1) Non-verbal and Paraverbal Means in Cross-cultural Communication

БІЛЕТ 15
Non-verbal and paraverbal means play a crucial role in cross-cultural communication.
Verbal communication is one way through which individuals communicate face-to-
face. Some of the fundamental components of this form of communication are words,
sound, language, and speaking.
Non-Verbal Means
Non-verbal communication has been comprehended to mean the process by
which individuals communicate through the transmission of wordless messages
taking into account the aspects of culture, such as facial expressions, body language,
gestures, tone of voice, and other non-linguistic cues. It is an essential aspect of
communication as it provides context and adds meaning to the words spoken.
However, non-verbal cues can be interpreted differently in different cultures, leading
to miscommunication or misunderstanding.
Even flowers can be means of non-verbal communication. For example, in
March late Queen Elizabeth the 2nd posed in front of blue and yellow flowers, the
national colors of Ukraine, as she held her in-person meeting with Justin Trudeau. On
whether this was a symbolic show of support, a Royal source indicated it was
unlikely to be accidental.
Different signs may also be used in different cultural contexts. For instance, a
style of dressing may be used to give information about an occasion. This may
include a wedding ceremony, a funeral ceremony, or an official ceremony.

Some examples of non-verbal communication and their potential cross-cultural

interpretations are:
1. Eye Contact: In some cultures, direct eye contact is a sign of honesty and respect,
while in others it may be seen as impolite or aggressive. In some cultures, avoiding
eye contact may be a sign of respect, while in others it may be seen as a lack of
confidence.
2. Facial Expressions: Facial expressions are an important means of conveying
emotion and intent. However, different cultures may have different interpretations of
facial expressions. For example, a smile may indicate happiness in most cultures, but
in some cultures, it may be a sign of embarrassment or nervousness.
3. Gestures: Some cultures, like the Italians, use their arms freely during the
conversations. Others, like the Japanese, are more reserved; in Japan it is considered
impolite to gesture with broad movements of the arms.
Gestures such as handshakes, nods, and bows can convey respect, agreement, or
disagreement. However, their meanings can vary across cultures. For instance, a
thumbs-up sign is a positive gesture in Western cultures, but it may be considered
offensive in some Middle Eastern cultures.
Paraverbal Means:
Paraverbal communication refers to the tone, pitch, rhythm, and pace of speech. It
adds meaning to the spoken words and can convey emotion and intent. However, the
interpretation of paraverbal means can vary across cultures, leading to
miscommunication or misunderstanding.
Some examples of paraverbal communication and their potential cross-cultural
interpretations are:
1. Tone of Voice: The tone of voice can convey different emotions and attitudes,
such as confidence, anger, or sarcasm. However, its interpretation can vary across
cultures. For instance, a loud and assertive tone may be seen as confident and
authoritative in some cultures, but as rude and confrontational in others.
2. Pitch: Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of the voice. It can convey different
emotions and attitudes, such as excitement, boredom, or interest. However, the
interpretation of pitch can vary across cultures. For example, Japanese females adopt
an extremely high pitch, separating themselves acoustically from Japanese males,
whereas for English speakers, the male pitch is less differentiated from the male
pitch.

3. Rhythm and Pace: Rhythm and pace refer to the speed and flow of speech. It can
convey different emotions and attitudes, such as enthusiasm, urgency, or boredom.
However, the interpretation of rhythm and pace can vary across cultures. For
instance, some cultures may prefer a slower pace of speech, while others may prefer a
faster pace.
To effectively communicate across cultures, it is important to be aware of the
different non-verbal and paraverbal means and their cultural significance. This
includes learning to recognize and interpret non-verbal cues, as well as adapting one's
own communication style to better align with the cultural norms of the audience.

2) Multiculturalism and Cross-cultural Competence БІЛЕТ 14

Multiculturalism is a situation in which all the different cultural or racial groups in a
society have equal rights and opportunities, and none is ignored or considered
unimportant.
Multiculturalism is usually formed on a national scale or in the community of a
nation and state.
In sociology, multiculturalism is a description of the way in which certain societies
coexist with cultural diversity. For example: Multiculturalism can be defined as the
celebration and acceptance of diversity. This includes cultures, languages, religion,
and ethnicity. Turkish-Germans, Indian-Americans or Chinese-Canadians are just a
few of the many multicultural identities.
The benefits of multiculturalism are numerous. It is believed that a society in which
people from different cultures interact with each other will be more creative and
innovative. Multiculturalism also means a better understanding of the world, and
having the freedom to choose or express oneself without any cultural restrictions.
However, there are also negative perceptions of multiculturalism. For example, some
people might not be happy with the way their country has changed and they may feel
like their culture is under threat. Multicultural societies can also create tensions
between communities because different groups often live in relative segregation from
each other. However, all these can easily overcome by:
Recognizing that different cultures exist: Humans are defined by their cultures, so it’s
crucial to recognize that there are many different cultural identities. Being aware of
cultural differences will help one to build relationships with people from various
backgrounds, which can lead to greater understanding. Sharing stories about other
cultures and coming together as a community is one way of eliminating
misconceptions and increasing understanding.
Recognizing that different cultures have different values: The world is more diverse
than ever, and the values of various cultures are different. It is important to be
mindful of these differences when working or interacting with people of other
cultures.
Respecting the Values of different cultures: As the world becomes more
interconnected, it is important to be cognizant of different cultures and ways of life.
This can be done by recognizing that each culture has unique norms and values. If
these different cultures are respected, then people will not feel marginalized or
isolated by policies enacted in their country.
Encouraging people to learn about other cultures: People often think about cultures as
being separated and distinct from each other, but the reality is that there is a lot of
cross-cultural sharing. Learning about other cultures can provide an enriching
experience and will lead to more understanding and empathy.

Culture can be defined as all the ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of
a population that are passed down from generation to generation. Culture has been
called "the way of life for an entire society." As such, it includes codes of manners,
dress, language, religion, rituals, art.
Cross-cultural competence refers to your ability to understand people from different
cultures and engage with them effectively. And not just people from the one culture
that you’ve studied for years. Having cross-cultural competence means you can be
effective in your interactions with people from most any culture.
Developing cultural competence helps us understand, communicate with, and
effectively interact with people across cultures. It gives us the ability to compare
different cultures with our own and better understand the differences. Unconsciously,
we bring our own cultural frame of interpretation to any situation. This is not to say
that culture alone determines how one interprets a situation. One's own unique history
and personality also play an important role.
There are cross-cultural attitude strategies that help you to develop and enhance one's
ability to practice effective communication in intercultural situations:
Practice openness.
Openness is a sign of acceptance and respect for differences. It's critical to maintain
an open mind toward people, their opinions and their experiences in order to be aware
of the differences and similarities. This is because people usually acknowledge those
who are interested in knowing them and gaining knowledge about their culture.
By cultivating empathy, you can improve your receptivity. So, extend your
awareness beyond yourself and into the circumstances of others and make some
effort to understand their feelings and thoughts.
Be flexible.
As you interact with the global society, keep in mind that other cultures may perceive
the world differently than you do. Therefore, as part of becoming cross-culturally
competent, it's important to be flexible to different cultures.
You can start by being conscious of the distinctions of each culture. This prevents
you from imposing incorrect personal sentiments or thoughts onto others. In addition,
encourage yourself to be inquisitive and educate yourself about diverse cultures.
Immersing yourself in how others live, reason, and function can help you develop a
greater sensitivity to others' way of thinking and existence
Demonstrate humility.
Cultural humility refers to the humble and compassionate attitude toward people from
different cultures. It encourages one to confront their own cultural prejudices,
acknowledge they can't claim to know everything about other cultures, and treat
cultural understanding as a continuous objective and endeavor.
Be sensitive to others.
Meeting people from many cultural backgrounds is an effective way to broaden your
perspectives and social network. But the problem is sometimes a lack of awareness
could result in offensive words or behaviors that can generate conflict. Therefore,
sensitivity to the cultural backgrounds of others is a vital skill in all aspects of life.
Being culturally sensitive when interacting with others can result in pleasant and
enriching encounters. To be successful in doing so, you may need to develop an
understanding of your own worldview, refrain from making assumptions, familiarize
yourself with other cultures, and respect boundaries.
Show a spirit of adventure.
Another method to demonstrate cultural competency is to have an adventurous spirit.
This entails showing your curiosity and discovering opportunities in diverse settings.
Aside from learning about culture and people through reading books, watching
movies, or attending classes, you can try gaining experiences.
Use a sense of humor.
All human cultures have elements of levity. However, individuals from diverse
cultural backgrounds may perceive comedy differently. A sense of humor is
inextricably linked to a group of people's national identity, common worldview, and
customs that are so familiar to them but alien to foreign people. And somehow, there
are more profound levels of humor that may attack others' boundaries.
This is why it's critical to understand how culture affects the perception of comedy,
use of humor, and its consequences for others' emotional well-being. Besides that, a
good sense of humor can be integral in picking up the humor of others, irrespective of
where they're from.
Practice positive change or action.
Another way to be culturally competent is to create a positive change. Cultural
competence may be ineffective if you don't demonstrate a positive change in the
environment where you work or function. Becoming culturally competent entails
successfully eliminating older perceptions and ideas—which were frequently adopted
without eliciting corresponding behavioral changes—of cultural sensitivity and
awareness.

3) Key Elements of Communicative Interaction БІЛЕТ 13

Communication is usually understood as the transmission of information. In
the process of communication a message is conveyed from a sender to a receiver
using some form of medium, such as sound, paper, bodily movements, or electricity.
American linguist Dell Hymes described 8 elements of communicative
interaction He developed a mnemonic device to describe the elements that make up
any speech. Hymes referred to this as the SPEAKING model (S for setting and
scene, P for participants, E for ends, A for acts sequence, K for key, I for
instrumentalities, N for norms and G for genre).
 Setting and Scene. Setting refers to the time and place of a speech act and, in
general, to the physical circumstances. Scene is the "psychological setting",
including characteristics such as range of formality and sense of seriousness.
 Participants include the speaker and the audience. The audience may include
those to whom the speech act is directed, and those who are not addressed but
overhear.
 The ends of a speech event are its purposes, goals, and outcomes.
 Act sequence refers to the sequence of speech acts that make up a speech
event. The order of speech acts greatly influences the speech event. The initial
speech acts set the tone for the conversation. Beginning a lecture by saying,
"Ladies and gentlemen ...", sets a different tone than by saying, "Hello! How is
everyone today?"
 Key refers to the clues that establish the tone, manner, or spirit of the speech
act. The overall tone or manner of the speech.
 Instrumentalities are the channels used to complete the speech act. These
include the method of communication (writing, speaking, signing or
signaling), the language, dialect (a mutually intelligible subset of a language)
and register (a variety of a language that is used in specific settings).
 Norms are the social rules governing the speech event and the participants'
actions and reactions.
 Genre is the kind of speech act or event (for example, gossip, joke,
conversation etc.)

4) Models of Communication БІЛЕТ 12

Communication scholars and practitioners have formulated different models, methods
and theories to study the ways in which communication takes place.
The formulation of models in communication studies is generally associated with
research in the process used by the mass media to influence public opinion.
World War II and the concerns it raised over the uses and efficiency of
telecommunication provided an impetus to the development of systematic modes of
codifying communication processes and thus to the formulation of modes.
This was compounded by the new economies and technological advancement
emerging in the 1940s and 1950s. Two major, foundational models are formulated by
the political scientist Harold Lasswell (1948) and the mathematicians Claude
Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949) in response to such concerns.
Lasswell’s model
Lasswell described the process of communication conveniently when he said that an
act of communication answers the questions: WHO? SAYS WHAT? IN WHICH
CHANNEL? TO WHOM? WITH WHAT EFFECT?
In this model, who corresponds to the communicator, says what to the message, in
which channel to the medium, to whom to the audience, with what effect to the
influence of the message on the audience.
However, it is based on some assumptions that could lead to misleading results. Most
importantly, it is a one-way model, assuming that the source of the message
intentionally sends out a message that will be received intact and influence a passive
recipient. The notions of interpretation (that the receiver will “put in” the message
when decoding it), feedback (how the sender is influenced by an anticipated or real
response of the receiver) and content (in what circumstances and settings the
exchange takes place) are absent.
It's important to note that feedback does not have to be intentional. If you talk to
someone face to face, his/her expression will give you feedback on
how your words are received. If you speak without observing the other person’s
reaction, you are closing off the communicative act from feedback and relying on
message structure only.
Shannon and Weaver’s model
Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians working for the Bell telephone company,
and their interest in the study of communication had a practical basis: they wanted to
know what communication channels could emit the most information, and to what
degree “noise” (intended to mean anything that disrupts clarity and continuity)
interfered with the information transmitted.
In this model, the information source (which could be human or it could refer to a set
of technical equipment) produces a message which is transformed into a set of
signals by a transmitter. These signals are sent out, via a channel, to a receiver, who
reconstructs, or decodes, the message. The received message then reaches the
destination. A noise source external to the message can interfere with this process,
which means that the message reaches the recipient in a distorted form and may
cause failures in communication. This “noise” may be any element that is not
relevant to the message but acts as an extraneous factor – in this respect silence
could also be “noise”.
Gerbner’s model
The mass media researcher George Gerbner (1956) was one of the first to attempt a
model of communication for general use among communication specialists.
1. Someone (or “something”,in the case of a mechanical communicator)
2. perceives an event
3. and reacts
4. in a situation
5. through some means
6. to make available materials
7. in some form
8. a context
9. conveying content
10. with some consequence
Jakobson’s model
The addresser sends a message to the addressee. To be operative the message
requires a context referred to (“referent” in another, somewhat ambivalent,
nomenclature), seizable by the addressee. And either verbal or capable of being
verbalized, a code fully, or at least partially, common to the addresser and addressee
(or, in other words, to the encoder and decoder of the message); and finally, a
contact, a physical channel and psychological connection between the addresser and
the addressee, enabling both of them to stay in communication.
This means when I communicate, I (the addresser) send a message to someone
else (the addressee). My message is delivered through a contact (the medium), is
formatted in a code (the English language or, in cases of non-verbal
communication, my gestures and/or clothes), and is affected by the context in which
it is given.
5) Text as a Linguistic Phenomenon. Standards of Textuality БІЛЕТ 11
TEXT AS A UNIT. Text is the unit of the highest (supersyntactic) level. It can be
defined as a sequence of sentences connected logically and semantically that convey
a complete message. The text is a language unit and it manifests itself in speech as
discourse. Textlinguistics is concerned with the analysis of formal and structural
features of the text. Textual basic integrative properties can be described with the
help of the notions of coherence, cohesion and deixis.
Mohsen Ghadessy also says that a text is a unit larger than a sentence (clause), in
fact it is a combination of a number of sentences (clauses) or a number of elements of
structure, each made of one or more sentences (clauses).
According to Hatim and Mason, Text is a set of mutually relevant communicative
functions, structured in such a way as to achieve an overall rhetorical purpose.
Werlich said that a text is an extended structure of syntactic units [text as super-
sentence] such as words, groups, and clauses and textual units that is marked by both
coherence among the elements and completion .Whereas a non-text consists of
random sequences of linguistic units such as sentences, paragraphs, or sections.
Text Linguistics Describes or explains the common and different features among the
text types, what standards text must fulfill, how they might be produced or received,
what people are using them for in a given setting of occurrence, and so forth.
The study of written interaction, usually understood as a complete unit of speech (or
macro text) and a chain of utterances linked together by common purpose of
communication (or micro text). It concerns with the organization of the text. The text
is a unit of Language. The text is any written record of a communicative event (David
Nunan).
Standards of textuality There are seven standards of textuality: cohesion,
coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality,
intertextuality
Cohesion “sticking together” (M.A.K. Halliday, Ruqaiya Hasan) Concerns the ways
in which the components of the surface text, i.e. the actual words we hear or see, are
mutually connected within a sequence. The surface components depend upon each
other according to grammatical forms and conventions, cohesion rests upon
grammatical dependencies.
Connectors
additive – and, furthermore, similarly, in addition, etc.
adversative – but, however, on the other hand, in fact, anyway, after all,
nevertheless, etc.
causal – so, consequently, for this reason, thus, etc.
temporal – then, after that, finally, at last, in the long run, etc.
Lexical Cohesion is a cohesion effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary.
Lexical cohesion occurs when two words in the text are semantically related in the
same way – in other words, they are related in terms of their meaning. Two major
categories of lexical cohesion are reiteration and collocation.
Reiteration repetition, synonym, superordinate, general word. Ex: There is water
through many homes I would say almost all of them have water in them. It’s just
completely under water.
Collocation includes all the items in a text that are semantically related. Ex: I’m an
incredible man, possessing an iron will and nerves of steel-- two traits that have
helped me become the genius I am today as well as the lady killer I was in days gone
by.
Cohesive ties within the text are also formed by endophoric relations.
Endophoric relations are of two kinds – those that look back in the text for their
interpretation are called anaphoric relations; those that look forward in the text are
called cataphoric relations:
Look at the sun. It is going down quickly. ‘It’ refers back to ‘the sun’. It is going
down quickly, the sun. ‘It’ refers forwards to ‘the sun’.
Coherence is a logical, topical connectedness (Robert De Beaugrande, Wolfgang U.
Dressler). Concerns the ways in which the components of the textual world, i.e., the
configuration of concepts and relations which underlie the surface text, are mutually
accessible and relevant.
• A concept is definable as a configuration of knowledge (cognitive content) which
can be recovered or activated with more or less unity and consistency in the mind:
each link would bear a designation of the concept it connects to.
• Can be illustrated by a group of relations subsumed under causality. These relations
concern the ways in which one situation or event affects the conditions for some
other one.
E.g.: Jack fell down and broke his crown.
• The event of ‘falling down’ is the cause of the event of ‘breaking’, since it created
the necessary conditions for the latter
Intentionality is concerns the text producer’s attitude that the set of occurrences
should constitute a cohesive and coherent text instrumental in fulfilling the
producer’s intentions, e.g. to distribute knowledge or to attain a goal specified in a
plan.
Intentionality is about the effects of an author’s or translator’s decisions on the text
and their subsequent impact on the receptive intentions of the reader.
In the process of translation, the translator needs to extract the intentionality of the
source text; therefore, he or she might obtain the intent of the author. But as Neubert
and Shreve believe, intentionality is not really about an author’s intent, because
sometimes the text does not accomplish what the author intends. Intentionality is
about the effects of an author’s or translator’s decisions on the text and their
subsequent impact on the receptive intentions of the reader.
Acceptability is concerns the text receiver’s attitude that the set of occurrences
should constitute a cohesive and coherent text having some use or relevance for the
receiver. This attitude is responsive to such factors as text type, social or cultural
setting, and the desirability of goals.
Regarding the translator as a communicator, we do not isolate the intentionality from
the acceptability because their concepts are combined at the communication. Hence,
to analyze texts, some theoreticians like Hatim & Mason (1997) just use the concept
of intentionality in order to refer to both.
To describe acceptability, Beaugrande & Dressler say that it is the text receivers’
attitude in communication. In the most immediate sense of the term, text receivers
must accept a language configuration as a cohesive and coherent text capable of
utilization. The primary goal of text producer is to appraise the addressee from her
intent. Any text is written to be accepted. In this case, Neubert & Shreve believe:
Acceptability does not necessarily imply that the receiver believe the specific
contents of the text. It does require that the addressee be able to identify and extract
those contents (what the text is supposed to do). The receiver must be able to
determine what kind of text the sender intended to send, and what was to be achieved
by sending it.
Informativity is concerns the extent to which the occurrences of the present text are
expected vs. unexpected or known vs. unknown. Every text is at least somewhat
informative: no matter how predictable form and content may be, there will always
be a few variable occurrences that cannot be entirely foreseen. Particularly low
informativity is likely to be disturbing, causing boredom or even rejection of the text.
Because of lexical and syntactical differences of languages, the order of
informativity, distribution of information, changes in translation; hence,
informativity of the text has to be dominated by the coherence to make sense for the
reader. Informativity of the text has to be dominated by the coherence to make sense
for the reader. Neubert & Shreve claim that the order of informativity is a measure of
the significance of the information units in a text. This measure is relative to the other
information items in the text.
Situationality is concerns the factors which make a text relevant to a situation
of occurrence. Situationality is the location of a text in a discrete sociocultural
context in a real time and place. The more discrete is the situationality of two texts,
the more difficult is to manage them during translation, however, as Neubert &
Shreve believe, many texts have a common situationality.
Situationality is the central issue in translatability. If a translation is to succeed, there
must be a situation which requires it. There must be a translation need. The
situationality of the translation is never the same as the situationality of the source
text.
The general strategy of the translator is to adjust the text to its new situation.
Adjustments may involve a variety of translation procedures, including explicitation,
compression, recasting, and textual re-arrangements … the modifications are
motivated by the need to preserve the intentionality and functionality of the text in its
new situation.
Intertextuality is concerns the factors which make the utilization of one text
dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered texts.
E.g.: a driver who has seen a road sign is likely to see another sign further down the
road.
Intertextuality refers to the relationship between a certain text and other texts which
share characteristics with it; the factors which allow readers to distinguish, in a new
text, features of other texts that they have experienced. In other words, intertextuality
subsumes the ways in which the production and reception of a given text depends
upon the participants’ knowledge of other texts. It is likely that the impression that a
translation “sounds wrong” comes from violations of a reader’s textual expectations.
The reader has in mind a set of tacit expectations about what the text “should be
like.” This set of expectations is a product of intertextuality.
Intertextuality is a function of a configuration of grammatical and lexical properties.
It is a global pattern which the reader compares to pre-existing cognitive templates
abstracted from experience. It is a property of “being like other texts of this kind”
which readers attribute to texts. If the translator wants to create a translation that
appears natural, then he or she should create a text whose linguistic surface evokes a
similar recognition. The translation has to possess the intertextuality of the target
culture’s natural texts.
Textuality as a Secure Translation Model Textuality is referred by which at the first
step, one analyzes the text based on its basic standards of textuality and, at the second
step, the translator, previously having known the basic standards of textuality of the
target text, synthesizes source textual features into the target text. To put it another
way, while we assumed any text has a communicative purpose, the translator
(communicator) needs, firstly, to do textual analysis on the source text to receive the
messages, the meaning and intention, encoded in the communication system of the
source text.
The textual analysis on the source text is a means which one can analyze the
standards of the text to comprehend the message. Secondly, the translator has to
communicate the messages transmitted in the source text and re-encodes them in the
target text.
6) Recent Trends in Linguistic Research: Interdisciplinary Approach БІЛЕТ
10
There are certain fields in the inter-disciplinary linguistic research, such as applied
linguistics, comparative linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, evolutionary
linguistics, anthropological linguistics, cognitive linguistics, neurolinguistics and in
computer science there is natural language understanding, speech recognition,
speech synthesis.
Such areas as lexicography, linguodidactics, terminology, translation studies are
inherent for applied linguistics which is directly oriented and related to the study of
language. The main areas of applied linguistics related to practical application are:
computational linguistics with its main tasks of machine translation, OGR, ASR,
Data Minning, automatic summarizing, building knowledge management systems,
creating electronic dictionaries, thesauruses, ontologies, corpus linguistics; 2)
Linguistic expertise (for example, in judicial practice); 3) the science of ordering and
standardization of scientific and technical terminology. Applied linguistics can be
considered in the terms of speech functioning optimisation as a means of information
transmission. Within computational linguistics, machine translation, which is the
process of translating texts (written, and in the general civilization dimension, also
oral) of one natural language to another through a special computer program, it is
important to develop skills of creating the translation algorithms and construction of
similar systems.
Today, the development of machine translation systems has several directions: 1)
study of human-machine systems, taking into account and predicts direct human
participation in the translation process at different stages; 2) the problem area is
limited to a specific sublanguage or substyle for example, texts from the space
industry or the construction industry; 3) systems of machine translation is considered
as a kind of subsystems/systems of artificial intelligence (the latter makes possible
the use of computer technologies developed in computer modeling of human
thinking). The creation of electronic dictionaries also applies to the current tasks of
the Computational (Applied) Linguistics, where an electronic dictionary interpreted
as a suitable computer database containing the special dictionary entries which are
encoded by special methods. In the modern era, the ability to correct organization of
editing with delineation of certain aspects and dimensions of this problems, in
particular auto-referencing is especially relevant and significant.
Actual problems of sociolinguistics can be considered as the following:
 The language of representatives of individual social groups (professional, age,
gender; problems of linguodidactics, the study of professional jargon, slang)
 Features of the speech in the various communicative situations
 Patterns of language selection and switching of the language codes in
conditions of bi- and polylinguism; problems of linguistic stability and
linguistic lability
Understanding language evolution would doubtless provide the key to answering
many related, yet unresolved questions, such as how world languages possess their
distinct forms, why language is the way it is, and why only our species possess a
complex linguistic system. These questions belong to the realm of evolutionary
linguistics, which aims to identify when, where, and how languages originate,
change, and die out.
Cognitive linguistics is one of the linguistic directions investigating extraction
mechanisms, storing and transferring knowledge through language. The focus of the
cognitive linguistics is on the language as a general cognitive mechanism, as a
cognitive tool – a system of signs that plays a big role in representation (coding) and
also in the information transformation. The language is considered as the main means
of fixing, processing and transferring the knowledge. The language structures are
considered in this case through the prism of the general human knowledge about the
world, his experience of interaction with the environment and in close dependence on
the psychological, communicative and cultural factors.
The main recent problems of psycholinguistics:
Modeling and analysis of the processes of generation, perception and understanding
of speech, mechanisms of formation of human's speech ability; description of lexicon
mental organization; analysis of children's speech, linguistic consciousness and image
of the world; studying the non-verbal communication components; a Study of Mental
Mechanisms of communication effectiveness, coding and decoding of the texts;
intercultural communication; Mastery of the foreign language; Problems of
Bilingualism.
The most recent study in neurolinguistics concerns how music affects language.
Principally, that study concerns the pitch of language in vowel sounds and shifts and
how the pitch of each subject’s speech related to musical pitches. The researchers
studied subcortical electrophysiological stimuli and each subject’s reactions to those
stimuli. According to the Journal of Neuro-linguistics, the researchers collected data
and formed a hypothesis that supposes differences between the processing of musical
pitches and the processing of spoken pitches in the auditory brainstem. This
difference was most marked in speakers of tone languages, such as most Asian
languages.

Another study followed the speakers of both Palestinian Arabic and Modern Standard
Arabic. Communities of people who speak two versions of the same language are
called diglossic. Diglossic communities assign two levels of import and social status
to each language version. One, for example, might be used in direct, informal spoken
conversation while the other would be reserved for formal settings and for written
communication.
The researchers then applied the concepts of diglossia to a series of patients suffering
from aphasia, which is the inability to communicate effectively because of illness,
poisoning, or some such other outside stimulus that adversely affects the brain. Their
chief aim was to determine if the aphasia affected both language versions equally,
affected only one version, or affected both versions but to a differing degree for each
version.
In other study involved ambiguous words and their formation in the brains and
speech patterns of Hebrew-speaking adolescents. The researchers presented each
adolescent subject with a pair of words, one of which was “ambiguous,” or had two
possible meanings. One of the meanings was the dominant meaning of the word
among all Hebrew speakers, while the second was an implied meaning based on
colloquial usage.
The researches studied the language-processing portions of the adolescents’ brains as
they pored over the sets of word pairs. They found that the young people’s processing
and recognition of the dominant word meanings matched those of mature adults, but
their recognition and processing of the implied meanings was not of the same level.
They hypothesized that the lack of life experience necessitated heightened activity in
the brain’s right hemisphere as the young people struggled to determine the
secondary meanings to these words.
7) English Linguistics as an Academic Discipline БІЛЕТ 9
Broadly conceived, linguistics is the study of human language and a linguist is
someone who engages in this study. The study of linguistics can be conceived as
occurring along three major axes, the endpoints of which are described below:
• Synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic study of a language is concerned
only with the language as it is at a given time; diachronic study is concerned with the
history of a language or group of languages, and what structural changes have
occurred.
• Theoretical and applied. Theoretical linguistics is concerned with creating
frameworks for the description of individual languages as well as with theories about
universal aspects of language. Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of
linguistics that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-
life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are
education, psychology, computer science, communication research, anthropology,
and sociology.
• Contextual and independent. These terms are used only here for convenience
as terms for this dichotomy are not well established – the Encyclopedia Britannica
uses macrolinguistics and microlinguistics, apparently in analogy with
macroeconomics and microeconomics. Contextual linguistics is concerned with how
language fits into the world: its social function, but also how it is acquired, and how it
is produced and perceived. Independent linguistics instead considers languages for
their own sake, and without externalities related to a language.
Some scholars, who call themselves simply linguists, tend to be primarily concerned
with independent, theoretical synchronic linguistics, which is generally
acknowledged as the core of the discipline. This is what is generally described by
"theoretical linguistics".
Linguistic inquiry is pursued by a wide variety of specialists, who may not all be in
harmonious agreement; as Russ Rymer flamboyantly puts it: "Linguistics is arguably
the most hotly contested property in the academic realm. It is soaked with the blood
of poets, theologians, philosophers, philologists, psychologists, biologysts,
andneurologists, along with whatever blood can be got out of grammarians."
Areas of theoretical linguistics
Theoretical linguistics is often divided into a number of separate areas, to be studied
more or less independently. The following divisions are currently widely
acknowledged:
• phonetics, the study of the different sounds that are employed in a language;
• phonology, the study of patterns of a language's basic sounds;
• morphology, the study of the internal structure of words;
• syntax, the study of how words combine to form grammatical sentences
• semantics, the study of the literal meaning of words (lexical semantics), and
how these combine to form the literal meanings of sentences;
• stylistics, the study of style in languages;
• pragmatics, the study of how utterances are used (literally, figuratively, or
otherwise) in communicative acts;
The independent significance of each of these areas are not universally
acknowledged, however, and nearly all linguists would agree that the divisions
overlap considerably. Nevertheless, each sub-area has core concepts that foster
significant scholarly inquiry and research.
Diachronic linguistics
Whereas the core of theoretical linguistics is concerned with studying languages at a
particular point in time (usually the present), diachronic linguistics examines how
language changes through time, sometimes over centuries. Historical linguistics
enjoys both a rich history (the study of linguistics grew out historical linguistics) and
a strong theoretical foundation for the study of language change.
In American universities, the non-historic perspective seems to have the upper hand.
Many introductory linguistic classes, for example, cover historical linguistics only
cursorily. The shift in focus to a non-historic perspective started with Suassure and
became predominant with Noam Chomsky. Explicitly historical perspectives include
historical-comparative linguistics and etymology.
Applied linguistics
Whereas theoretical linguistics is concerned with finding and describing generalities
both within languages and among all languages, as a group, applied linguistics takes
the results of those findings and applies them to other areas. Usually applied
linguistics refers to the use of linguistic research in language teaching, linguistics is
used in other areas. Speech synthesis and speech recognition, for example, use
linguistic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers.
Contextual linguistics
Contextual linguistics is that realm where linguistics interacts with other academic
disciplines. Whereas core theoretical linguistics studies languages for their own sake,
the interdisciplinary areas of linguistic consider how language interacts with the rest
of the world. Sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology
are where the social sciences that consider societies as whole and linguistics interact.
Critical discourse analysis is where rhetoric and philosophy interact with linguistics.
Psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics are the areas where the medical sciences meet
linguistics. Other cross-disciplinary areas of linguistics include language acquisition,
evolutionary linguistics, stratification linguistics, and cognitive science.
Speech versus writing
Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken language is
more fundamental, and thus more important to study, than writing. Reasons for this
standpoint include:
• Speech appears to be a human universal, whereas there are and have been
many cultures that lack written communication;
• People learn to speak and process oral language easier and earlier than writing;
• A number of cognitive scientists argue that the brain has an innate "language
module", knowledge of which is thought to come more from studying speech than
writing.
Of course, linguists agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and
valuable. For linguistic research that uses the methods of corpus linguistics and
computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for
processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpuses of spoken language are
difficult to create and hard to find.
Research areas of linguistics: phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics,
etymology, lexicology, lexicography, theoretical linguistics, historical-comparative
linguistics, descriptive linguistics, linguistic typology, computational linguistics,
corpus linguistics, semiotics.
Inter-disciplinary linguistic research: applied linguistics, historical linguistics,
orthography, writing system, comparative linguistics, cryptanalysis, siciolinguistics,
linguistic anthropology, critical discourse analysis, psycholinguistics, evolutionary
linguistics, anthropological linguistics, cognitive science, stratificvation linguistics,
neurolinguistics, and in computer science there is natural language understanding,
speech recognition, speech synthesis.
Important linguists and schools of thought
Early scholars of linguistics include Jacob Grimm, who devised the principle of
consonantal shifts in pronunciation known as Grimm’s Law in 1822, Karl Verner,
who discovered Verner’s Law, August Schleicher who created the
"Stammbaumtheorie" and Johannes Schmidt who developed the "Wellentheorie"
("wave model") in 1872. Ferdinand de Saussure was the founder of modern structural
linguistics. Noam Chomsky’s formal model of language, transformational-generative
grammar, developed under the influence of his teacher Zellig Harris, who was in turn
strongly influenced by Leonard Bloomfield has been the dominant one from the
1960s.
Other important linguists and schools include Michael Halliday, whose systemic
functional grammar is pursued widely in the U.K., Canada, Australia, China, Japa;
Dell Hymes, who developed a pragmatic approach called the Ethnography of
Speaking; George Lacoff, Len Talmy, and Ronald Langacker, who were pioneers in
cognitive linguistics; Charles Fillmore and Adele Goldberg, who are associated with
construction grammar; and linguists developing several varieties of what they call
functional grammar, including Talmy Givon and Robert Van Valin Jr..
8) World Englishes БІЛЕТ 8
The term World Englishes refers to the differences in the English language as it is
used in various contexts across the world.
These include American English, British English, Australian English, Canadian
English, Indian English, and so on.
1965 Linguist Braj Kachru (1932-2016) published his first journal article, entitled
“The Indianness in Indian English.” In the article, he lays the theoretical groundwork
for the idea of World Englishes by interpreting how English is nativized in India,
highliting some of its unique cultural aspects, and showing that “Indian English” is a
unique variety of English which is neither an American or British English.
1984 Kachru formally introduced the term “World Englishes” at the Teachers of
English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) Conference along with the global
profile of English. Later, he proposes the three concentric circles model.
The inner circle refers to the countries where English is used as the primary language,
such as the USA, Britain, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.
The outer/middle circle denotes those countries where English usage has some
colonial history. This includes nations such as India, Bangladesh, Ghana, Kenya,
Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, and
Zambia.
The expanding circle includes countries where English is spoken but where it does
not necessarily have a colonial history or primary/official language status. This
includes nations such as China, Japan, South Korea, Egypt, Nepal, Indonesia, Israel,
Korea, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, USSR, and Zimbabwe.
1992 Larry E. Smith contributes a chapter titled, “Spread of English and Issues of
Intelligibility” to The Other Tongue: English Across Cultures, edited by Braj B.
Kachru. Smith, in this chapter, mentions that since the global spread of English has
been very rapid by historical standards, not all these English varieties will necessarily
be intelligible to each other.
Currently, there are approximately 75 territories where English is spoken either as a
first language (L1) or as an unofficial or institutionalized second language (L2) in
fields such as government, law and education.
9) English as a Global Language БІЛЕТ 7

English has become the dominant global language, spoken by over 1.5 billion people

worldwide. It is the official language of business, science, technology, aviation, and

diplomacy.

One of the main benefits of English as a global language is that it allows people from

different countries to communicate effectively with each other. English has become

the lingua franca of international trade, with most business transactions conducted in

English. Similarly, scientists and researchers from around the world use English to

share their findings and collaborate on projects. This has led to a more connected and

globalized world.

The dominance of English as a global language has also had implications for

education. Many countries have made English a mandatory subject in schools, and

universities around the world offer courses taught in English. This has opened up

opportunities for students to study abroad and learn about different cultures, and has

also facilitated international academic collaborations.

However, the widespread use of English as a global language has also raised

concerns about linguistic imperialism and cultural hegemony. Some argue that the
dominance of English can lead to the marginalization of other languages and cultures,

and that English-speaking countries have an unfair advantage in the global economy.

There are also concerns about the homogenization of cultures and the loss of

linguistic diversity.

While often used interchangeably, there is a subtle difference between a global

language and a lingua franca.

A global language is a language that is spoken and understood by a significant

portion of the world's population, and is used as a means of communication

between people of different linguistic backgrounds. English, Mandarin, and

Spanish are examples of global languages.

On the other hand, a lingua franca is a language that is used as a common

language between people who do not share a native language. A lingua franca

may not necessarily be a global language, as it is only used in a specific context or

region. For example, Swahili is a lingua franca in East Africa, where it is used as a

means of communication between people who speak different native languages.

It is important to note that while a lingua franca may facilitate communication

between people who do not share a native language, it is not necessarily a neutral

language. A lingua franca may be influenced by the languages and cultures of the

people who use it, and may carry cultural biases or assumptions.

10) Translation as an object of linguistic study in terms of process and outcome

БІЛЕТ 6
Translation means both a process and a result, and when defining translation we
are interested in both its aspects. In order to explain translation we need to compare
the original (source) text and the resulting (target) text. The formation of the source
and target texts is governed (керується) by the rules characteristic of the source and
target languages. These systems of the two languages consist of grammar units and
rules, morphological and word-building elements and rules, stylistical variations, and
lexical distribution patterns.
In translation we deal with two languages (two codes) and to verify the information
they give us about the extralinguistic objects (and concepts) we should consider
extralinguistic situation, and background information.
According to V.Komissarov translation is functional interaction of languages, so we
should study both the interacting elements and the rules of interaction. Among
observable interaction elements we have parts of words, words, and word
combinations of the source text. Parts of words, words, and word combinations of the
target text are deducible from observable elements of the source text.
During translation we intuitively do the following operations.
- deduces the target language elements and rules of equivalent selection and
substitution.
- builds a model consisting of the target language elements
- verify the model of the target text against context, situationand background
information;
- generate the target text on the basis of the verified model.
11) Basic translation theories БІЛЕТ 5
The human translation theories may be divided into three main groups which quite
conventionally may be called transformational approach, denotative approach, and
communicational approach.

transformational approach

The transformational theories consist of many varieties which may have different
names but they all have one common feature: the process of translation is regarded as
transformation.

According to the transformational approach translation is viewed as the

transformation of objects and structures of the source language into those of the
target.

Within the group of theories which we include in the transformational approach a

dividing line is sometimes drawn between transformations and equivalencies.

In the transformational approach we shall distinguish three levels of substitutions:

morphological equivalencies, lexical equivalencies, and syntactic equivalencies
and/or transformations.
In the. process of translation:
♦ at the morphological level morphemes (both word-building and word-

changing) of the target language are substituted for those of the source;
♦ at the lexical level words and word combinations of the target language

are substituted for those of the source;

♦ at the syntactic level syntactic structures of the target language are

substituted for those of the source.

For example, in the process of translation, the English word room is

transformed into Ukrainian words кімната or простір or French words chambre or

espace or German words Zimmer or Raum.

The above examples of transformations and equivalencies at various levels are the
simplest and, in a way, artificial because real translation transformations are more
complex and often at different levels of languages involved in translation.

This kind of transformation is especially frequent when translation involves an

analytical and a synthetic language, e. g. English and Ukrainian.

However, the transformational approach is insufficient when the original text

corresponds to one indivisible concept which is rendered by the translator as a text
in another language also corresponding to the relevant indivisible concept.

For instance, the translation of almost any piece of poetry cannot be explained by
simple substitution of target language words and word combinations for those of
source language.

denotative approach

This type of translation is characteristic of any text, written or spoken, rather than
only for poetry or high-style prose and the denotative approach is an attempt to
explain such translation cases.

Though denotative approach to translation is based on the idea of denotatum (see

above the relationship of signs, concepts and denotata), it has more relevance to that
of a concept.

•► According to denotative approach the process of translation is not just mere

substitution but consists of the following mental operations:

 ♦ translator reads (hears) a message in the source language;

 ♦ translator finds a denotatum and concept that correspond to this message;

♦ translator formulates a message in the target language relevant to the above

denotatum and concept.
It should be noted that, according to this approach during translation we deal with
similar word forms of the matching languages and concepts deduced from these
forms, however, as opposed to the transformational approach, the relationship
between the source and target word forms is occasional rather than regular.

To illustrate this difference let us consider the following two examples:

(1) The sea is warm tonight- Сьогодні ввечері море тепле.

(2) Staff only - Службове приміщення.

In the first instance the equivalencies are regular and the concept, pertaining to the
whole sentence may be divided into those relating to its individual components
(words and word combinations): sea - море, tonight- сьогодні ввечері, is warm —
тепле.

In the second instance, however, equivalence between the original sentence and its
translation is occasional (i.e. worth only for this case) and the concept, pertaining to
the whole sentence cannot be divided into individual components.

communicational approach

According to communicational approach translation is a message sent by a

translator to a particular user and the adequacy of translation depends on similarity
of their background information rather than only on linguistic correctness.

The communicational theory of translation was suggested by O. Kade and is based on

the notions of communication and thesaurus. So, it is worthwhile to define the
principal terms first.

Communication may he defined as an act of sending and receiving some information,

which is called a message

It should go without saying that this definition is oversimplified and not all
communication terms used here are standard terms of communication and
information theories. Our purpose, however, is to describe the act of communication
in the simplest possible terms and to show translation as a part of this act. 12

Information, which is sent and received (communicated) may be of any kind (e.g.
gestures, say, thumbs up), but we shall limit ourselves to verbal communication only,
i.e. when we send and receive information in the form of a written or spoken text.

Naturally enough when communicating we inform others about something we know.

That is in order to formulate a message, we use our system of interrelated data,
which is called a thesaurus.

We shall distinguish between two kinds of thesauruses in verbal communication:

language thesaurus and subject thesaurus.
It is very important to understand that the thesauruses of message sender and
recipient may be different to a greater or lesser degree, and that is why we sometimes
do not understand each other even when we think we are speaking one and the same
language.

So, in regular communication there are two actors, sender and recipient, and each of
them uses two thesauruses (Although they use the same language their underlying
knowledge bases may differ).

In special bilingual communication (i.e. translation), we have three actors: sender,

recipient, and intermediary (translator).

The translator has two language thesauruses (source and target one) and performs two
functions: decodes the source message and encodes the target one to be received by
the recipient (end user of the translation).

One may note that the communicational approach pays special attention to the
aspects of translation relating to the act of communication, whereas the translation
process as such remains unspecified, and one may only presume that it proceeds
either by a transformational or denotative path (see their relevant descriptions above).

However, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the communicational aspect

in the success of translation.

To understand this better let us consider an example of message formulation

(encoding), message translation (encoding/decoding), and message receipt
(decoding).

Let the original message expressed by a native speaker of English (encoded using the
English language as a code to convey the mental content of the message) be:

Several new schools appeared in the area.

Let us assume then that the message sender, being a fisherman and using relevant
subject thesaurus, by schools meant large number of fish swimming together rather
than institutions for educating children, and the correct translation then had to be:

У районі з'явились нові косяки риби whereas the translator who presumably did not
have relevant information in his subject thesaurus translated schools as institutions
for educating children:

У районі з'явились нові школи, which naturally lead to misunderstanding

(miscommunication).

The above example shows a case of miscommunication based on the insufficiency of

extralinguistic information. However, there are also cases of miscommunication
caused by the insufficiency of linguistic information.
12) Translation and style БІЛЕТ 4
The problem of translation equivalence is closely connected with the stylistic aspect
of translation - one cannot reach the required level of equivalence if the stylistic
peculiarities of the source text are neglected. Full translation adequacy includes as an
obligatory component the adequacy of style, i. e. the right choice of stylistic means
and devices of the target language to substitute for those observed in the source text.
The expression of stylistic peculiarities of the source text in translation is necessary to
fully convey the communication intent of the source text. Stylistic peculiarities are
rendered in translation by proper choice of the target language translation
equivalents with required stylistic coloring.

The types of texts distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication are called
functional styles. Modern stylistics distinguishes the following varieties of
functional styles: 1. belles-lettres (prose, poetry, drama); 2. publicistic style; 3.
newspaper style; 4. scientific style; 5. official documents

Any comparison of the texts belonging to different stylistic varieties listed above will
show that the last two of them (scientific style variety and official documents) are
almost entirely devoid of stylistic coloring being characterized by the neutrality of
style whereas the first three (belles-lettres (prose, poetry, drama), publicistic and
newspaper style) are usually rich in stylistic devices to which a translator ought to
pay due attention.

Special language media securing the desirable communication effect of the text are
called stylistic devices and expression means.

First of all a translator is to distinguish between neutral, bookish and colloquial words
and word combinations, translating them by relevant units of the target language.
Usually, it is a routine task. Final decision is taken on the basis of context, situation
and background information. (For example, it is hard to decide without further
information, which of the English words - disease, illness or sickness - corresponds to
the Ukrainian words хвороба and захворювання. However, even such short contexts
as infectious disease and social disease already help to choose
appropriate equivalents and translate the word disease as інфекційне
захворювання and соціальна хвороба, accordingly.
This example brings us to a very important conclusion that style is
expressed in proper combination of words).

Stylistic devices are based on the comparison of primary (dictionary) meaning and
that dictated by the contextual environment; on the contradiction between the
meaning of the given word and the environment; on the association between words in
the minds of the language speakers and on purposeful deviation from accepted
grammatical and phonetic standards.

The following varieties of stylistic devices and expression means are most common
and frequently dealt with even by the translators of non-fiction texts: 1) Metaphor is
the transfer of some quality from one object to another. Usually the metaphors are
rather easy for translation: they are translated either by keeping to semantic similarity
(e. g. ray of hope - промінь надії) or by choosing an appropriate pragmatic
equivalent (e. g. flood of tears - море сліз); 2) Metonymy is similarity by association,
usually one of the constituents of an object replaces the object itself. As a rule
translators keep to literal translation when translating the cases of metonymy. (For
example, crown (meaning the royal family) is usually translated as корона, hand -
рука (є. g. in: He is the right hand of the president), etc; ) 3) Irony is expressed
through words contradicting close text environment. Cases of irony do not present
serious problems for translation and the approaches similar to those mentioned above
(semantic or pragmatic equivalence) are commonly used. (For example, the ironical
expression paper war may be translated as паперова війна or війна паперів).

Semantic and syntactic irregularities of expression used as stylistic devices are called
transferred qualifier and zeugma. A good example of a transferred qualifier is he paid
his smiling attention to... - here the qualifier smiling refers to a person, but is used as
an attribute to the state {attention). Translator's task in this case consists
in rendering the idea in compliance with the lexical combination rules of
the target language. For instance, in Ukrainian it may be expressed as
Посміхаючись, він звернув увагу... Zeugma is also a semantic irregularity, e. g. if
one and the same verb is combined with two or more nouns and acquires a different
meaning in each of such combinations. (For example, He has taken her picture and
another cup of tea. Here again the translator's task is to try to render this ironical
comment either by finding a similar irregularity in the target language or, failing
to show a zeugma (and irony of the author), stick to regular target language
means (i. e. separate the two actions Він зробив її фото і випив ще одну чашку
чаю or try to render them as a zeugma as well Він зробив її фото і ще один
ковток чаю з чашки).

A pun (so called 'play of words') is righteously considered the most difficult
for translation. Pun is the realization in one and the same word of two lexical
meanings simultaneously. A pun can be translated only by a word in the target
language with similar capacity to develop two meanings in a particular context.

Another stylistic device is a paraphrase. Its frequent use is characteristic of

the English language. As a rule paraphrases do not present difficulties for translation,
however, their correct translation strongly depends on situation and appropriate
background information.

Special attention is to be paid by a translator to overt and covert quotations.

Whereas the former require only correct rendering of the source quotation in the
target language, the latter usually takes the shape of an allusion and the
pragmatic equivalence seems the most appropriate for the case. (For example,
«the Trojan horse raid» one may translate as напад, підступний, як кінь
троянців (i.e. preserving the allusion) or as підступний напад (loosing the
meaning of the original quotation).

A translator is to be ready to render dialect forms and illiterate speech in

the target language forms. It goes without saying that one can hardly render, say,
cockney dialect using the Western Ukrainian dialect forms. There is no universal
recipe for this translation problem. In some cases the distortions in the target
grammar are used to render the dialect forms but then again it is not 'a cure-all' and
each such case requires an individual approach. Thus, any good translation should be
fulfilled with due regard of the stylistic peculiarities of the source text and this
recommendation applies to all text types rather than only to fiction.
13) Transformations in translation БІЛЕТ 3
When speaking about translation equivalence, we mentioned that there are three basic
types of it - syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. The students will remember that
syntactic equivalence meant the structural similarity of the source and target texts. If
the syntactic similarity is missing we observe a transformation.
Transformation is any change of the source text at the syntactic level during
translation.
On the one hand, even for the languages of different structure general structural
similarity in translation is common enough. Just compare any English text and its
translation into Ukrainian and you will see much in common at the syntactic level
(e.g., Subject-Predicate-Object sequences, Attribute-Noun structures, etc.). On the
other one, total similarity of syntactic structures is a rare (and generally hardly
desirable) case, which means that in English-Ukrainian translation we often observe
transformations.
One should note, however, that the majority of syntactic transformations in English-
Ukrainian translation are occasional, i. e. the translator transforms the source
syntactic structures on case-by-case basis, each case being dependent on the context,
situation, pragmatic intent and many other factors some of which are unknown and
the translator's decisions relevant to the case are often intuitive. (for example, staff
only – службове приміщення) In this case we see that the concept pertaining to the
whole sentence cannot be divided into individual components.
To put it differently, it is impossible to formulate the rules for the overwhelming
majority of such occasional transformations and one simply cannot list all occasional
transformations that are observed in English-Ukrainian translation.
In English-Ukrainian translation occasional transformations are often the matter of
translator's individual choice and, in general, strongly depend on stylistic peculiarities
and communication intent of the source text.
Yet, in English-Ukrainian translation there are also cases of regular syntactic
transformations, where a translator is expected to observe certain transformation
rules more or less strictly. (for example, The sea is warm tonight – Сьогодні
ввечері море тепле) In this case the concept pertaining to the whole sentence may
be divided into those relating to its individual components (words and word
combinations): sea – море, tonight – сьогодні ввечері, is warm – тепле.
Regular syntactic (grammatical) transformations are the matching rules for the
grammars of the two languages involved in translation.
Detailed description of regular English-Ukrainian grammatical (syntactic)
transformations one can find in any English manual for Ukrainian audience (for
example, the matching system of English and Ukrainian Verb Tenses, Noun Numbers
and Cases, Adjectives, Pronouns, etc.).
We think that the readers and users of this Manual are generally aware of these
matching rules and that it is hardly a goal of a translation manual to duplicate the
information of the language manuals for the beginners. Moreover, we consider
that the goal of a translation manual is to show (where possible) how and why the
matching rules (regular transformations) of the grammatical systems of the two
languages involved in translation are violated.
14) Basic translation devices БІЛЕТ 2
The basic set of translation devices usually comprises partitioning and integration of
sentences, transposition of sentence parts, replacement, addition and omission of
words and word combinations. (as well as a special type of transformations called
antonymous translation.)
PARTITIONING
Partitioning is either replacing in translation of a source sentence by two or more
target ones or converting a simple source sentence into a compound or complex target
one.
We are to distinguish between iппer partitioпiпg (conversion. of а simple sentence
into а compound or complex one) and outer partitioпiпg (division of а sentence into
two or more). For example, inner partitioning is used when translating English verbal
complexes into Ukrainian:
Соте aloпg aпd see те play опе evening. – Прuходь якось увечері - побачиш,
як я граю.
More often than not inner partitioning is а regular translation transformation
accounted for by the differences in the Ukrainian and English syntactic structures,
although it may be also used оn individual occasions as required by the text genre and
style and communication variety of the source sentence.
When translating from English into Ukrainian outer partitioning is more а matter of
personal translator's choice based, of course, оn the proper account of stylistic and
genre peculiarities and communication intent of both the source text and its
translation.
INTEGRATION
Integration is the opposite of partitioning, it implies combining two or (seldom) more
source sentences into one target sentence
Its use depends оn stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the text being
translated. In oral translation, however, integration may be а text compression tool,
when аn interpreter (consecutive or simultaneous) is to reduce the exuberant elements
of the source text to keep in расе with the speaker.
For example: Кейт любить усі свої ролі. Якщо якусь із них довго не танцює –
починає сумувати. – Kate loves all her roles and even misses them should too much
time pass without performing them.
TRANSPOSITION
Transposition is а peculiar variety of inner partitioning in translation.
It means а change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements (Subject,
Predicate, Object, etc.) as compared with that of the source sentence dictated either
by peculiarities of the target language syntax or by the communication intent.
The transposition is connected with such peculiarities as a set word order in English
and a free word order in Russian (Ukrainian)
Example: A smash and grab rade on two of the most important nationalized
industries is being organized by the tori party.
Консерватори збираються кинутися на дві найголовніші галузі національної
промисловості.
He started back and fell against the railings, trembling, as he looked up.
Коли він дивився вгору, він подався назад, затремтів та впав на поручні.
REPLACEMENT
Replacement is any change in the target text at the morphological, lexical and
syntactic levels of the language when the elements of certain source paradigms are
replaced by different elements of target paradigms.
He used to come to Italy each spring – Зазвичай він приїздив до Італії кожної
весни.
ADDITION
Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensation of structural
elements presented in the source text or paradigm forms missing in the target
language.
Additions in translation from English into Ukrainian stem from the differences in the
syntactic and semantic structure of these languages. In English, being an analytical
language the syntactic and semantic relations are often implicitly expressed through
order of syntactic elements and context environment whereas in predominantly
synthetic Ukrainian these relations are explicit (expressed in relevant words).
Green Party federal election money – гроші партії зелених, призначені на вибори
на федеральному рівні.
OMISSION
Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text considered redundant from
the viewpoint of the target language structural patterns and stylistics.
Omission is the opposite of addition.
peer-bonded goods – товари, розраховані на споживання певною віковою
групою – goods designed for use by certain age groups.
15) Features of English Academic style БІЛЕТ 1
The style of English academic writing is formal. Its main characteristics are the
absence of conversational features and the use of an appropriate academic
vocabulary. Developing a command of formal style is extremely important for
nonnative speakers wishing to master the conventions of English academic discourse.
Formal academic English will normally avoid:
1. Contractions.
The research won't be continued until appropriate funding is secured. – The research
will not be continued until appropriate funding is secured.
2. Interjections and hesitation fillers (i.e., um, well, you know; etc.).
Well, we will now consider the influence of sex hormones on stress response. – We
will now consider the influence of sex hormones on stress response
3. Addressing the reader directly.
You can see the data in Table 3. – The data can be seen in Table 3.
4. Phrasal verbs (although not always).
Researchers have found out that many mental illnesses are based on molecular
defects. – Researchers have discovered that many mental illnesses are based on
molecular defects.
5. Direct questions (although not always).
What can be done to improve the state of our economy? – We now need to consider
what can be done to improve the state of our economy.
6. Adverbs in initial or final positions (the middle position is preferable).
Then it will be shown how teachers can utilize this method. – It will then be shown
how teachers can utilize this method.
This work relies on previous research heavily. – This work heavily relies on previous
research.
7. Inappropriate negative forms.
not . . . any – no: The investigation didn't yield any new results. – The investigation
yielded no new results.
not ... many – few: The book doesn't raise many important issues. – The book raises
few important issues.
not ... much – little: The government won't do much to support universities in the
near future. – The government will do little to support universities in the near future.
8. Short forms of the words or slang.
This booklet describes the requirements and content of the university graduation
exams. – This booklet describes the requirements and content of the university
graduation examinations
9. Figures at the beginning of the sentence.
97 people visited the museum last week. – Ninety-seven people visited the museum
last week. (Last week 97 people visited the museum.)
Traditionally, academic writing tends to avoid personal pronouns and shows
preference toward impersonal style. At the same time, there is a tendency now to use
an I-perspective in English academic writing, mostly in humanities. Using I,
however, may seem somewhat unusual or awkward to Ukrainian writers. It may thus
be recommended, at least for beginners, to maintain impersonal style and to avoid the
first person pronoun I. This does not mean, however, that I should never be used.
Cautious Writing
An important feature of English academic written discourse is a cautious manner of
writing, that is the avoidance of too definite statements or conclusions. The purpose
of such a strategy is to be accurate and to protect the author from being criticized for
possible errors or invalid claims. Cautious writing also allows for other opinions or
points of view. The main linguistic ways of doing this are as follows.
1. By using modal verbs.

2. By using adjectives that express probability (in all examples below the
statements gradually weaken in strength).
 3. By using a there is construction with the word possibility.

4. By using adverbs that express certainty and probability.

5. By using verb phrases that distance the writer from the statements or conclusions
he/she makes.

6. By using quantity words.

7.By using statements of shared knowledge, assumptions, and beliefs.

Academic Vocabulary
Another important feature of English academic writing is a tendency to choose more
formal alternatives when selecting words of different parts of speech.
VERBS English academic style makes use of formal verbs, often of Latin origin. In
Ukrainian textbooks, such verbs are usually referred to as "general scientific verbs"
(Ukr. загальнонаукова лексика).
Examples of academic verbs
Accept, accomplish, account for, achieve, adjust, affect, apply, arrange, assess,
assume, avoid, clarify, coincide, compare, complete, concern, conclude, consider,
correspond, deduce, identify, include, increase, maintain, neglect, emphasize, focus
on, define, establish, determine
Collocations
Give rise, lay emphasis, shed light, have implications, provide clues, maintain the
status quo, burning issues, offer insights, to take for granted, to draw conclusions,
lie outside the scope, take into account, place importance, draw on recent research,
lay the foundation, corroborate the theory, extend the theories, elaborate research,
face the problem, fall into a category, provide further opportunities, contributed to
our understanding, submit the paper, heighten the need, casual relationship, key
finding, preliminary results, integral part, hotly debated issue, lack of consistency,
area (field) of inquiry, research site, theoretical framework, background knowledge,
theoretical considerations, reliable sources and data.
Logical connectors
Logical connectors (transitional expressions) are linking words and phrases which
establish the logical relationship between ideas within a sentence or between
sentences. They also improve the flow of writing, that is a smooth movement from
one idea or piece of information in a text to the next. Logical connectors are thus
guideposts for readers that help them to better follow the text. As transitional
expressions show various kinds of logical relations, they may be grouped according
to their meaning and function.
Latin Expressions
Grammar
Word order While in Ukrainian there is no strict word order, a normal English
declarative sentence has the following structure, with the subject
preceding the predicate:
subject + predicate + object + adverbial modifiers
1. Adjectives are used before the noun that they modify in the following order: a)
general description, opinion; b) size, shape, condition; c) color; d) origin; e)
purpose, type. For example: A nice small brown French writing table. Old red
Spanish home-made wine.
2. Adverbs of frequency (always, seldom, usually, often, frequently, rarely,
occasionally, etc.), and of relative time (just, still, already, yet in negative, lately,
recently, soon, etc.) are usually put in the middle position. For example: The
computer is now established as a device that can often ease the human burden of
work. This theorem has already been proved in Chapter 3.
3. Adverbs of manner (that answer the question "how?") are usually placed after the
verb in the final position. However, in academic style, the middle position is
preferable. For example: He studied the problem thoroughly. (general use) He
thoroughly studied the problem. (academic style)
4. Adverbs and conjunctions referring to the whole sentence are placed at the
beginning. For example: Nevertheless, it turned out that the experiment failed.
Finally, I will consider the applicability of the obtained results.
 5. In questions, we normally put an auxiliary verb before the subject. However, in
indirect questions, the subject comes before the verb. For example: Have you
already met our new research assistant? John asked me if I had already met our new
research assistant.
The word order may be inverted (i.e. a word will be moved out of its usual position
in a sentence) in the following cases.
1. In some negative sentences (clauses). For example: In no case does this offer
imply any obligation. We do not assume that the necessary data will be obtained nor
do we assume a priori that the experiment will be successful.
2. In unreal conditionals. For example: Were the truth known, public opinion would
change. Had the data been thoroughly checked, the project would not have been
declined.
3. For emphasis. For example: Much more impressive are the obtained numeric
data. Only when placed under certain kinds of stresses do aged rats show delays in
recovering from the stress.
Agreement of Subject and Verb
The subject and the main verb of a sentence (clause) must agree in number.
1. A singular noun, pronoun, or an uncountable noun is used with a singular verb. A
plural noun or pronoun is used with a plural verb. For example: The water in the
river is fresh and transparent.
2. After or or nor a verb agrees with the subject closest to it. For example: Neither
the doctors nor the patient wants to continue treatment. The chairman or the
committee members decide when to meet next.
3. The following singular expressions with plural nouns agree with plural verbs:
a number of... , the majority of... , a couple of... ,a lot of... . For example: A
number of researchers from Ukraine are taking part in the conference. A lot of
students have to work to earn some extra money.
4. The following nouns ending in -s agree with singular verbs: checkers (draughts),
chess, means, measles, mumps, news, physics (and other like subjects of study).
For example: Measles is a serious disease. No news is good news.
5. The following plural nouns agree with plural verbs: arms, cattle, clothes, contents,
outskirts, premises. Note that the Ukrainian equivalents of these words are, vice
versa, singular and agree with singular verbs. For example: Nuclear arms are
extremely dangerous. The outskirts of the city are dirty.
6. Names of quantities thought of as one unit have singular verbs. For example: Five
miles is too much to walk. Three weeks is a good holiday.
Articles
The Indefinite Article
1. The indefinite article a (before a consonant sound) or an (before a vowel sound) is
used with countable nouns in the singular, meaning "member of a class of objects,"
"one of," "some." For example: The four centers lie in a plane. She was a gifted
researcher. An octopus has eight legs.
2. It may be used with uncountable nouns to mean "a kind of," or with kind of, or
certain. For example: This person has an integrity that we all appreciate. The
pictures of British romantic painter Joseph Turner reveal a great love of the sea.
The Definite Article
1. The definite article the is used with countable nouns in the singular/plural and
uncountable nouns in the meaning "contextually known," "mentioned earlier." For
example: A flatbed scanner is similar to a photocopier. Once the scanner is activated,
it reads images as a series of dots. Do you see the men standing near the door? They
are our new research assistants.
2. In the so-called "of — phrases." For example: The existence of test functions is not
evident. The preliminary results of the investigation are promising. BUT the is not
used with the first mention of the constructions that denote part of a whole: a
molecule of hydrogen, a layer of ozone, a piece of advice.
3. The is not used in generalizations with uncountable nouns. Compare:
He is very interested in nature. – What is the nature of this strange disease?
People have to live in society. – People have to observe the laws and norms of the
society they live in.
4. However, it is used in generalizations with singular countable nouns to refer to a
class of things. For example:
The computer has replaced the typewriter.
The brain is a complex biological system.
5. The is used with the superlative degrees of adjectives, ordinal numerals, and
specifiers (such as same, only, chief, principal, etc.). For example: The best results
were obtained during the second experiment. The only paper on this problem was
published ten years ago.
6. With the names of unique objects. For example: The sun rises in the east and sets
in the west.
7. With the names of theories, effects, and devices modified by a proper name used as
an adjective: the Dirichlet problem, the Celsius scale. BUT: when a proper name is
used in possessive form, no article is used: Finstein's theory of relativity. Marx's
"Capital." Taylor's formula.
The Zero Article
Usually, no article is used when a plural or an uncountable noun is mentioned first
(unless the special conditions for definite article use apply).
Relative Clauses with Pronouns Who, Which, and That
Relative pronouns who, which, and that introduce relative clauses.
1. Who refers to persons. The student who works in the computer center has just
arrived to his workplace.
2. Which refers to things. A torque is a moment of force which produces, or tends to
produce, rotation.

3. That refers to both persons and things. The author describes the economic growth
that stimulated social mobility of villagers. I am interested in the collaboration with
the scholars that investigate the spread of democracy in Eastern Europe.

Some relative clauses identify persons or things, while the others do not identify.

Identifying clause: Much of the progress in basic genetics is due to the advances of
molecular genetics which studies heredity on the molecular level.

Non-identifying clause: Much of the progress in basic genetics is due to the advances
of molecular genetics, which in turn contributed to our understanding of the
pathogenesis of disease.

In identifying clauses, we may leave out a relative pronoun when it is the object, e.g.:
He maintains scholarly contacts with the renowned professor of biochemistry whom
he met at the previous Congress. – He maintains scholarly contacts with the
renowned professor of biochemistry he met at the previous Congress.

Identifying clauses are frequently used in definitions.

Psychology is a branch of science which studies the mind and its processes.
Psychoanalysis is a method of healing mental illnesses that traces them, through
interviews, to the events in the patient's early life bringing those events to his/her
consciousness.

Identifying clauses may be reduced in the following cases.

1. When the relative pronoun introducing the clause is followed by the verb to be.
The relative pronoun and be can both be left out.
A star is any of the bodies which are seen in the sky at night as distant points
of light. – A star is any of the bodies seen in the sky at night as distant points of
light.
2. When the relative clause has the verb to have. In this case, the relative pronoun
and have can be replaced by with.
A tiger is a large, fierce animal found in Asia which has striped yellow and
black skin. – A tiger is a large, fierce animal found in Asia with striped yellow
and black skin.
3. When the relative clause contains an active verb. The relative pronoun is
dropped and the verb is replaced by the -ing form.
A planet is any of the non-luminous bodies that orbit the Sun. – A planet is any
of the non-luminous bodies orbiting the Sun.