 90 88
15. The opening and dosing method.
Note: When planning a cross-country flight, performance
16. Wind Speed and D1rectton, Heading and
tables will give the TAS, power setting and consumption. By
TAS, Track and Groundspeed.
pre-computing IAS, you will know that you are achieving
17. Heading 036°. Groundspeed 75 knots. the desired TAS when setting the power. If the planned
TAS is not achieved. your times and headings wrll be in
Note: Drift is opposite to crab. The airplane drifts right so you
error and your pre-flight planning wrll have been wasted.
crab left to counteract the drift For example: n-ack 090, Drift
5 degrees right, Hdg 085, therefore crab is 5 degrees left.

18.
TRACK TAS W/V G/S HOG

140 90 230/10 90 146

280 120 040/20 128 288

230 100 272/13 90 235

052 90 270/15 103 046

073 88 280/20 105 057

From the Ground Up Workbook

Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Cross-Country)

4.2 Navigation (Cross-Country)

You plan a cross-country from n-enton, Ontario (N44° 07' 08" W77 ° 31' 41") to Muskoka (N44° 58' 29" W79 ° 18' 12") to Arnprior (South
Renfrew Municipal) (N45 ° 24' 49" W76° 21' 57''} to n-enton, with one female and one male passenger on board. On the first leg, you
decide to set heading from the Campbellford VOR for Muskoka where the male passenger is planning to disembark. Your next set
heading point is Baysville for Arnprior where you will have lunch with your brother. After lunch, you plan to return to Trenton,
setting your heading from Pakenham.
You are flying a Cessna 172 C-GJWK which has long range tanks (52 US gallons). You intend to fly at 4,500 feet to Muskoka, at 3,500
feet to Arnprior and at 2,500 feet to n-enton using 55% power, giving a TAS of 100 knots and a fuel consumption of 6.5 gallons per
hour. You plan to take off at 0930 local on the 28th of June. The weather is forecast to be CAVOK. You allow 1 US gallon for each
landing and get the rest of your fuel data from the Climb and Cruise Charts on pages 60 and 61.
You should use the Toronto VNC (for examination purposes only) to complete the following navigation exercise. A flight plan log,
flight planning form, weight and balance and fuel log are provided for your convenience in doing the calculations. Weather condi­
tions, winds and temperatures are as follows:
AREA FORECAST: Clear. Visibility 15 SM.
TERMINAL FORECASTS: CAVOK
WINDS ALOFT FORECAST: At 3,000, 220/10, +8 °C. At 4,500, 230/15, +5° C. At 6,000, 240/20, +2°C
DESTINATION INFORMATION for Trenton. Forecast: CAVOK. Runway (s): 24. Crosswind component: Light and Variable.

1. Complete the map work. Use the Flight Planning Form and the Flight Plan Log below. You plan a groundspeed
check for the first leg at the railway track south of Kinmount. The distance is nms and
time is minutes. There are nms to go which will
take minutes. Enter this data in the work space on the Flight Planning Log (below).

Flight Plan Log

TRACK HOG DR.

FROM-TO I.A.S. ALT. WN DIST.
TIME
[M)

Flight Planning Form

TRACK HDG HOG DIST• FUEL

FROM-TO ALT. I.A.S. T.A.S. WN
rn VAR.
[M)
G/S
ANCE TIME REQ'D

TOTAL

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 Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Cross-Country)

2. You decide to carry as much fuel as possible up to the Maximum Weight Allowable of 2,300 pounds. Complete the Fuel
Planning Log and Weight and Balance charts that follow.

Fuel Planning Log Pounds

Flight Log
___ gallons X 6 lbs =
Rescne
30 min 1a ___ gph =
Total

WEIGHT ANO BALANCE

lTEM WEIGHT ARM MOMENT

BASIC AIRCRAFT
1472 '\g. � 57850
FRONT SEATS
n6 n
REAR SEATS 120 13
BAGGAGE ,c) Q'>
ZERO FUEL CONDITION
FUEL LOADING 46
TOTALS 21\00
DIVIDE TOTAL MOMENT BY TOTAL WEIGHT TO OBTAIN
CENTER OF GRAVITY AS LOADED. -:>---J
3. On the second leg, you plan a groundspeed check using the 360 degree radial from the Campbellford VOR. What is the
distance to the point where the radial cuts track? . What is the time and the
distance to go? . Enter this data in the work space on the Flight Planning Log.

4. List the communication, navigation and en route frequencies that you will use (or might use) on the Radio Facilities Log below.
Fill out the Flight Plan Form (on the next page) in preparation for filing with ATC.

ENROUTE RADIO FACILITIES

NAV AIDS l CIRCUIT HEIGHTS

5. All goes well with flight planning and you taxi out for runway 24. You receive take off clearance at 0935 local. You have
already set your clock to UTC. What does it read? . You get a right turn out and turn onto your planned
magnetic track (radial) to the station of342 in the climb. You have the VOR tuned to Campbellford and the OBS set to 342, but
the CDI (course deviation indicator) is showing two dots to the right. You enter the take-off time and ETA for YCF in the Flight
Log (use the Flight Log provided after Question 20) and track into the VOR. How do you track to the VOR (YCF)?

From the Ground Up Workbook

Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Cross-Country)

CANADIAN FLIGHT PLAN/ ITINERARY ICAO FLIGHT PLAN

N/\V C/\N/\D/\ PLAN/ ITINERAIRE DE VOL CANADIEN PLAN DE VOL OACI
PRIORITY/ PRIORITE ADDAESSEEIS) / OESTINATAIRE(S)

<<=FF -

I <<-
FILING TIME/ HEURE DE DEPOT

I -I I
ORIGINATOR/ EXPEDITEUR

I I I I I I I<<-
SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION OF ADDRESSEE(S) ANO/OR ORIGINATOR/ IDENTIFICATION PRECISE DU(DES) DESTINATAIRE(S) ET/OU DE L'EXPEDITEUR

3 MESSAGE TYPE 7 AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION 8 FLIGHT RULES TYPE OF FLIGHT

-□
TYPE DE MESSAGE IDENTIFICATION DE L'AERONEF REGLES DEVOL TYPE DEVOL

<<- (FPL -I I I I I I I I WAKE TURBULENCE CAT.

[I] <<-
,□
9 NUMBER I NOMBAE TYPE OF AIRCRAFT/ TYPE O'Al:RONEF CAT. DE TURBULENCE DE SILLAGE 10 EQUIPMENT I EQUIPEMENT

-CJ I I I I I -I I <<-
DEPARTURE AERODROME/ AERODROME DE DEPART TIME/HEURE

l I
13

-I I I
CRUISING SPEED
I I I I I<<-
VITESSE DE CROISIERE ALTITUDE/ LEVEL I NIVEAU ROUTE/ ROUTE
15

-I I I H

I <<-
16
mg���s� �rni����ilON
TOTAL ET/ DUREE TOT ALE ESTIMEE SAR
HRS.H MINS.M
ALTN AERODROME
AERODROME OE DEGAGEMENT
2ND.ALTN. AERODROME
2" AERODROME DE DEGAGEMENT

-I I I I I -I -1
OAYS/JOURS HRSJH l.'NS;M

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I <<=
18 OTHER INFORMATION/ RENSEIGNEMENTS DIVERS

-I
I)<<=
- i:t,@]
19 ENDURANCE/ AUTONOMIE EMERGENCY RADIO/ RADIO DE SECOURS
HA./H MIN./M PERSONS ON BOARD/ PERSONNES A BORD UHF VHF ELT ELT
- EI I I I I I - P/I I I I @ [] CJ
SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT/ EQUIPEMENT DE SURVIE JACKETS/ GILETS DE SAUVETAGE
POLAR DESERT MARITIME JUNGLE LIGHT FLUORES
POLAIRE DESERT MARITIME JUNGLE LAMPES FLUORES UHF VHF

-[!] I � [Q] @] QJ -QJ I [] [I] @] @

g:�:g:n
DINGHIES I CANOTS
NUMBER COVER COLOUR
NOMBRE COUVERTURE COULEUR

-@], C I<<= WHEELS SEAPLANE

ROUES HYDAAVION SKIS
AMPHIBIAN

I□ □ □ □
AIRCRAFT OOLOl/R AND MARKINGS I COULEUR ET MARQUES OE L'AERONEF AMPHIBIE

A /I
REMARKS I REMARQUE$

-�,I I<<-
AN ARRIVAL REPORT WILL BE FILED WITH· UN COMPTE RENDU D'ARRIVEE SERA NOTIFIE A :

I NAME AND PHONE NU MBER OR ADDRESS OF PERSON IS) OR COMPANY TO BE N o T FI lED IF SEAR CH AN D RESCUE ACTION INITIATED
I
NOM FT NllMERO DE Tr � L � iPHONE OU ADRESSE DE LA iOESI PERSONM<«1 Oil, ,. ,, ,. P, i f. NIE
, AAVI, s FR , � I DES RECHEACHES SONT ENTRlFPlsl
AS"'"
l
PILOT•IN-COMMANO/ PILOTE COMMANDANT DE BORD PILOT'S LICENCE No./ N° OE LICENCE OU PILOTE

C 'I I l)<<=
FILED BY/ DEPOSE PAR SPACE RE SERVED FOR ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS/ ESPACE RESERVE A DES FINS SUPPLEMENTAIRES

I
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 Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Cross-Country)

6. At 13502, you cross the Campbellford VOR headed for Muskoka. What is the magnetic heading and ETA? Enter this data in the
Flight Log.
(a): Heading
(b): ETA

7. At 14172, you establish your position over the village of Burnt River.
(a): What is your new magnetic heading to Muskoka?
(b): What is your revised groundspeed?
(c): What is your new ETA?
(d): When you make the log entry be sure to show your calculations. You could also get an
ETA by mental calculation. Explain how to do this and give your new ETA.

8. The box on the VNC for Muskoka reads:

rMUSKOKA'
L _____ .J
925 [g 60 M 122.3
VDF

Explain the meaning of each symbol, number and letter.

(a): The dotted box
(b): 925

(c): L
{d): 60

(e): M 122.3
(f): VDF
(g): What does the symbol (V) mean in the VDF Block in the CFS listing for Muskoka?

9. When you cross the power line 15 miles south east of Muskoka, you call on the Mandatory Frequency. What do you say?

10. There is no reported traffic and the wind is light and variable. You decide to land on runway 18.
(a): Where do you join the circuit?
(b): At what altitude do you fly the circuit?
(c): ls it a left or right hand circuit?

11. You land at 14352 and disembark your passenger. You take off on runway 36 at 14452. You follow the road to Baysville and set
heading for Arnprior at 14552.
(a): Should you have completed a new weight and balance before take off?
(b): What is your magnetic heading and ETA for Arnprior? . Be sure to enter in
the Flight Log the landing, take-off and set heading.

from the Ground Up Workbook

Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Cross-Country)

12. It starts to get a bit bumpy so you cruise climb to 5,500 feet. Based on your observations, you estimate that you will cross Route
62 three miles south of Maynooth at 15272. You try to get a ground speed check by using the 360 degree radial from YCF, but
the CDI will not hold steady. You decide not to use it.
(a): What is a cruise climb?

(b): What precaution must you exercise when using a commercial broadcasting station for navigational purposes?

(c}: What navigation method do you use when you are over this position on the road?

(d): Towards what magnetic heading do you turn?

(e}: For how long do you fly this new heading?

(f}: Where will you join track?

(g); What magnetic heading do you steer when you get back on track?

(h}: What is your new groundspeed and ETA?

13. You tune in the Ottawa VOR to help with the navigation.
(a}: Which radial of the Ottawa VOR passes through Arnprior?
(b); What do you put on the OBS to track in the above radial?
(c}: At 1535Z, you set up the VOR as described above. What will the CDI and Sense Indicator read?

14. Due to turbulence, your passenger is feeling quite ill so you decide to return to Trenton. At 15382, you turn right and find you
are directly over the spot height (1,675 feet), 17 miles east of your last pinpoint over the road. Use pilot navigation techniques
to answer the following questions. (Be sure to make the necessary log entries.)
(a}: What magnetic heading do you fly to return to Trenton?
(b}: What is the distance to go?
(c): What is the ETE and ETA?

15_ You climb to 6,500 feet where it is nice and smooth. As you level off, you find that you are a bit unsure of your position. By
using both VORs, you establish a fix on the YCF 020 degree radial and the YOW 257 degree radial at 15542.
(a): What is the name of the town you are over?
(b}: What is your groundspeed?

(c): What is your estimate for Trenton?

16. You decide to track into the Campbellford VOR on the 020 degree radial.
(a): What do you set on the OBS?

(b): What does the Sense Indicator read?

(c}: With the wind giving you 5 degrees left drift, what must you steer to maintain track?

17. You pass about 100 yards to the east of the VORTAC.
(a): What does the CDI do as you pass the VORTAC?
(b): What does the Sense Indicator do?

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 Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Cross-Country)

18. Over the Campbellford VOR, you get the ATIS and then call Trenton Tower on MHz.
What information will Trenton Tower give you?

19. You are cleared to left base for runway 13. What are some of the problems associated with this runway and how much runway
is there on which to land?

20. You join the circuit and land at 1624Z. After landing, what action must you take with regard to your flight plan?

Note· Use the fo'.Iowmg chart to iog data starting with Question 5

FLIGHT LOG - WEATHER ADVISORIES - ATIS

ACTUAL E.T.A.
TIME HDG.(C, OBSERVATIONS G/S

from the Ground Up Workbook

Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Cross-Country)

CANADIAN FLIGHT PLAN / ITINERARY ICAO FLIGHT PLAN

NAV CANADA PLAN/ ITINERAIRE DE VOL CANADIEN PLAN DE VOL OACI
PRIORITY I PRIORITE AODRESSEE(S) I DESTINATAIAE(S)

<<-FF -
I <<
FILING TIME/ HEURE DE DEPOT

I -I I
ORIGINATOR/ EXPEDITEUR

I I , I<<=
SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION OF ADDRE55EE(S) AND/OR ORIGINATOR/ IDENTIFICATION PRECISE OU(OES) OESTINATAIRE{S) ET/OU OE L'EXPl:OITEUR
I I I

3 MESSAGE TYPE 7 AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION 8 FLIGf!T RULES TYPE OF FLIGf!T

TYPE OE MESSAGE IDENTIFICATION DE L'AtRONEF REGLES DE VOL TYPE DEVOL

<< (FPL - I c,- ,Gi, -:r,w, K, I -� � <<=

WAKE TURBULENCE CAT.
9 NUMBER/ NOMBRE TYPE OF AIRCRAFT/ TYPE D'AERONEF CAT. DE TURBULENCE OE SILLAGE 10 EQUIPMENT I EQUIPEMENT

-CJ 13
1c,1,,,2.1
DEPARTURE AERODROME I AERODROME DE DEPART
,[g
TIME/HEURE
-I S/C I <<
15
- IC,"( ,T , RI
CRUISING SPEED
I 1,
'!1 0
,�, 1 <<
VITESSE OE CROISIERE ALTITUDE I LEVEL I NIVEAU ROUTE I ROUTE
_, ,,, 0 I 0 01
I A 01.4 sH l){tC.T '( C..F 1>1t.C.T C"(��
A 0 '3 $ l)R..CT 'SA'( !.,1\1.LE" 1>1tCT 1'�P�10R
A 0 2, S ARNi'll.•oR. t>�c:,- i>A"ltl'l\l,A f-\ l>�c--r

16 D�STINATIO� AERODROME TOTAL ET/DUREE TOTALE ESTIMEE SAR 2ND. ALTN. AERODROME
I <<=
AERODROME DE DESTINATION HRS.K MINS.M AEROtk��:i� iri�iMENT 2• AERODROME DE DEGAGEMENT
0

,T,RI lc,0!01 3J2, ql

DAYS.'JOUAS HRSIH MINSJM

-IC,\'
OTHER INFORMATION I RENSEIGNEMENTS DIVERS
1 I I I , I -I I I I I -I , I I I <<-
-I -
18
:S,Tb�S° \ t,\uS\(,O"-" "30 �I.NS
>,��l>ruoR. - I� 'SO "',-s s

I><<=
-
19 ENDURANCE/ AlJTONOMIE
KRJH

E/lo,"1j3,ol
MIN.IM PERSONS ON BOARD I PERSONNES A BORD

-P1lo,0 13I
SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT J EQUIPEMENT DE SUAl'IE
- EMERGENCY RADIO I RADIO OE SECOURS

RI@]
UHF

�
VHF

i
ELT

POLAR D�SERT JUNGLE

JACKETSIGILETS DE SAUVETAGE
MARITIME LIGHT FLUORES

i
POLAIRE DESERT MARITIME JUNGLE LAMPES UHF

-Q]
F)i

-[!] I 0
DINGHIES I CANOTS
[Q] � QJ I
� [ill
NUMBER CAPACITY COVER COLOUR
NOMBRE CAPACITI: COUVEATURE COULEUR

-[fil I C I<<= WHEELS SEAPLANE AMPHIBIAN

AIRCRAFT OOLOUR AND MARKINGS/ COULEUR ET MARQUES DE l'A�RONEF ROUES HYORAVION SKIS AMPHIBIE

A / I W�l'"t"lc

REMARKS I REMARQUES
w/ �E"t> Trt.11).1\
I JZl □ □ □
-�,1 AN ARRIVAL REPORT WILL BE FILED WITH - UN COMPTE RENDU O'ARRIV�E SERA NOTIFIE A•
I<<
I .,.-..,_llt.,.'TO� C.51.0Uf'b -SY RA"b10
NAME AND PHONE NUMBER OR ADDRESS OF PERSON($) OR COMPANY TO BE NOTIFIED IF SEARCH AND RESCUE ACTION INITIATED
I
NOM ET N''M""" nE TELEPHONE OU ADRESSE I\� LA fDESl PERSONNE, ii, I nl' mMpAr.NI► A AVISER Sf DES R'" uencHES SONT ENTREPRIS►S
"'

I �•tot•b.-. �y,...iG. c:u.. u,r. 'S'I\ - (.l,(.. - 3�&2., RoYA\.. °'\�PC�T

I
PILOT-IN-COMMAND I PILOTE COMMANDANT DE BORD PILOT'S LICENCE No. IN' OE LICENCE OU PILOTE

C ,1
FILED BY/ DEPOSE PAR
u. it. S""-R�liii I p ,c.71-,2,
I><< =
SPACE RESERVED FOR ADDI TIONAL REQUIREMENTS/ ESPACE R ESERVE A OES FINS SUPPLEMENTAIRES
I

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 Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Cross-Country)

Note, The following charts are your complet£d Flight Log (Cls 1t shcul,l (1rrrur for tl:1s 1wv1qt1tion exercise), and performance charts Jor tht' Cessna
17'.' to help you complete the questions Jrom this section

FLIGHT LOG - WEATHER ADVISORIES - ATlf

From the
answers nME HOO.(C) OBSERVATIONS
ACTUAL
�.t.A.
to Questions: G/S

5 1336 336 Take Off TR to YCF 1348

6 1350 303 Set Hdg Muskoka 1439
7 1417 Burnt River 4 + 6 = 10°R
313 46/27 = 102 31 to go= 18 102 1435
10 1436 Muskoka Land
11 1445 046 Take Off Muskoka. 1456
1455 098 Ba.vsville SH Arnprlor 1659
12 1527 3 south Ma,ynooth - 14° left
084 49.6/32=93 64.5 to go = 42 93 1609
14c 1538 203 Lookout Tower/64 to go 89 1821
16 1554 GllmoUl' - Trenton 68 1622
1621 Trenton
1626 Land

CESSNA
MODEL 172M PERFORMANCE

TIME, FUEL, AND DISTANCE TO CLIMB

CONDITIONS:
Flaps Up
Full Throttle
Standard Temperature

NOTES:
1. Add 1.1 gallon, of fuel for engine start, taxi and takeoff allowance.
2. To obtain maximum rate of climb as shown in this chart, lean to maximum RPM
during climb.
3. Increase time, fuel and distance by 10% fo, each 10°C above standard temperature.
4. Distances shown are based on zero wind.

CLIMB RATE OF FROM SEA LEVEL

PRESSURE
WEIGHT TEMP
ALTITUDE SPEED CLIMB
LBS
FT
oc KIAS FPM TIME FUEL USED DISTANCE
MIN GALLONS NM

2300 S.L. 15 78 645 0 0.0 0

1000 13 77 605 2 0.3 2

2000 11 76 560 3 0.7 4

3000 9 75 520 5 1.1 7

4000 7 74 480 7 1.5 9

5000 5 73 435 9 1.9 12

6000 3 72 395 12 2.3 16

7000 1 71 355 15 2.8 19

8000 -1 70 315 18 3.3 23

9000 -3 69 270 21 3.9 28

10,000 -5 68 230 25 4.5 33

11,000 -7 67 185 30 5.2 40

12,000 -9 66 145 36 6.1 48

Time, Fuel, and Distance to Climb

From the Ground Up Workbook

Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Cross-Country)

CESSNA
MODEL 172M PERFORMANCE

RANGE PROFILE
<45 MINUTES RESERVE
38.0 GALLON$ U$ABlE fUEL

CONDITIONS:
2300 Pounds
Recommended Lean Mixture for Crui"Se
Standard Temperature
Zero Wind

NOTES:
1. Ttiis chart allows for the fuel used for engine start, taxi, takeoff and chmb, and thir
distaflce during climb H shown in figure 5-6.
2. RtHrve fu♦I i, based on 45 minules at 4S" BHS' and is 4.3 gallon$.

12.000
., 104 KTAS
!14 KTAS
i:m
10,000
f KTAS
,:!

120 KTAS
aooo

..
t;;
w

w
6000
0
::,
....
5
<( ll6 KTAS 109 KTAS
4000
a; a:

..
1
&? &? le
2000
� l8 ;
86 KTAS
112 KTAS 11J6 KTAS 97 KTAS
S.L.
400 420 440 460 480 500 520
RANGE - NAUTICAL MILES

Range Prome

CtSSNA
PERFORMANCE MODEL 172M

CRUISE PERFORMANCE
CONDITIONS,
Rtt0mmended Lean Mixture
2300 Pounds

:w0c BELOW STANDARD 20°CABOVE

" "
PRESSURE STANDARD TEMP TEMPERATURE STANOARO TEMP
ALTITUDE
RPM
"
..
KTAS GPH KTAS GPH KTAS GPH
BHP BHP BHP
2000 2550 BO 1l4 8.8 75 113 8.2 71 113 7.B
2500 76 111 8.3 11 111 7.B 67 111 7.5
>400 68 107 7.5 107 7.2 6l 106 6.9
2300 61 102 6.9 58 IOI 6.7 55 99 6.5
2200 55 96 6.4 52 95 6.2 49 9.l 6.1
4000 1600 80 116 8.8 75 118 8.3 71 116 7.l!
2500 11 111 7.9 68 111 7.5 64 110 7.2
2400 65 107 7.3 61 106 6.9 58 1()4 6.7
2300 58 101 6.7 55 100 6.5 53 98 6.3
2200 52 95 6.3 49 93 6.1 47 92 5.9
6000 2650 BO 118 8.8 )5 118 8.2 71 118 7.8
2600 76 116 8.3 71 116 7.9 68 115 7.5
2500 6'l 111 7.6 65 110 7.2 62 109 7.0
2400 62 106 7.0 59 104 6.7 56 103 6.5
2300 56 100 6.5 53 98 6.3 50 97 6.1
2200 50 94 6.1 47 92 5.9 45 91 5.8
0000 2700 80 120 8.8 75 120 8.3 1, 120 7.8
2600 72 116 8.0 68 115 7.5 65 114 7.3
2500 65 111 7.3 62 109 7.0 59 IDB 6.9

...
2400 59 105 6.8 56 103 66 53 101 6.3
2300 54 99 6.4 51 97 6.2 48 96 6.0
2200 93 6.0 45 91 5.8 43 90 5.7
10.000 2700 76 120 8.4 72 120 7.9 68 119 7.6
2600 69 115 7.6 65 l14 7.3 62 112 7.0
2500 BJ 110 7.1 59 108 6.8 56 106 6.6

...
2400 57 l04 6.6 54 102 6.4 51 100 6.2
2300 51 97 6.2 48 96 6.0 46 95 5.8
2200 92 5.8 43 90 5.7 41 89 5.5
12,000 2650 69 117 7.6 65 116 7.3 62 114 7.0
2600 66 114 7.4 62 113 7.0 59 111 6.8
2500 60 108 6.8 57 106 6.6 54 105 6.4
2400 54 102 6.4 51 100 6.2 49 99 6.0
2300 49 96 6.0 46 95 5.9 43 114 5.7
noo 44 91 5.7 41 89 5.5 38 88 5.3

Cruise Performance

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 Navigation & Communications: Navigation (Cross-Country)

ANSWERS

1. A completed Flight Plan Log and Flight Planning Form 5. 13352. Centre the CDI with the OBS which will give
follow. 46 nms. 30 minutes. 29 nms. 19 minutes. a reading of 346 TO. Track into the VORTAC on

�· ..
that track OR tum right 20 degrees to intercept the
...
FLIQKT PLAN LOG

,__ m , ");f' ':.' = ,IQ,

162 degree radial and track in on 342 degrees.
94 46 12f� 300 303 77 49
(a): 303 (b): 14392.
YCF -Mwkoka

-AmpriOr 96 •• 220 082 098 114 83 6

10
6.
-Trenton 97 26 2�
� 217
229 87.B 88.B
7. (ci): Opening angle 4 degrees, closing angle 6 degrees,
new heading 313 degrees M. (b): 102 knots. (c): 18

�· ... ..... .. ..,. - ..=

mins - 1417 + 18 = 1435. (d): At Burnt River, just

........
...
over half-way, you are 2 mins early, you will be
., ,,.. _,. .,, "' ""· �

-
Tr'8nuin-YCF 75 330 �24 J38 14. 13
4 mins early at Muskoka (1439 - 4 = 1435).

... ...
- 100 300 2�� 292 llw J03 94 ?7 49 63
(a): Customs available. (b). Field height. (c): Lighting
Muskok& 46 98
8.
-
••
B.,,.vlllo 75 037 030 048 13 11 0 2.8

... •••
- Ampnor 96 100 082 2�!? 000 '"" 098 107 114
available. (d): Longest runway is 6,000 feet. (e): Mandatory
- 7a 147 1•• 167 8 4 2.0 frequency is 122.3 MHZ. (f)· very High Frequency Direction
- Trenton •• 97 100 217 220
10 217 !Ow
aag 90 84 Finding is available. (g): VDF available on 121 5 MHZ.
- I.andlnS&t.� """'"" 3.0

'"- 31:l 199 29 e 9. "Muskoka Radio this is Cessna 172 Golf Juliet
Whiskey Kilo (GJWK), 15 miles south east at 4,500
FUEL CALCULATION feet, VFR, landing Muskoka, request advisory."
Start Climb En Route Total
0.4 3.2
10. (a): Downwind. (b)· 1,925 feet (2,000). (c): Left.
1.1 • 1.7
1.1.. 1.3 0.3 2.8 11. (a): No. TuJo people in the front seats of a C172 is a
1.1H'I< 0.9 2.0
standard configuration. (b): 098 degrees M, 1558.52.
NOTES 12. (a): Climb at your en route !AS so as not to invalidate
Kinmount railway 47 nms/30 mins. 29 to go = 19 min. your ETA. (b). ldentify it. (c): Double Track Error. (d): 084
degrees M. (e): 32 minutes. (f): 15 nautical miles east of
360 ° rcidial YCF 47 nms/26 mins. 67 to go= 37.5 mins
Amprior. (g) • 091 degrees M (h): 93 knots, 16092.
2. A completed Fuel Planning Log and Weight & Balance follow.
13 (a): 278. (b): 098. (c): CD! - left, Sense Indicator• TO.
Fuel Planning Log Pouods
14. (a): 203 degrees M. (b): 64 nms. (c): 43 minutes, 16212.
Fh1ht Log
29.6 gallons X 6 lbs .. 1776
15. (a): Gilmour. (b): 88 knots. (c): 16222.
R�suv�

30min@�gph= 19.5 16. (a): 200. (b): TO. (c): 205 degrees M.
Tnt•I 1971
17. (a): lt deflects fully right, too fast to be drift,
then moues slowly back towards centre. (b): lt
WElGHT ANO BALANCE
changes from TO to OFF (or NAV) to FROM.
lTl:M WE1GHT ARM MOMENT
SAStC AIRC.RAFT 1t,2 39.3 57850 18. 128.7MHz The runway, altimeter setting, W/V if
FRONT SEATS 376 37 13912
greater than 15 knots and joining instructions.
REAR SEATS 120 73 8760
BAGGAGE 20 95 1900 19. The threshold is displaced 1,000 feet. 2,025 feet.
ZERO FUr!:L CONDIT JON 1988
FUEL LOADING 312 46 14352 20. Ask Ground Control to close your flight plan.
TOTALS 2300 42 .07 96774
OJVJDE TOTAL MCMENT BY TOTAL WEICHT TO 08TAlN
CENTER CF GlU,Vl'JY AS L0A060. -:}----J

3. 47 nms. 375 minutes. 67 nms.

4. A completed En route Radio Facilities Chart follows

below. A completed Flight Plan is found on page 54.

IENROUTE RADIO FACILJflES

=-
NAV AIDS • OIRCVIT HEIGHT$

ATIB 135.4B
Q,ound 121 g
T,_, 128.7
C&rc.tibollmrd YCP VOR 11:s e

=
1'nl"OU1'1 126 7
MU8kou-UF 122.3
!IDS 272
Arnpr1or ATP 122 8
Ot!4wa YOW VOR 114 6
CBQJ) 1400

From the Ground Up workbook

Navigation & Communications: Radio

4.3 Radio
1. Most people are familiar with the Medium and High Frequency bands because these are used in commercial broadcasting.
Some very old radios have a Low Frequency band, but today this band is mostly used for Non-Directional Beacons (NDBs). The
Low, Medium and High range of frequencies generate both a ground and a sky wave when transmitted. The sky wave often
enables reception thousands of miles from the transmitter. The ground wave, which hugs the curvature of the earth, will
travel for hundreds of miles depending on the power of the transmitter and atmospheric conditions. Label the ground and
sky waves and the skip distance in the following diagram. (Ref FGU 212, F,g 4)

2. In private pilot training, all communications and, most likely, all navigation will be done using Very High Frequency (VHF)
radio. You must, therefore, know the band well. (Ref FGU 212 & 213 & Answers)
(a}: What is the VHF frequency range?
(b): What is the navigation portion of the VHF frequency rangeJ
{c): What are the usual VOT frequencies?
(d}: What is the frequency range that is used for ILS?
(e): What is the VOR frequency range?
(f): What is the VHF communications frequency range?
(g): What is the VFR VHF en route frequency?
(h): What are the primary UNICOM frequencies?
(i): What is the emergency frequency?

3. In radio, the higher the frequency the shorter the wavelength. In addition, VHF waves have quite different characteristics
from Low, Medium and High frequency waves. (Ref FGU 212)
{a): Describe the properties of VHF radio waves.

(b): You are flying 7,000 feet higher than the transmitter, what is the maximum distance at which you could expect
reasonable reception?

4. What is a Transceiver? (Ref FGU 2HJ

5. What is a NAV/COM? (Ref: FGU 214)

6. Why are the avionics left OFF for starting and then turned ON only after the engine is running? (Ref rcu 214)

7. Why is the ATIS on a separate frequency from Ground Control and the Tower? (Ref FGU 215)

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 Navigation & Communications: Radio

8. What is the order in which you should use the communications services available for a VFR departure from a controlled
airport? (Ref FGU 216)

9. What is the order in which you should use the communications services available for a VFR arrival at a controlled airport?
(Ref FGU 216)

10. Where do you find all the frequencies asked for in the previous two questions? (Ref FGU 215)

11. Major airports (Vancouver, Winnipeg, Montreal) are centred in areas of classified airspace (Terminal Control Areas). These
TCAs have assigned frequencies and dimensions depicted in the VTA charts and CFS. What are the vertical dimensions of
the Montreal Dorval TCA and the VHF communication frequency if approaching from Ottawa? (Ref FGU 21sJ

12. What do the letters, VHF DF, stand for? (Ref FC.U :?18)

13. To which controlling agency do you direct the initial request for a DF steer? (Ref FGU 218)

14. With respect to Flight Service Stations:

(a): There are many services available at a Flight Service Station. List as many as you can. (Ref FGU 217)

(b): What service does the FSS not provide? (Ref FGU 217 & 218)

15. What is DUATs? Can you use it? (Ref FGU 218 & 219)

16. In the last few years, the RADAR systems in Canada have been replaced and upgraded. One of the steps was to integrate
the Canadian Forces radar into the civilian network so that some remote areas could be serviced from the central air traffic
agency for that area. One of these areas was Williams Lake in central British Columbia. To whom is this service available?
(Ref FGU 216)

17. The most abused segment in general aviation is radio telephony (R/T) even though the need for clear, concise and complete
communication becomes more important everyday as traffic increases. You must learn the Phonetic Alphabet and, if you also
learn the Morse Code, it will serve you well in your flying career. Spell your name in phonetics and in Morse Code. (Ref' FGU 220
& 221)

18. Most publications on R/T tell you to repeat frequencies and to make an initial call before passing your message. Both of these
practices are obsolete. In fact, they encumber the efficient exchange of information. You do include the type of aircraft and
four letter call sign in the first call to a new controlling agency. Subsequently, you repeat your call sign as the controller gives
it back to you. Assume you are flying out of Winnipeg International. Your airplane is a Cessna 182, C-GXMY. You are parked on
Ramp 3 and have filed VFR to Regina, Saskatchewan, on 6 March. Answer the following questions: /Ref rcu 223 & CFS Wmnipcg)
(a): What is the ATIS frequency?
(b): What is the VOT frequency?

From the Ground Up Workbook

Navigation & Communications: Radio

(c): Need you call Clearance Delivery?

(d): What is the Ground Control frequency?
(e): Write out the wording of your initial call to Ground Control for taxi clearance.

19. Winnipeg Ground Control dears you to runway 13 to taxi via C and B and asks if you will accept to take off from the Golf
intersection. Acceptance will give you 5,500 feet of runway. You agree, taxi to the "Hold" position and perform your engine
run up. When you are ready for take off, (Ref FGU 224 & 225 & CFS Wmmpeg)
(a): Whom do you call?
(b}: On what frequency?
(c): What do you say?
(d): Need you ask for a right turn out? Why or why not?

20. You depart Winnipeg TCA with no problems and pass north of the Portage Military Control Area by going direct to Delta. You
are over Delta at 1030 Central Daylight Saving Time maintaining 4,500 feet altitude. (Ref: FGU 225 & CFS Portage)
(a): What is the classification of the airspace in which you are flying?
(b): Can you pass a position report to Portage, a military aerodrome?
(c): What frequency do you use?
(d): Write out the wording of your position report.

21. About 20 minutes before your ETA, you look up Regina in the CFS to determine frequencies and other information for the
flight. (Ref: FGU 227 & CFS Regina)
(a): What is the ATJS frequency?
(b): What are the hours of operation (local time) of the tower?
(c): You will land on RWY 08. Is it a right or left hand circuit?
{d): Write out the wording of your position report to Regina for a position 10 miles east of the airport.

22, You are approaching North Battleford, Saskatchewan intending to land. (Ref FGU 227 &228 & CFS North Battleford)

(a): When do you make your initial call?

(b): On what frequency should you make that call?
(c): What is the North Battleford call sign?
(d): In the CFS, what does (RAAS) in the COMM RADIO block mean?

23. What is the difference between a May Day call and a Pan-Pan call? (Ref FGU 229)

24. VOR radials are measured in degrees (Ref FGU 231)

25. You are due west of a VOR and wish to track in on the 240 degree radial. (Ref: FGU 235)
(a): What do you set on the OBS?
{b): In your present position, what will the CDI read after you have set the OBS?
(c): What will the Sense Indicator read?
(d): What heading would you fly to ensure you intercept the 240° radial before reaching the VOR?

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 Navigation & Communications: Radio

26. How does the aircraft heading affect the reading on the VOR head? (Ref: FGU 235, Fig. 9)

27. What is the major advantage of AOF over VOR? (Ref FGU 241)

28. What are the disadvantages of AOF? /Ref FGU 244 & 245)

29. When using AOF fixed card equipment, the formula to calculate the magnetic heading to a station is:
HOG M + Rel Brg = HOG TO. {Ref FGU 242)
{a): If you are steering 243 and the AOF reads 135; what heading do you fly in order to go directly to the stationJ

{b): Draw a schematic diagram of (a) in the space provided below.

(c): If the ADF needle was superimposed on the HI, what would it read?

30. You wish to track inbound to an NOB on 180 degrees. After turning the airplane onto 180 degrees, the AOF reads 020 degrees
Relative. You decide to intercept track at a 45 degree angle. (Ref. FGU �43)
(a): What heading do you steer to intercept track?

(b): What will the AOF read when you are on track and maintaining the heading selected to intercept?

(c): Draw a schematic of the airplane in the space below showing the AOF needle at the two positions discussed above.

From the Ground Up Workbook

Navigation & Communications: Radio

31. Your ADF may have a SET HDG knob at the bottom left corner. In Question 30, if while steering 180 degrees
you set that heading on the ADF dial, the head of the ADF needle would read
After turning to your intercept heading and setting that on the ADF dial, the needle would read
when you have intercepted track. (Ref. FGU 244)

32. On an RMI, the head of the ADF needle will always read the and the tail of the needle
the (Ref FGU 245)

33. RADAR operates in the Super High Frequency range, wherein a pulse from a directional antenna is reflected back from the
aircraft. Direction is measured by the position of the antenna and distance by the time lapse. The result (the aircraft) is shown
as a blip of light on a scope. (Ref FGU 253 & 254)
(a): Must you have special equipment aboard to reflect the pulse and thus show up on the scope?
(b): Why?
(c): What is this type of RADAR called?

34. What is Secondary Surveillance RADAR? (Ref FGU 255)

35. What is the main advantage of SSR? Explain your answer. (Ref rcu 255 & 256J

36. What is the VFR Transponder code when flying below 12,500 ft.? (Ref FGU 256)

37. How do you know your Transponder is working? (P J FGU 256)

38. T he ELT has a three position switch, ON, OFF & ARMED. During flight, the switch should be in the
position. (Ref FGU 258)

39. When and for how long can you test the ELT without fear of activating a search and rescue operation? (Ref FGU 259)

Note The Gloria! Fosit1on11;g System (GFS) recr,1t•e d�ti.1 Jrom ::'5 satellite:, /1 ros1tio11 �n et1rtn is .it'termmd hv mcasuriniJ the: time (thus
distance) from sewrul si.itelhtes at once Timmy JS c, 1t1c,,I �Viler; you •ur11 on yrt1r GF'S, 1t Ullli giw the corrtet t1111c wlwh !t denurs from tr,c
satelltt£s Each model 1ece1t1er has a diffoent method nJ Jw,ctir-nmg ar;cl you will hc11>e to rrnd carefully the c1ss :iatcd Handh, 10k that wmc• with
your set Som,, ,if these Handbooks arc, re<3MJu1ly, not u,Pr Jnr11cilv (Rr/crrr.crs J,lr the f,1llow1t1'] j'cJ11r qt,cstwns Jc..1nd m FGfJ :::SO)

40. Why does GPS have such good range?

41. Can GPS be used for precision approaches in !FR conditions?

42. What is the capacity RAIM which is incorporated into some sets?

43. What is the accuracy of GPS expressed in feet?

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ANSWERS
2. (a): 30 to 300 MHZ. (b): 108.0 to 118.0 MHZ
(c): 114.8 & 115.7 MHZ. (d): 108.1 to 111.9 MHZ.
(e): 112.1 to 117.95 MHZ. (J): 118.0 to 136.0 MHZ
(g): 126.7 MHZ. (h): 122.8 & 123.0 MHZ. (i): 121.5 MHZ
3. (a): VHF radio waves travel in a straight line not
following the curvature of the earth. They will not
bounce off the ionosphere, but pass on through. They
will bounce off land masses and will not pass through
them.(b): 100 nms. The for mula to calculate line of
sight is the square root of the altitude x 1.23.
4. "Transceiver" is a technical word coined to describe
a radio capable of transmission and reception
alternately on the one frequency dialled.
5. A NAV/COM is a Communications Transceiver and a
Navigation Receiver incorporated into one unit. Such
a unit reduces the cost and weight because some of
the components can be used in all three capacities.
6 Avionics are turned ON only after the engine is running
because there may be some voltage fluctuation on
start up, which could cause damage to the set
7. To reduce the amount of communication traffic on the
Ground Control and Tower frequencies In addit10n,
because a tape 1s used to broadcast the informatwn,
the Controller is relieved of much repetition.
8. ATIS, Ground, Tower•, En Route. (' At very busy
airports, there may also be an Outer Tower)
9 ATIS, Tower', Ground, Check Emergency on shutdown.
('As noted m Answer 8, there may also be an Outer Tower.)
10. The frequencies are found in the Canada Flight Supplement
11 Ground to 3,000 feet. 119.9 MHZ.
12 Very High Frequency Direction Finding.
VHF DF is often abbreviated to VDF
13. Primary Tower/FSS (Suggested reading
is How To Fly Instruments).
From the Ground Up Workbook
Navigation & Communications: Radio
14 With respect to Flight Service Stations:
(a): Services available at Flight Service Stations.
1. En route flight information.
2. Airport advisory.
3. Vehicle advisory.
4. Weather.
5. Pre-Flight Briefing.
6. VFR alerting.
7 Weather observing.
8 Navaids.
9 NOTAMs
10. Aeronautical information.
11 Pireps
12. Communications.
(b). Positive control of aircraft is not provided by FSS.
15. Direct User Access Terminal Sys'.em. Yes it is for public use.
16. Anyone may use the RADAR facilities.
17 Kilo Alpha India Sierra Echo Romeo. I . I .. I .
/ . / . (Example used is the name of the author)
18. a): 120.2 MHZ (Information Bravo).(b): 114.8 MHZ.
(c) Yes. (d): 121.9 MHZ. (e): "Winnipeg Ground, this
is Cessna 182 Golf Xray Mike Yankee, Ramp three,
with information Bravo, VFR Regina, Taxi "
19. (a)· Winnipeg Tower. (b): 118.3 MHZ. (c). "Winmpeg
Tower, this is Cessna 182 Golf Xray Mike Yankee,
ready for take off, runway 13 from Golf". (d): No,
because there is a right hand circuit on runway 13.
20. (a)· D (b). Yes. (c): 126.2 MHZ. (d): "Portage
Tower, this 1s Cessna 182 Golf Xray Mike Yankee,
over Delta at 1 S30Z at four thousand five hundred
feet. VFR flight plan, destination Regina"
21. (a): 127.0 MHZ. (b): 0600 to 2300. (c): Right hand.
(d): "Regina Tower, this is Cessna Golf Xray Mike
Yankee, ten miles east at four thousand five hundred
feet, with Information Alfa, VFR, landing".
22 (a) Five minutes before entering the specified area which is
5 nms in radius from the airport.(b). 122.1 MHZ. (c): North
Battleford Rad10. (d): Remote Aerodrome Advisory Service.
23. The May Day call means grave and imminent danger
and you require immediate assistance.The Pan-Pan call
means you have an urgent message concerning safety.
24. Magnetic.
25 (a): 060. (b): Fuil deflection right. (c): TO. (d) 150 degrees.
Note: The Canadian equivalent to the U.S. word
"COURSE" is "TRACK", The Course Deviation Indicator
on the VOR head is sometimes called the Track Bar.
Navigation & Communications: Radio

26. The aircraft heading does not affect 31 Track to the NDB. 180
the reading on the VOR head.
32. Track to the Statton Track from the station.
27. ADF has greater range in the lower levels
33. (a). No. (b): The skin of the aircraft serves as a
28. It is not as accurate as the VOR It is subject to a numl::er of reflector. (c) Primary Surveillance RADAR (PSRJ.
errors and may point to any large electromagnetic influence.
34. RADAR that triggers a Transponder in the
29. (a). 243 + 135 = 378 or 018 degrees. aircraft which returns the transmission.
(b): See diagram below. (c): 018.
35. SSR provides better definition of targets. Since the pulse is
:;·.r,.c:s returned by a Transponder, the size and shape of the aircraft
□,eO / does not determine the clarity of the blrp. Transponder blips
I
are the same but much clearer than skin reflected blips.

36. 1200.

37 The test/reply light will flash each time

it is interrogated by a pulse.

38. ARMED.

39. The first 5 minutes of any hour. Not more than 2 seconds.
30. (a): 225 degrees. (b): 315 degrees R. (c): See diagram below
40. There is no surface disruption since the signals come
from space (about 11,000 miles out there).

41. Some sets have been approved for IFR, but

only for non-precision approaches.
42. The ability of the set to determine the integrity of the signal
being received and of advising the pilot if it is faulty.
43. When everythmg is working properly. about 60 feet.

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 eneral
Airmanship
airmanship/ n. 1 a the proficiency
in the handling and operating of
airplanes on the ground and in
the air. b conversant in the capabilities
of an airplane. 2 understanding
of the necessity and care in the
execution of keeping an airplane in
airworthy conditions. 3 a knowing
how to deal with airplane emergencies.
b knowing how to fly safely.
General Airmanship: Weight & Balance

5 General Airmanship
s.1 Weight & Balance
1. When must a privately owned airplane that is under 3,000 pounds be weighed and have its weight and balance calculated?
(Ref: see Answers)

2. When the aircraft is weighed, are the fuel and oil left in the tanks or are the tanks drained? (Ref: FGU 268)
(a): Fuel
(b): Oil

3. You plan a flight from Vancouver to Kelowna in a C172, C-GIUX. Calculate the weight and centre of gravity using the following
data. Plot the position on the C of G limits chart. (Ref FGU 270 & 271)
Note: The all up weight for this airplane 1s �.300 pounds

I ITEM WEIGHT ARM MOMENT

Basic Airplane 1,437.7 39.46 56732
Pilot 160 37
Co-Pilot & Cushion 105 34
2 Sons (rear seat) 140 73
Baggage 60 95
TOTAL WEIGHT
Fuel {full) 312 46.0
TOTAL
I
Take Off C of G

AIRrLAN\. C.G. LOCATION• MILLIMETERS AFT OF DATUM f$TA. 0.01

871 900 121 8!50 975 1000 1021 10&0 1075 1100 1121 11!i0 11711 1200

. .
1100
2400

CENTER OFGRAVITY
LIMITS

--
..

UTILITY NORMAL
1700 CATEGORY
I CATEGORY
71iD
.. . .
IIIOO
I ,- 700
II
1500
� � » � » » � � u � � ff � Q

AIRrl.ANE C.G. LOCATION - INCHES AFT OF DATUM CSTA. 0,01

4. You estimate you will use 15 US gallons on the flight to Kelowna. Calculate your landing centre of gravity. Has it moved
forward or aft? (Ref- FGU 272)

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 General Airmanship: Weight & Balance

5. The centre of gravity can be found using the Loading Graph, FGU page 271 (Fig. 5) and the C of G Moment Envelope (Fig. 6).
!Ref FGU 271, Fig 5 & 6)

(a): Using Figure 5, calculate the Moment divided by 1,000 for an airplane with the following configuration:

I ITEM WEIGHT MOMENT/1000

Basic Airplane (AUW 2,500) 1,557 58.8
2 Pilots (male, winter, AIM RAC 3.5)
- 372

1 Passenger (female, winter) 141

Baggage 120
TOTAL WEIGHT (less fuel)
Fuel (40 US gallons)
TOTALS

(b): Locate the position calculated above on the chart in Figure 6. Is the centre of gravity within
limits? What flight characteristics can you expect with this centre of gravity and why?

6. List some of the effects an aft centre of gravity can have on flight characteristics. (Ref. FGU 268)

ANSWERS

1. An airplane must have its weight and balance 4. Weight 2,215 less 15 US gallons= 2,215
checked when it is first delivered from the factory. less 90 lbs= 2.125 lbs landing weight.
Note.· Further weighing is not required, except for aircraft Moment: 96494 less (fuel burned x 46)
over 12,500 pounds, which must be weighed every 5 years. = 96494 less (90 x 46) = 92354
(Reference: Airworthiness Manual 517.211, Appendix E.)
Landing C of G = 92354 divided by 2,125 = 435
2. (a): Drained. (b): Oil is weighed in by most manufacturers. The C of G has moved forward 0.1 of an inch.
3. 5. Calculating and locating the Moment
ITEM WEIGHT ARM MOMENT (a): Calculating the Moment:
Basic Airplane I 1,437.7 39.46 56732
Pilot I 160 37 5920
ITEM
Basic Airplane
WEIGHT
1557
MOMENT/1000
58.8
Co-Pilot & Cushion 105 34 3570
2 Pilots 372 13.6
2 Sons (rear Seat) 140 73 10220
1 Passenger 141 9.8
Baggage 60 95 5700
Baggage 120 11.4
TOTAL WEIGHT 1903
TOTAL WEIGHT 2190
Fuel (full) 312 46 14352
TOTAL 2215 I 96494
Fuel
TOTALS 2430
240 105.1
105,l

Take Off C of G (b): Yes, it is within limits Normal because

Moment 96494 the C of G is reasonably well centred.
43.6
Weight 2215
6. The airplane will be longitudinally unstable If the
See Center of Gravity Limits C of G is far enough aft, there may be insufficient
AIIIPLANLC.0.1.0CA.TION � w,LLIJffTIQJ.1-TOf DAl\lNfSTA.Q.OJ
elevator control to complete the round out on
co,, uoa
171 t00 ffl Im 17t 1000 IO"ll IOIO 1121 UIO 1111 1200
landing or to lower the nose m a stall or a spin.

""' """
CENTER OF GRAVITY
LI TS

IIIJD
IITIUTY
CATIGOIIY
N(UIM-'\.
eATEGOltY
,
,
....
llDD
� � » n » • � � Q � � u � u
.. ,.,LAN(C.Q. LOCATION �tNCHH.AfTOf OATUU (STA, o.ot

From the Ground Up Workbook

General Airmanship: Aircraft Performance

s.2 Aircraft Performance

1. List the reasons why take off performance is reduced at Denver, Colorado on July 1st, as compared to Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
on January 1? {Ref- FGU 272)

2. This publication has selected the two airports above in order to emphasize the effect of density altitude and to show that
most publications printed in the USA are not too applicable to mid-Canada in the winter. Use the Koch Chart (FGU, page 273,
Fig. 9) to calculate the changes to the Take Off Roll and Rate of Climb and your Computer to calculate Density Altitude (DALT)
in the chart below? (Ref FGU 201 & 272)
AIRPORT TEMP PALT .,_ TAKE-Off ROLL .,_ RATE OF CLIMB DALT

Denver +30"( 6,000

Saskatoon -20 ° ( 1,653

Note USt' the TEMP and PALT quoted uboue to answer tl1efollowmg questions.

3. Use the Take-Off Data chart (FGU, page 274, Fig. 11) to calculate the Ground Run and Total Feet to clear a 50 foot obstacle at
Denver and at Saskatoon. Assume maximum weight. (Ref FGU 274)
(a): Denver

(b): Saskatoon

4. Using the Density Altitude Take Off Graph (FGU, page 275, Fig. 12), calculate the Ground Run and the Distance to clear a 50
foot Barrier at Denver and at Saskatoon. (Ref FGU 275)
(a): Denver

(b): Saskatoon

5. See if you can develop Rules of Thumb for take off ground run and distance to clear a 50 foot obstacle per 1,000 feet of DALT
from the answers to Questions 3 & 4. (Ref; see Answers)
(a): Ground Run

(b): 50 Foot Obstacle

6. Using Figures 13 and 14 (FGU page 275), calculate the rate of climb at Denver, Colorado. Try to determine a Rule of Thumb for
rate of climb decrease with an increase in density altitude from your answers to this question and write it down in the space
provided. (Ref FGU 275 & Answers}
Figure 12
Figure 13
Rule of Thumb

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 General Airmanship: Aircraft Performance

7. What is the approximate percentage power that gives the best range in still, calm air for propeller driven light airplanes?
(Ref FGU '.'76, Frg 17 & 18)

8. When cruising for range into wind, do you increase or decrease the airspeed? Why? What is the Rule of Thumb for this
scenario? Ref �ee Answers)

9. You are flying from Lynn Lake to Edmonton in a Cessna 152 and have set up for range at 2,100 rpm. On your first ground
speed check, you discover that there is a 40 knot headwind component. You decide to increase the airspeed. You record the
following data: (Ref s,·e Answers)
RPM KIAS
2100 85
2200 93
2300 100
2400 103
2500 105

(a): What is the best power setting for the headwind condition?

(b): How do you know which power and airspeed to use?

(c): Does your answer correlate with the Rule of Thumb in Question 8? Why?

10. Does density altitude affect landing distance? Explain your answer. (Ref' FGU �78)

11. What is the formula to calculate the round out (flare) speed for a short field landing? Explain how you would use that formula.
(Rc_f FGU 277, F19 19)

12. You are preparing to land on Runway 27 at Victoria (actual heading 265). The ATIS broadcast reports the wind at 220/20.
(RcJ FGU -19)

(a): Is the wind direction given in degrees magnetic or true?

Is the speed given in knots or is it given in MPH?
(b): Using Figure 25 (FGU, page 280), calculate the crosswind and headwind components.

(c): If you were flying an airplane with a demonstrated crosswind capability of 12 knots, what would you do?

13. Explain how to mentally calculate the crosswind component when you have been given the W/V and the runway.
(Two methods other than estimating it). (Ref oce Answers)

14. What is "manoeuvering speed, (VS'? RL} FGU 12, 33 & WO)

From the Ground Up Workbook

General Airmanship: Aircraft Performance

ANSWERS

1. Engine power is reduced because the air is less dense. The 7. The best range in still air is at SS�o power, which is a
propeller is less efficient and the wings develop less lift compromise between best range and desirable TAS In
most light airplanes, 40% to 45�� gives the greatest
2.
range, but the TAS is too slaw to be acceptable.
%TAKE- %RATE
AIRPORT I TEMP PALT DALT 8. Increase the mrspeed This decreases the time in the air
OFF ROLL OF CLIMB
Denver +30 ° ( 6000 +185'1, -71'1, 9,000 during which the headwind component can affect you. The
Saskatoon I -20'( 1653 -JO'I, +25'¥v* -2,000 Rule of Thumb 1s 1/3 to 1/2 of the headwmd component.
• interpolated 9. (a)· 2,300 RPM and 100 KIAS. (b): With each 100
3. Calculating Ground Run and distance to clear and obstacle: RPM increase, the rAS increased 7 to 8 knots up to
2,400 RPM where the increase was only 3 knots. This
(a): Denver: Ground Run - 1,800 feet. is not a correspondingly equal increase in speed for
SO Foot Obstacle - 3,620 feet. consumption, so you should go back to the last figure that
(b): Saskatoon: Ground Run - 805 feet. gave a large increase m airspeed. (c): Yes. The increase
50 Foat Obstacle - 1,480 feet. was just over a third of the headwind component.

4. Calculating Ground Run and distance ta clear and obstacle:
(a): Denver: Ground Run - 1,300 feet
50 Foot Obstacle - 3,050 feet.
(b): Saskatoon: Ground Run - 680 feet.
SO Foot Obstacle - 1,675 feet
5. Rules of Thumb for Ground Run and
distance to clear and obstacle:
(a): Rule of Thumb for Ground Run: Add
11�� for each 1,000 feet of DALT.
(b): Rule of Thumb for Clearing a 50 Foot Obstacle:
Add 13�� for each 1,000 feet of DALT
Note: To calculate the percentage increase per 1,000 feet of
DALT, compare the figures at sea level on a standard day
(DALT is O feet) with Denver at 30'C (DALT is 9,000 feet).
Take Off: Standard - 890; Denver - 1,800;
Difference - 910; Percentage - 102%
10. Yes, density altitude increases. The IAS for approach
1s constant regardless of density altitude However,
with an increase in DALT, there is an increase in TAS
and, therefore, Ground Speed. Therefore, if DALT
increases, you will be landing faster and roll farther.
11. 1.3 x V (l.3 x Stall Speed m the landing configuration).
For example: If V , is 33 KCAS, the approach speed
should be 33 x 13 which equals 44 KCAS which you
must convert to JAS to get the correct speed
12. (a): Magnetic. Knots. (b): Crosswind 14 knots,
headwind 14 knots. (c). Land on Runway 20
13 Method One: The sine of a 6° angle is O 1. In that the
wind was 45° crosswind to the runway, divide 45 by 6
which is 7. The sine of a 45 ° angle is therefore O 7 (0.1
x 7). Sine times wind speed (0.7 x 20) equals 14.
Method Tum: Imagine the chart below. The wind is at 45 °
Thus, the effective crosswind speed is '2/3 x 20 = 13.3.

50 Foot Obstacle: Standard - 1,627; Denver -

3,620, Difference - 1,993; Percentage - 122%

Percentage per 1,000 feet is:

Take Off: 102/9 equals 11%

Climb to SO feet: 122/9 equals 13%

Note: As an easy way to remember this rule of thumb, some

texts recommend 10% to 5,000 feet and 20�� thereafter

6. Figure 12: Basic - 715; 6,000 - 401;

Decrease - 314; Loss per 1,000 - 5%.

Figure 13: Basic - 670; 6,000 - 300;

Decrease • 370; Loss per 1,000 - 6%. AW

Rule of Thumb: For every 1,000 feet of

DALT, the loss is about 5 °� 14. The maximum speed for full deflection of the
controls is called the manoeuvering speed.

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 General Airmanship: Human Factors

s.3 Human Factors

1. What is Hypoxia? (Ref FGU 309)

2. What are the symptoms of Hypoxia? Try to list them progressively. (Ref FGU 309)

3. What are some of the factors that affect your susceptibility to lack of oxygen? (Ref FGU 309)

4. On average, at what altitude does lack of oxygen begin to show? (Ref FGU 309)

5. CARs 605. 31 is the pertinent regulation dealing with the use of oxygen. It requires the use of oxygen: (Ref. FGU 310)
(a): After minutes between 10,000 and 13,000 feet.
(b): above 13,000 feet.

6. It is recommended that at night you use oxygen above 5,000 feet. Why so low? /Ref FGU 310)

7. Why is Carbon Monoxide (CO) poisoning so dangerous? (List at least 3 reasons). (Ref FGU 310)

8. Progressive symptoms of CO poisoning are headache, ringing in the ears and dizziness, all uncomfortable and easily
recognized. The early symptoms are not unpleasant. Consequently, they are often ignored; however, they must be recognized
for your own safety. What are the early symptoms? (Ref FGU 310 & 311)

9. If you smoke during a flight, what effect will it have on you and the people in the cabin with you if ventilation is not adequate?
(F J FGU 311)

10. Everybody knows that the "bends" (decompression sickness) occur when divers surface too quickly from a deep, sustained
underwater dive. Not everybody knows that pil ots can get the same effect by climbing quickly to 30,000 feet in an
unpressurized airplane. In your own words, describe decompression sickness. (Ref FGU 311)

From th<? Ground Up Workbook

General Airmanship: Human Factors

11. What is the remedy for decompression sickness? (Ref. FGU 311)

12. Give an example of a sensory illusion related to vision. (Ref. FGU 315)

13. You are flying a sustained rate one turn to the left. What does your inner ear tell your brain? (Ref FGU 316)

14. What is spatial disorientation and how do you get rid of it? (Ref FGU 315 & 316)

15. Everyone is somewhat familiar with the effects of alcohol, if not on themselves, certainly on others. Perhaps, the most
dangerous effect on the pilot is the lessening of a sense of responsibility, closely followed by impaired judgment. Answer the
following questions regarding alcohol: (Ref FGU 316 & 317)
(a): How long does it take for the effects of one ounce of alcohol to wear off?
{b): How are the effects of alcohol changed at 10,000 feet?
(c): How long do the CARs (602.03) require from bottle to throttle?

16. FGU goes into detail about flying and drug use. The Canadian Aviation Regulations prohibit flying for 48 hours after their
use. Obviously, this is a general rule: 2 aspirins are drugs, but they should not prevent you from flying for 48 hours unless
the problem that required the aspirin in the first place is still affecting you. Unfortunately, the problems associated with
marijuana, hashish, cocaine, LSD, mescaline, crack, amphetamines (Speed) and everything else currently popular, are not
addressed in current Transport Canada publications. It is recommended that you read Flying is Safe, Are You? by Bryce
Hansen. It covers just about everything in the aeromedical world that is pertinent to you as a pilot. Use your imagination and
see if you can come up with some of the effects for the following: (Ref rcu 317 & Answers)
(a): Marijuana and Hashish

{b): Hallucinogenic Drugs (LSD, etc.)

(c): Amphetamines

17. You are on your way through a shopping mall minding your own business when your friend's persuasion and a surge of
emotion convince you to give a blood donation. How long should you wait before flying? (Ref. FGU 317)

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18. You are to fly the slot in a formation flypast in a low level airshow. At breakfast, you have an argument with your spouse. You
are annoyed. In fact, you blow sky high and storm out of the house. How will this affect the airshow? (Ref. FGU 318 & 319)
19. All too often the charter pilot's lunch is a chocolate bar and a coke. What is wrong with this lunch and what does it do to him
as the day progresses? (see Flying is Safe, Are You?). (Ref FGU 318/
ANSWERS
1. Hypoxia is a lack of oxygen in the cells and tissues.
2. Euphoria. Poor vision. Blue discolouration of
the nails. Confusion, lassitude and indifference.
Poor concentration and disorientation. Poor
judgment. Slow re.flexes. Unconsciousness.
3. Fitness. Age. Drinking Habits. Smoking.
Drugs. A Cold or the Flu.
4. At 10,000 feet during daylight hours.
5. (a): 30. (b): Continuously.
6 One of the first sensory losses resulting from
hypoxia is night vision. Therefore, to be safe, you
should prevent hypoxia from happening.
7. The dangers of Carbon Monoxide poisoning:
(1) lt is colourless, odourless and tasteless,
so you do not lmow it is there.
(2) The haemoglobin, which trunsports oxygen in
the blood, would prefer to carry carbon monoxide,
so it does so at the expense of carrying oxygen.
(3) CO poisoning is not immediately relieved by
the subsequent use ofoxygen. Therefore, after
recognizing the problem and going on oxygen,
it takes some time to get back to normal.
8. Relaxed lethargy and warmness.
9. The carbon monoxide in the smoke is absorbed by
the haemoglobin, thus reducing its capacity to carry
oxygen. As a result, if you and your passengers
are not
to suffer some degree of hypoxia, you need
oxygen from sea level. It is recommended that
smoking be banned in the cockpit of your airplane.
10. As pressure decreases, nitrogen in the blood comes out of
solution and forms bubbles in the joints. The bubbles should
not be there and there is not room for them. They create
intolerable pain in the joints. This can precipitate shock,
unconsciousness and even permanent injury or death.
11. Recompression (descend and land).
12. Here are three that are referenced in the Private Pilot Course.
(1) If you areflying downwind at !ow !eue!, you
will get the illusion of excessive speed.
From the Ground Up Workbook
General Airmanship: Human Factors
(2) 1f the horizon is not visible, the eye may
select a tilted cloud bank as level.
(3) Turning downwind at low leuel gives the illusion of
slipping; turning into wind grves the illusion of skidding.
13. Your inner ear tells your brain that you are flying
straight and level, (bemuse of the otolith centres).
14. Spatial disorientation is a loss of bearings or confusion
concerning one's position or movement in relation to the earth.
It can also be a Jee!mg of rotation or movement that is not
there. Force yourself to believe the instruments and consider it
NOT there. In a short time (from seconds to 2 to 3 minutes,
depending on the individual), the feeling will go away.
15. (a): Three hours. ( b): Approximately tripled. (c): 8 hours.
Note· There are several conflicting times quoted in
various publications. Nonetheless, CARS 602.03
specifically states 8 hours and that is the answer
expected on Transport Canada examinations.
16. Effects of certain drugs:
(a): Marijuana and Hashish: Upsets the performance of simple
tasks, inter feres withmemory and recall. produces a dreamy
state, disconnected ideas, poor time estimation, impulsive
behaviour. With high doses. there are extreme mood changes
(b). Ha!lucinogemcs: Severe and rapid mood changes, distorted
picture of reality, jumbled thinking,wild imaginations.
(c): Amphetamines: As a stimulant, they
produce ouerconfidence. As they wear off
they leaue fatigue and depression.
17. 48 hours. If you are a pilot, don't give blood. PLH Vol. 3
Medical states that it may take several weeksfor circulation
to return to normal after a blood donation. You must be
cleared by your aeromedical physician before flying.
18. Jt should be interesting because with the turmoil
you have just experienced (and carried away with
you). you have a good chance of killing yourse!j
and everybody else in the formation.
19. lt gives a huge surge of sugar imbalance to the blood/sugar
ratio. This is followed by a steady drop in the ratio, which
is Jaster than normal because of the surge, until the ratio
is too low. The result is inordinate fatigue in a few hours.
 CANADIAN COMMERCIAL PILOT ANSWER GUIDE
The Canadian Commercial Pilot Answer Guide caters to the higher standards required of students seeking their
commercial pilot licence. With over 600 questions and associated multiple-choice answers, this title covers a broad
spectrum of critical material necessary for all commercial students to know. With updated content, new questions
in navigation and weight and balance, and a detailed reference section with the latest in GFA weather data, readers
have additional challenging practical study material to prepare themselves for their written exam. This commercial
study material can also be accessed on-line through acquisition of the book, and also comes packaged with a
free copy of See And Avoid!, a practical guide to reducing the threat of air and ground aircraft collision incidents.

CANADIAN PRIVATE PILOT ANSWER GUIDE

Students benefit greatly from their use of this popular question and answer book. Intended for all individuals
preparing to write their private pilot examination, the content of this publication provides an excellent means
for students to study and review essential PPL subject matter. It contains hundreds of questions, all identical
to those encountered in the exam itself. All questions contain thorough explanations that accompany the
answers. Available as an on-line source as well, the Canadian Private Pilot Answer Guide is an outstanding
way to prepare for your written test.

FLIGHT TEST NOTES

Written for all flight test prospects, Flight Test Notes takes readers step-by-step through the flight test exercises
and questions that arise during every student's flight test. It includes detailed descriptions in all areas that
exammers will want licence candidates to know and perform. Its content is explicit in advising what to expect
in the flight examination. A first-rate and very thorough preparation source written to describe what's reQuired
both for the private flight test, as well as for the higher standards expected of commercial students during
their flight test.

THE NEW INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES MANUAL

A thorough revision, with expanded content, to this long-established title, the new Instrument Procedures
Manual provides students and experienced pilots with information on today's aircraft, satellite and ground-based
instrument systems, departure, enroute and approach procedures, and air traffic control regulations. Chapters
on pilot performance, automation and technology, and international procedures raise this title's content to new

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levels, and capture its place as the title of necessity for every student pilot's initial instrument studies, and for
all subsequent instrument pilot reviews.

FLYING BEYOND
Flying Beyond is the perfect educational resource for students seel<mg their commercial pilot lrcence. In-depth
topics are presented in the order given in Transport Canada's syllabus and are enhanced with compelling
anecdotes and examination "hints" that serve as excellent real-world learning tools for readers. Whether
seeking to acquire the basic knowledge necessary to earn a commercial licence, or setting out on a career
path in aviation, Flying Beyond serves both needs comprehensively. An extremely well-written and thorough
publication with unique content, it's the new standard for commercial groundschool textbooks.

A$J.. your local flyin� chool fur detatts, visit your local pilot supply shop, or v1s1t us on the web
to obtam informalion about buying these titles.

AVIATION PUBLISHERS CD. LIMITED

Bo. 136!. S:.it,Jn B, OU;,wa, Or.l.l•oc C.lnJ<IJ. KIP 5R4
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