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Investigation of the Cultural and Artistic Elements in the Biodiversity Policies

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DOI: 10.4172/2327-4417.1000196

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Adom et al., J Biodivers Manage Forestry 2018, 7:2
DOI: 10.4172/2327-4417.1000196
Research Article
Investigation of the Cultural
and Artistic Elements in the
Biodiversity Policies and
Strategies in Ghana
Dickson Adom1*, Eric Appau Asante1, Nana Ama Arthur Pokuaa1
and Kwadwo Boadu2
Abstract
Cultural and Artistic elements have a record of accomplishment
of conserving biological diversities in Ghana. Unfortunately, the
biodiversity policies in Ghana have only their sketchy representations
resulting in the conservationists’ failure to utilize them in biodiversity
conservation management. A qualitative study with Document
Analysis and Phenomenology as research methods were used to
investigate into the incorporation of cultural and artistic elements in
some of the biodiversity policies and strategies in Ghana. Purposive
and stratified random sampling procedures were used in selecting
the 98 informants for the study. Interpretive Policy Analysis and
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis were used for analysing the
accrued data from the study. The study revealed that there is dearth
in the cultural and artistic elements in the investigated biodiversity
policies and strategies due to the scepticism that conservationists
have of the conservation ethos latent in them. The study concludes
that the National Biodiversity Committee of Ghana must collaborate
with researchers in traditional ecological knowledge to solicit for their
expert views on how to effectively incorporate cultural and artistic
elements into biodiversity conservation management in Ghana. This
would aid in promoting a synergistic approach toward the combat of
biodiversity depletion.
Keywords
Asante culture; Cultural and artistic elements; Biodiversity policies;
Conservation; Traditional knowledge systems
Introduction
Biodiversity policies and strategies are to be investigated and/or
analyzed at regular intervals, sometimes quarterly, annually and so
forth [1]. Such investigations are crucial because they help in unearthing
the strengths and limitations of developed policies and strategies for
biodiversity to beef up their implementation processes while maximizing
their optimum benefits in biodiversity management [2]. Such academic,
systematic and critical analysis heightens the implementation processes
of the formulated policies and strategies to meet fully the vision and
objectives laid out in the policy or strategy document. It helps in
determining which of the strategic action plans works well and need
to be continued and those that need to be discontinued due to their
discredit. It unveils aspects of the policy that needs reinforcement to
*Corresponding author: Dickson Adom, Department of Educational Innovations in
Science and Technology Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
University Post Office, Kumasi, Ghana, E-Mail: adomdick@yahoo.com
Received: February 26, 2018 Accepted: April 18, 2018 Published: April 24, 2018
All articles published in Journal of Biodiversity Management & Forestry are the property of SciTechnol, and is protected by
International Publisher of Science,
copyright laws. Copyright © 2018, SciTechnol, All Rights Reserved.
Technology and Medicine
Journal of Biodiversity
Management & Forestry
A SciTechnol Journal
enhance the document. In the case of biodiversity conservation policies
and strategies formulated in countries like Ghana, which is guided
by international conventions, acts and agreements, it is a step in the
right direction. A classic example of such international conventions or
agreements is the Convention on Biological Diversity, which Ghana
became a signatory in the 1992 Earth Summit organized by the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de
Janerio, Brazil [3]. Such investigation will help in knowing whether the
ideals propagated by these giant biodiversity conservation bodies are
met by member countries via their national biodiversity conservation
strategies and policies. One of these ideals is the propagation of
the incorporation of cultural and artistic elements in the national
biodiversity conservation strategies and policies of member countries
[4,5]. Ghana is one of the Sub-Sahara African nations that have a strong
haven of traditional cultural and artistic elements that have been the
driving force behind the conservation, preservation and sustainability
of the bio-resources in the environment like plants, animals, birds, and
water bodies, rocky and mountainous regions [6]. These cultural and
artistic elements include taboos, festivals, cosmological beliefs, totemic
systems, folklores and so forth are to be respected and incorporated in
biodiversity conservation policies and strategies formulated [7]. Prior
to the formulation of the national biodiversity conservation policies
and strategies barring against the exploitation of the forest and wildlife
resources in Ghana, the country relied single handedly on these cultural
and artistic elements [8]. Their implementation achieved great successes
in preserving and sustaining Ghana’s biodiversity resources. Even in
the face of modernization, globalization and the constant pressure to
erase these cultural and artistic elements, they have remained at the
forefront in biodiversity conservation and tagged as the foundation for
the intact virgin biodiversity resources in Ghana [9].
Societal progression in the contemporary age requires the adaptation
of various forms of knowledge to combat the exploitation of the bio-
resources in the environment [10]. This underscores the importance
of looking into scientific and technological knowledge for answers to
modern challenges like biodiversity depletion. However, this action
should not be taken to be taken to either forgo the age long cultural
practices that maintained these resources in their pristine forms today.
They must not just appear as isolated strands in national policies and
strategies for biodiversity conservation to fulfil just an international
requirement. Their impacts must be expatiated and recognized in
the documentation and more importantly, in the implementation
of national biodiversity conservation policies and strategies. Their
prominence would bring them at par or as ‘complements’ to other
equally viable practices that can halt the destruction of biodiversity in
the face of modernity, scientific and technological advancement [11].
Thus, a rigorous analysis of the past and existing policies and
strategies for biodiversity conservation with a retrospection of the
cultural and artistic elements is keen and academically worthwhile.
The main tenet of the study aims at undertaking a critical investigation
into some of the national biodiversity policies and strategies in
Ghana to unearth their limitations and strengths. It will also reliably
inform readers whether or not the cultural and artistic elements of
the Ghanaian populace have a recognizable place in Ghana’s national
biodiversity conservation policies and strategies. It will aid inform
and increase policy makers and conservationists desire to incorporate
Citation: Adom D, Asante EA, Pokuaa NAA, Boadu K (2018) Investigation of the Cultural and Artistic Elements in the Biodiversity Policies and Strategies in Ghana.
J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
and intensify cultural and artistic elements in the development of
biodiversity policies and strategies. This will in a larger perspective
aid in curtailing unhealthy environmental practices that are not bio-
friendly like bush fires, deforestation, destruction of water bodies, and
exploitation of wildlife and habitats of precious biodiversity resources
in Ghana.
Conservation of Biodiversity
Rim-Rukeh [12] defines conservation as the judicious use as well
as the management of the earth’s resources such as timber, fish, top
soils, minerals, wildlife, parklands, wilderness, and watershed areas etc.
by humanity. Likewise, Diawuo and Issifu [13] agree that conservation
concerns itself with the wise usage of nature’s resources for the survival
of all living things, by all humanity, especially and significantly
for the benefit of the future generations. However, Usher [14] sees
conservation as the maintenance and restoration of the various
diversities of biological resources such as species diversity, genetic
diversity and ecosystem diversity.
All these definitions give the main ideals of conservation thus
protecting nature’s resources for prolonged usage for the present and
future generations. The concept is about ensuring that the varieties of
all living organisms are maintained despite the fact that humans rely
on them for their life sustenance. Every action that is seen to prevent
the loss of the bio-resources in nature is seen by conservationists as
a conservation effort [15]. Therefore, sacrifices are made presently to
ensure that future benefits, which are often delayed, are pursued. These
sacrifices place a restriction on human use of biodiversity for future
and posterity reasons.
A biased definition of conservation sterns from Soule [16] as
the scientific study of nature and earth’s biodiversity with the aim of
protecting species, habitats and ecosystems from vigorous usage and
extinction. This definition has made many scholars to view conservation
as belonging to the sciences. This may account for the purely scientific
strategies for conservation of biodiversity being abundant from the
20th century to date. However, the field of conservation draws its
ideals from many disciplines. Makel [17] agrees that conservation is
a multidisciplinary area that relies on several fields of study such as
social sciences, cultural anthropology etc. This understanding of
conservation would certainly change the perception of policy makers
concerned with conservation that protection of nature’s resources is
not only in the realms of science but also culture.
Biodiversity Conservation Strategies and Policies
Paquette [18] describes a policy as a system of principles
intentionally formulated to monitor the decisions and actions of
members in an organization to achieve rational outcomes. Usually,
policies express the vision, philosophy and aspirations of an organization
[19]. On the other hand, a strategy is a special comprehensive plan
of action to achieve set targets, objectives or goals [20]. It is the
methodology implemented in achieving the policies of an organization.
Biodiversity conservation policies are the visions of conservation bodies
and agencies or a country regarding the management of the biodiversity
resources of a country. It expresses the concepts or philosophies of
the organization charged with responsibility of ensuring the wise and
sustainable usage of a country’s biodiversity resources. For instance,
the general policy statement of the government of Ghana regarding
biodiversity is ‘to conserve the country’s biological diversity while
ensuring that the biological resources provide lasting social, economic
and environmental benefits to the population through their efficient
Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000196
doi: 10.4172/2327-4417.1000196
and equitable use’ (Ghana National Biodiversity Strategy) [21].
Biodiversity conservation strategies are documents formulated
by agencies responsible for the management of the biodiversity
resources of a country that outlines explicitly the comprehensive
plan of actions to be undertaken by the authorized agencies to ensure
the effective management and sustainable utilization of a nation’s
biodiversity resources. In Ghana, the formulation of biodiversity
policies and strategies are entrusted in the Ministry of Environment,
Science, Technology and Innovation. The formulation of the national
biodiversity strategy was because of the Convention of Biodiversity,
which Ghana became a signatory in 1992 and ratified it in 1994. She
was mandated by the convention to formulate national strategies
for the conservation and sustainable use of the country’s biological
diversity. The ministry has charged its body the Ghana Environmental
Protection Agency, since its establishment in 1994 with powers to
monitor the activities within the environment and the conservation
of its biological resources [22]. However, the formulation of the
national biodiversity strategy is not the sole business of this agency.
Other governmental ministries and agencies as well as private, non-
governmental organizations have also immensely contributed to the
formulation processes of the document. The 2002 national biodiversity
strategy was formulated by the Ministry of Environment Science
Technology and Innovation through its Environmental Protection
Agency with the assistance of the Ghana Forest and Wildlife
Commission of the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, the
Conservation International, the Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research as well as other governmental and non-governmental bodies.
Prior to the formulation of the National Biodiversity Strategy
in 2002, the country has implemented various Acts, Regulations,
Ordinances and Policies to regulate and manage the nation’s biological
resources particularly the flora species (Forest) and the fauna species
(wildlife). These efforts have been constantly led by the Ghana forest
and Wildlife Commission through its two major divisions thus the
Forestry Services Division and the Wildlife Division. In addition, she
has signed international treaties and conventions with the chief aim
of getting expert advice on how to regulate her biological resources
from the successful global countries. These giant efforts clearly show
the country’s commitment to avert the wanton destruction of its
biological resources. These international agreements largely dictate
the direction of the policies and strategies developed in Ghana for
the management of her biological resources though there are rooms
given for the planning of activities, policies and strategies to combat
the peculiar biodiversity challenge of every signatory country such as
the implementation of traditional or local ecological knowledge. The
international conventions realize the great significance of cultural
practices and their traditional epistemologies . As a result, they have
made it part of strategies for biodiversity conservation. For instance,
Ghana’s national biodiversity conservation strategy utilizes the three
cardinal objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity, which
are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable utilization
of biological resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising from the use of genetic resources. Under the first cardinal objective
of biodiversity conservation, the document suggests the utilization of
traditional conservation practices. In like manner, the strategic plan for
biodiversity 2011-2020 and the Aichi biodiversity targets advices signatory
parties to respect traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of the
indigenous and local communities [23].
This is because of the pivotal role these traditional conservation
practices in the form of cultural and artistic elements have played in
• Page 2 of 15 •
Citation: Adom D, Asante EA, Pokuaa NAA, Boadu K (2018) Investigation of the Cultural and Artistic Elements in the Biodiversity Policies and Strategies in Ghana.
J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
conserving the bio-resources in various countries of the world of which
Ghana is a classic example. Cobbinah et al. [24] attribute the successes
and high peak of Ghana’s biodiversity rates before the colonial era to its
resilient cultural and artistic elements, which were the main managerial
vehicle for biodiversity conservation in the country. The colonialism
experience has accounted for the disdain attitude of many scholars
towards these traditional conservation practices [25].
Various acts, ordinances, regulations and policies have been rolled
out in Ghana to combat the biodiversity menace For instance, in 1900,
colonial governments were mandated by the London convention that
centered on the management and sustainability of wildlife. Legislation
was also enacted in 1906 to regulate the felling of commercial trees [26].
The first forest ordinance was passed in 1927. This ordinance urged
colonial governments to establish forest reserves to conserve keystone
biodiversity sites in Ghana. Initially, when the forest reserves were set
up, the government exclusively manned them. This resulted in the
difficulty in its management since there was a struggle for the resource
management in the reserves between the government personnel and
the local communities.
The 1948 forest policy
It was realized after the establishment of the forest reserves that they
were constantly been destroyed and their territories were overstepped
by the local people and others who were not native to the locality. In
1948, due to the widespread deforestation of the fauna species as well
as illegal forestry activities in the Ghanaian environment, the first
national forest policy came into force. It was to create and manage
permanent forest estates while advocating for research in all fields of
scientific forestry. It also aimed at maximum utilization of forestry
areas which were not part of the permanent forestry as well as providing
technical advice and cooperation regarding plans for the prevention of
soil erosion and land use [27]. The policy failed significantly because
it placed great emphasis on sustained supply of timber to feed the
wood industry which eventually resulted in the over exploitation and
destruction of the unreserved forest tracts in Ghana [27]. In addition,
it failed because the policy heavily relied on scientific conservation
approaches with no mention of traditional conservation practices.
Moreover, the policy was silent on local people involvement in decision
making regarding the use of biodiversity, giving the government
exclusive rights towards biodiversity decisions. Kotey [28] concurs that
the policy was unsuccessful because of the lack of rural communities at
the formulation stage though the traditional authorities were literally
consulted. In addition, the priceless indigenous knowledge of these
local people enshrined in their cultural and artistic practices were not
considered in the policies [29].
The 1994 forest and wildlife policy
The 1948 national forest policy and the 1974 national wildlife
policy were in force until the 1994 Forestry and Wildlife Policy was
developed. This policy is a blend of forestry and wildlife policies that
was formulated to help curb the depletion of the flora and fauna species
as well as their habitats in Ghana. It highlighted the unique relationship
that exists between the forest and wildlife. The 1994 Forest and Wildlife
Policy focused on conservation and sustainable development of the
country’s biodiversity resources for maintaining quality environment
while ensuring constant flow of optimum benefits to all areas of the
society. Also, the policy was to ensure that the country’s permanent
estate of forest and wildlife resources are managed and enhanced for
preservation of vital soil and water resources, conservation of biological
diversity and the environment and sustainable production of domestic
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and commercial produce [27]. The strategies that were adopted to
achieve the objectives of the policy were provision of incentives
and assistance for conservation, enhancing public and civil society
involvement in management through consultative and participatory
mechanisms, promoting public awareness and education, and
promoting collaborative research and extension. One of the cardinal
principles of the policy was the incorporation of traditional methods
of conservation in national strategies as well as the integration of local
authorities and communities which though wasn’t satisfactorily met
aided in achieving the seventeen years successes of the policy [30].
Okrah reveals that a serious flaw of this policy was its failure to ensure
full participation of the local people and the absorption of indigenous
knowledge as outlined in the policy [31]. He attributed the failure of
the policy to weak enforcement and the waning of the local people and
their indigenous conservation knowledge in their cultural and artistic
elements in the consultative stage of the policy implementation process.
However, Hon. Mike Mahama in the preface of the 2012 Forest and
Wildlife Policy ascribe the essence for a change in the policy to the impact
of emerging global trends such as the Voluntary Partnership Agreement
(VPA), Forest Certification, Climate Change, and the Reducing
Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) on
general wildlife and forest policies of various countries globally. He adds
that the accelerating rate of forest depletion, illegal mining operations
(galamsey), pressure on trees due to increasing numbers in woodfuel
productions and the need to intensify efforts to include local people in
forest sector decision making and resource management demanded a
revision of the 1994 Wildlife and Forest Policy. This clearly shows that
there was still ambiguity in the incorporation of the local factor seen
in the light of their cultural and artistic practices in the 1994 Wildlife
and Forest Policy. This gap could have been easily remedied should the
traditional conservation methods evident in the cultural and artistic
practices of the people agreeable with contemporary advancement were
augmented with the scientific models of conservation that constantly
takes the lion’s share in all policies regarding biodiversity in Ghana.
The 2012 forest and wildlife policy
This policy is the current policy in place that guides the flora and
fauna resources in Ghana. The main thrust of the policy is concerned
with the conservation and sustainable development of the flora
and fauna resources for the continual maintenance of ecosystem
stability and supply of accrued benefits to the present and future
generations while honoring Ghana’s commitments under international
conventions and agreements signed [32]. The merit with this policy
is its goal of ensuring the active participation of local communities
while advocating for a collaborative management of resources with a
digression from the former government-led system to a community
government collaborative management approach. Moreover, one of the
guiding principles in the 2012 Wildlife and Forest Policy document is
the creation of a synergy between indigenous and scientific knowledge
which is admitted by the team that drew the policy as a guaranteed
means of attaining sustainable development in the area of biodiversity in
Ghana. The vision of this document to the researcher is a light to duress
the accelerating numbers of biodiversity decline in Ghana. However,
we wait to see if this document is not just a paper documentation or
mirage. However, the researcher feels that the document is still implicit
in pointing out which forms of the traditional knowledge in the aspects
of the cultural and artistic practices of the Ghanaian people need to
be augmented with the scientific knowledge to combat the degradation
of the country’s biodiversity. This research seeks to fill this gap of the
policy with a formulation of strategies from the cultural and artistic
• Page 3 of 15 •
Citation: Adom D, Asante EA, Pokuaa NAA, Boadu K (2018) Investigation of the Cultural and Artistic Elements in the Biodiversity Policies and Strategies in Ghana.
J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
practices of the local Ghanaian populace popularly referred to as
‘traditional knowledge’ by experts taking the classic example of the
Asantes. This would give explicit direction to policy makers on how
to incorporate the cultural and artistic practices of the local people in
developing strategic plans for the implementing of policies governing
biodiversity conservation in Ghana.
The 2002 national biodiversity strategy
The formulation of the 2002 National Biodiversity Strategy was
a requirement for all member countries that signed and ratified the
Convention on Biological Diversity in 1992. The National Biodiversity
Strategy was to serve as a tool in managing the biological resources of
countries. Ghana out of the many challenges was able to formulate its
National Biodiversity Strategy in 2002.
The importance of local people and their traditional conservation
practices evident in their cultural and artistic practices were also
sparingly mentioned though not explicit in terms of which of them
are to be used and in what capacity. This relevance of the traditional
conservation practices and values in the form of festivals, totems, taboos,
myths etc. was seen by the committee that developed the strategy as
having the roots of conservation, thus, ‘the inherent right to existence
of all living forms’ [21]. In addition, the National Biodiversity Strategy
document recognized that the participation of traditional authorities
and local communities in decision making in respect to the biodiversity
resources in the environment would ease the implementation of the
various policies and strategies formulated to guard against the abuse
of biodiversity in Ghana. The document mentioned the ‘recognition
and appreciation of traditional conservation and exploitation practices
and their integration into modern conservation and exploitation methods’
[21]. The question is which traditional conservation and exploitation
practices can be integrated into modern conservation and exploitation
methods? This document was silent on it. There must therefore be a study
that can answer this question and this research furnishes that answer.
Rudiments for the Analysis/Investigation of Policies
and Strategies
Investigation of policies and strategies is a painstaking task yet
is very rewarding. Yanow [33] contend that policy analysis is mostly
undertaken before policy-making decisions are made or after the
decisions are made to assess their implementation processes. Policy
analysis is carried out to evaluate the processes in the development
and implementation of the drawn policies as well as their strengths
and weaknesses to inform policy makers and citizens. There are several
ways of analyzing policies. The most productive and best approach
recommended by many policy analysts is the interpretive policy
analysis. It is based on the assertion that policy analysis must involve all
actors, especially human actors and social realities in a policy situation
so that multiple perspectives or interpretations about the policy can
be ascertained to improve its efficacy [34]. An efficient policy analysis
strives to understand the aftermath of a policy’s implementation from
a wide range of the people though most policy analysts fail to factor
the views or local knowledge of the people in their analysis [35]. The
local knowledge from the people is usually not valued by such policy
analysts. However, the views of the local people are very rich as far
as the unveiling of the consequences of policies are concerned, thus,
making the interpretive policy analysis superior than other forms of
analysis that do not factor the human elements
Auten and Weiner (n.d.) outline five steps that serve as a
framework for the analysis of policies and strategies. These steps
Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000196
doi: 10.4172/2327-4417.1000196
include definition of the problem, establishing goals, selection of the
policy, implementation of the policy and evaluation of the policy.
These steps help in the thorough analysis of policies. Yanow [33]
precedes the steps with the first activity of establishing the context
within which the policy is to be analyzed before the definition of the
problem, determining the evaluative criteria or objectives and finally
an evaluation of the alternatives. This first step is relevant in that it sets
the scope within which the analysis is to be carried out or indicates
the thrust of the policy analysis. Salamon [36] opine that problems
or peculiar confronting a nation or group of people propels the
development of policies and strategies. Therefore, there is the need
to identify and define this problem and argue on why it is worrying,
justifying with evidence or statistics.
Goals are then established from the problems identified [37].
These goals should be carefully crafted or set with the intent of
arresting the problems that have been defined. There should be a
clear-cut information on the agencies whether governmental or non-
governmental that will ensure the decision making processes of the
policy. Pragmatic policies are then selected based on the nature of
the problems that have been identified. The chosen policy or strategy
must reflect the set goals or objectives laid down by stakeholders [38].
The organizations that are to ensure the implementation of the policy
must be known and their duties must be analyzed. Finally, the policy
or strategy has to be evaluated for its effectiveness or workability. It is
essential to find out whether it was able to meet its set vision, goals and
objectives. This evaluation will reveal whether the strategy or policy
was able to solve the original problem that necessitated its formulation
or it rather tackled a different problem [39]. In addition, it will unveil
the costs incurred because of its implementation and whether the cost
is worthwhile in comparison with the gains of the policy. This will help
us to ascertain if the policy was a success or a failure and as such must
be revised or abolished completely.
Methodology
The study was pivoted on the qualitative research design that seeks
to find the views of the main stakeholders in biodiversity management
in Ghana. This research approach was seen as appropriate for the
study because of its ability to describe and comprehend phenomena
studied from the angle of conservationists and local people who have
experienced the promulgation of the biodiversity policies and strategies
in Ghana [40]. In addition, it was used to obtain varied perspectives
from respondents using data collecting instruments such as interviews
and observation [41]. Phenomenological study was adopted because of
its direct exposé of participants’ views Pietkiewicz & Smith [42] on the
biodiversity policies and strategies and why they have not fully incorporated
cultural and artistic elements. Various biodiversity strategies and policies
of Ghana and other global countries, international conventions as well
as other important documents that resulted in the formulation of these
documents was analyzed and interpreted [43]. The thorough analysis of
the biodiversity related contents enlightened the researcher on the extent
of the incorporation of cultural and artistic elements in them.
Ninety-eight (98) respondents from total respondents of 327
consisting of conservationists, traditional authorities, and elderly
respondent in two local communities were purposively selected at the
first phase because based on the judgment of the researcher; they were
very knowledgeable in the phenomenon under investigation [44]. The
total sample size of 30% of the 327 respondents was based on the rule
of thumb for qualitative research sample size selection by Poupiel [45].
The sampling selection procedure postulates that for a population less
• Page 4 of 15 •
Citation: Adom D, Asante EA, Pokuaa NAA, Boadu K (2018) Investigation of the Cultural and Artistic Elements in the Biodiversity Policies and Strategies in Ghana.
J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.

doi: 10.4172/2327-4417.1000196

than thousand, the researcher has to select 30% of the total population
as the sample (Figure 1). However, due to the heterogeneous in their
characteristics such as educational levels, status in the society and
others, they were stratified before they were randomly selected [41].
The biodiversity related documents were observed critically visually
to glean the real import of the information on the incorporation
of the cultural and artistic elements in them [46]. The heads of the
conservation agencies in Ghana (Environmental Protection Agency
Resource Management Support Unit of the Forestry Commission,
Forestry Research Institute of Ghana) and traditional authorities
were interviewed personally because of the sensitive information they
shared on the topic and because of their high positions, they occupy
[44]. The other conservationists and the elderly respondents in the three-
forest fringe communities selected as the study areas were interviewed in
a Focus Group Discussion. The open space during the interview session
would reduce all kinds of suspicions of the questions the researcher who
is seen as a stranger asks while maintaining high standard answers [40].
Presentation of Findings
The conservationists, traditional authorities and elderly residents
in the forest fringe communities were the main informants who were
able to answer the question regarding the biodiversity policies and
strategies in Ghana that were investigated. The first challenge that
the researcher faced had to do with the selection of the biodiversity
policies and strategies in Ghana to investigate. Of course, Ghana has
developed and implemented several policies and strategies related to
the management of the environment, forests, wildlife and the water
bodies. Due to the time limits for this research and its focus, there
was the need to select some of these policies and strategies related to
biodiversity. Since the study focused on biodiversity, the respondents
suggested that strategies and policies related to the management of
the forests, wildlife and water bodies should take precedence in such
analysis. For instance, a respondent disclosed to the researchers:
Your study cannot shun the influential forestry policies like the
first 1948 Forest Policy that is the bedrock and has always been the
foundation for forestry policy development in Ghana. Also, the 1994
Forest and Wildlife Policy that have served the country for over
seventeen years since its formulation have to be investigated (Figure 2).
Likewise, during the Focus Group Discussion in one of the
conservation agencies selected for the study, the group unanimously
told the researchers:
Biodiversity is about the forests and its resources. Therefore, you
must analyze the very popular Forest and Wildlife Policies especially

120

100

80

60 YES
40 NO

20

0
Effective Inclusion Efficiency/Clarity Equity/Fairness Acceptability Effective
Implementation
Figure 1: Investigation of the incorporation of Cultural and Artistic Elements in the 1948 Forest Policy.

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30 NO
20
10 YES
0

Figure 2: Investigation of the incorporation of Cultural and Artistic Elements in the 1994 Forest Policy.

Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000196 • Page 5 of 15 •

Citation: Adom D, Asante EA, Pokuaa NAA, Boadu K (2018) Investigation of the Cultural and Artistic Elements in the Biodiversity Policies and Strategies in Ghana.
J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
the 1948 Forest Policy and the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy. In
addition, the current policy in place, that is the 2012 Forest and Wildlife
Policy must be included in your analysis.
Their views interestingly coincides with those expressed by
Gyampoh and Alhassan who emphasized the astronomical roles that
the 1948 Forest Policy, the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy and the 2012
Forest and Wildlife Policy have played in the management of forest and
wildlife, thus, biodiversity, in the country [30,47]. They viewed the 1994
Forest and Wildlife Policy as the ‘most pragmatic policy’ that changed
the phase of forestry and wildlife management in Ghana. The national
biodiversity strategies 2002 and 2012 in Ghana could not be sidelined
from the analysis of the biodiversity policies and strategies in Ghana.
This was because the first and only national strategy that is directly
targeted at managing the biodiversity resources in the country after the
signing and ratification of the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity
in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil [21].
Investigation of the incorporation of cultural and artistic ele-
ments in the 1948 forest policy
Effective inclusion: The 1948 forest policy did not give any
consideration for the inclusion of cultural and artistic elements. This
was because the entire management of the forest resources was rested in
the central government. Despite the fact that the clause four of the policy
encouraged the formation of a local forestry administration, the local
people were deliberately sidelined from all managerial duties [48]. As a
result, their time-tested, efficient and viable cultural and artistic elements
that have assisted greatly in the conservation of the forests were ignored.
The document analysis revealed that the local people inclusion was
absent in the 1948 forest policy and this resulted in the woeful exclusion
of the cultural and artistic elements in the conservation strategy for the
biodiversity resources as dictated by the policy [28,29].
The elders interviewed buttressed this notification when they told
the researchers in the Focus Group Discussion that:
The Forestry Commission saw us as enemies. They did not consult
us in any of the decisions they made regarding the forest resources in
our own jurisdiction. Both of us (the Forestry Commission and the
local communities) were disjointed. Gradually, we came to realize
that the forest resources were now in the full grip of the government.
Our cultural beliefs, practices and traditions regarding the use of the
forest resources were abandoned by the managerial team (EC2-FGD,
Personal Communication, 16 July 2017).
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Effective Efficiency/Clarity Equity/Fairness
Inclusion
Figure 3: Investigation of the Incorporation of Cultural and Artistic Elements in the 2012 Forest Policy.
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The conservationists interviewed in the Focus Group Discussion
admitted in unison that the 1948 forest policy was ‘at loggerheads’ with
the local communities. The local communities and their cultural and
artistic elements were not factored into the conservation plan for the
policy. They revealed to the researchers:
The Forestry Commission that was 100% vested with the
responsibility of managing the forest resources in the country did not
‘sit’ (consult) the local people living in the forest fringe communities for
their views or opinions on issues regarding the conservation plan and/
or management of the forest resources. The Forestry Commission was
a policing agency that gave strict orders to the local people to adhere
to without questioning or objections. Purely scientific conservation
strategy from the perspective of the then Forestry Board consisting of
only elite foresters were used (EEEF-FGD, Personal Communication,
9 August 2017).
Efficiency/clarity in providing clear direction to policy imple-
menters
Owing to the fact that the local communities were not part of the
management of the forests, their cultural beliefs and practices were not
mentioned. As a result, the conservationists and project officers who
were mandated to act in consonance with the policy dictates were left in
the dark on clear directions on how to apply the traditional conservation
strategies that were evident in the cultural and artistic elements of the
Ghanaian people. The heads of the conservation agencies informed the
researchers of the negative consequences that were associated with the
deliberate sidelining of the local communities and their cultural and
artistic elements in forest management:
The project officers faced stiff opposition from the local people
living in the forest fringe communities. Some were hooted at, beaten
severely and/or killed while attending to their duties in the forests of
many local communities. This was because of overstepping on the
religious beliefs and cultural practices of the people. Moreover, the
traditional leaders felt insulted for their intentional denial in forest
management and incited the local people to thwart the policy objectives
by usurping its smooth implementation in their jurisdictions (EER-PI,
Personal Communication, 11 August 2017) (Figure 3).
The conservationists in a Focus Group Discussion told the
researcher that they were not to be blamed because they were carrying
out their instructed duties by the Forestry Commission. Regrettably,
they told the researcher that many of their colleagues had to face many
YES
NO
Acceptability Effective
Implementation
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J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
challenges due to the policy’s inability to offer clear directions regarding
the implementation of the cultural and artistic elements of the Ghanaian
people especially those living in the forest fringe communities.
Equity/fairness (in comparison with the other forms of
knowledge)
The 1948 forest policy was truncated in its application of knowledge
in forest conservation and management. It was largely driven by
scientific conservation models. The document analysis unveiled
that the policy encouraged the application of scientific knowledge to
salvage the trees in the forest reserves that were gazette as Protected
Areas [29]. There was great emphasis placed on the application of
scientific knowledge/management systems to increase the output of
industrialized timber [28]. The Forest Watch mentioned that scientific
agricultural practices like silviculture and regeneration were heavily
campaigned for utilization among conservationists and agriculturalists.
Therefore, the traditional ecological knowledge, which is seen in the
cultural and artistic elements of the Ghanaian people, was left behind.
Thus, in terms of equity regarding the pluralistic application of various
forms of knowledge in forest management, the 1948 forest policy failed.
The elders in the local communities told the researchers in the
Focus Group Discussion interview that:
Many of us did not comprehend the new methods of conservation
(scientific conservation models) that were been implemented by
the foresters (conservationists) working in our forests. They did not
encourage the earmarking of some tree species as spiritually powerful
and as such was not to be cut down. Neither did they honor our taboo
days or closed seasons where no forestry activity was supposed to be
carried out. They insulted our traditions and us by wantonly cutting
down our trees, even the tabooed species. They were using their own
form of management, which was alien to us, and they totally ignored
our taboos, norms and cultural beliefs regarding the forests that we are
trustees customarily from our ancestors.
The conservationists rather appreciated the scientific conservation
models that were introduced saying that Ghana needed to move
along with the global development in biodiversity management.
They admitted that the scientific conservation models that were
introduced from the 1948’s such as the growing of Vetiver grass to
check soil erosion as well as the biological and ecological indicators was
helpful. However, the concern of the study was not to water down the
importance of the scientific conservation models. It was to investigate in
which traditional ecological knowledge systems in the light of cultural
and artistic elements were factored into the conservation strategies for
the management of the country’s biodiversity. A larger percentage of
the conservationists admitted that the cultural and artistic elements of
the Ghanaian people were not factored into the conservation plan for
biodiversity management.
Acceptability to stakeholders
The acceptability of the 1948 forest policy was accepted by the elite
scholars and conservationists but it did not sink well for the many
residents in the local communities. The document analysis revealed
that the local communities felt insulted by the over-emphasis of the
scientific conservation models in the policy where their own cultural
and artistic elements were ignored [49]. Many of the major stakeholders
such as the traditional chiefs, elders in the traditional councils as well
as the residents in the local communities felt that the 1948 forest policy
overstepped on their cultural beliefs and practices, therefore, losing the
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massive community acceptability. Some of the elderly residents bitterly
disclosed to the researchers:
The traditions handed down to us by our ancestors were disrespected
by the dictates of the 1948 forest policy. The values, norms and beliefs
were ignored and dragged into the mud by the project officers and
conservationists who worked in our communities. I think the ancestors
would be annoyed at us for allowing them to engage in this great folly.
All the traditional leaders who were personally interviewed
individually disclosed their dissatisfaction with the manner the Forestry
Commission treated their past rulers. Some of the conservationists
who knew the benefits of the cultural and artistic elements of the local
communities and how they assist in the conservation of biodiversity told
the researcher that it was unfair for the 1948 forest policy to discriminate
against the inclusion of the beneficial traditional ecological knowledge
evident in the cultural and artistic elements of the local people.
Effective implementation of policy
The document analysis showed that the 1948 forest policy failed
in its implementation processes because of its over-reliance on the
scientific conservation models while ignoring the cultural and artistic
elements of the Ghanaian people [29,50]. It is said that it was an
intentional attempt of the then colonial administration to use those
scientific models to exploit the timber resources while exporting them
to their homelands [50]. The local communities did not support the
implementation processes of the policy because of the absence of
their consultation, lack of incorporation of their cultural and artistic
practices and the ignorance of equitable or fair distribution of forest
proceeds [49]. They rather revolted against the smooth implementation
of the policy. They resorted to assisting in illegal operations like illegal
logging of timber, galamsey operations and so forth [29,48].
The elderly conservationists who were interviewed who saw the
promulgation of the 1948 forest policy told the researcher that that age
in forestry management witnessed a massive decline in the forest and
wildlife resources in the country. The elders in the local communities
interviewed revealed the real intent behind the actions of the residents
in usurping the efforts of the conservationists who were trying very
hard in implementing the dictates of the 1948 forest policy. One elder
in the Focus Group Discussion interview began by quoting a popular
Asante maxim after which the others unanimously added their voice:
The snake always bites when it is provoked (ϽwϽ ka anibere).
This means that the snake is a peaceful animal that bites only when
it is disturbed or it feels that its life is threatened. Whenever you are
embittered and what is rightfully yours is denied you, you engage in
anything to survive and cater for your family even if it is vile. That is
exactly what our people did. Their farms and lands were forcefully
taken away from them while the cultural traditions were disrespected
and seized from functioning.
Some of the conservationists were quick to add that the 1948 forest
policy chalked some successes. They said that the forest tracts in the
reserves demarcated were heavily protected from any encroachment.
The off reserves were wantonly cleared illegally.
Investigation of the incorporation of the cultural and artistic
elements in the 1994 forest and wildlife policy
Effective inclusion: The document analysis revealed that the 1994
Forest and Wildlife Policy was an improvement on the inclusion of the
cultural and artistic elements. For instance, the document highlighted
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J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
on the participatory involvement of the local communities and as
such, the inclusion of their traditional ecological knowledge systems
in the light of cultural and artistic elements. This was achieved to a
lesser degree because there was some level of consultation with the few
traditional authorities who were invited during the policy formulation
process [50]. It is noteworthy that their invitation was just a ritualistic
fulfillment of the global directive of the Convention on Biological
Diversity, which urged signatory countries to actively involve local
communities in policy issues regarding biodiversity [29]. As a result,
though the policy document mentioned the incorporation of traditional
knowledge in the management of biodiversity, it was a mere paper
work. Thus, Bonye [51] argued that the experiential knowledge of the
local communities evident in their cultural and artistic elements was
ignored in terms of the management and conservation of biodiversity.
The views expressed in the Focus Group Discussions and the
Personal interviews with members of the conservation bodies confirmed
the findings from the document analysis. The conservationists disclosed
to the researchers:
Despite the fact that the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy gave
clear instruction on the inclusion of local communities and their
traditional conservation methods, conservationists in the field did not
implement the directive. The animosity between the foresters and local
communities were still very high. Many of the conservationists felt that
the local people were those behind the illegal activities that destroyed
biodiversity. Therefore, they did not want to have anything to do with
them.
The skepticism of factorizing the traditional conservation
approaches, which are popular in local communities, did not auger well
for some of the members in the conservation bodies. For instance, the
head of one of the conservation bodies told the researchers:
A greater section of the Forestry Commission detested the
participation of local people and their traditional methods of resources
management, which they viewed as uncivilized and archaic.
Efficiency/clarity in providing clear direction to policy imple-
menters
The 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy mentioned the use of traditional
methods of resource management but failed to show clearly how they
were to be utilized by conservationists. The document analysis revealed
that because the developers of the policy were mandated to include
traditional methods of conservation by the global conventions, they
mentioned it in the document without offering any clear headway to
its utilization [29,31]. The conservationists interviewed informed the
researcher that they were not adequately instructed on ways of utilizing
the traditional methods. They said in a Focus Group Discussion
interview:
Clear guidelines were not given us on how to implement the
traditional methods in our management of biodiversity in the local
communities. Some of us had to use our own intellects to decide in
cases where there was a seemingly conflict between the scientific models
and the traditional methods.
Others said that they observed the taboo days because of the
mystery surrounding them for fear they would die. They also admitted
that many of their colleagues faced a lot of opposition, which were
sometimes mixed with physical abuse due to their failure to observe
the cultural beliefs and practices in the local communities. Many
of the park managers interviewed even said that the taboo systems
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and cosmological beliefs that regulated resource exploitation and
habitat destruction were counter-productive. One of the heads of the
conservation bodies explained that the attitudes held by many of their
colleagues where the lack of clear enlightenment on the potentials of the
cultural and artistic elements that are held in high esteem by the elders
in the local communities.
Equity/fairness (in comparison with the other forms of
knowledge)
The views expressed by the informants on the equity of the scientific
knowledge to the traditional ecological knowledge showed that there
was still a great gap, with a deficit in traditional ecological knowledge
(cultural and artistic elements). The conservationists mentioned in the
Focus Group Discussion interview that while the scientific strategies
were more detailed, focused and directive, the traditional conservation
methods they were asked to implement were rather non-exhaustive
and lacked clear direction. On the other hand, the elders and traditional
authorities in the study areas said that the farmers in their communities
were given new instructions (scientific models), which were alien to
them. As such, they found it very inconsistent with the traditional
strategies they are accustomed to and the new scientific strategy did not
attempt any form of synergy between the two streams of knowledge.
Acceptability to stakeholders
The policy did not fully meet the expectation of the local
communities especially, because they still felt that they were ignored
from decisions regarding the management and conservation of
the biodiversity in their jurisdiction. However, there were some
arrangements in the policy that favored the local communities. For
instance, royalties on the timber logs fell in their Regions were to be
paid to the traditional authorities. In addition, Social Responsibility
Agreements (SRA) were to be contracted between timber firms
operating in the forest Regions and the forest fringe communities.
Though these arrangements have not been very successful as expressed
by the elders and traditional authorities interviewed, they were better
than their total denial of the forest proceeds when the 1948 Forest Policy
was in operation. They registered their displeasure of the 1994 Forest
and Wildlife Policy’s lack of actively engaging them in talks regarding
the whole management of the biodiversity in their jurisdiction.
The conservationists also mentioned that they did not fully agree
with the policy’s directive on the use of the traditional methods. They
said that in those days, many of them expressed sour sentiments about
the contributions of the cultural and artistic elements to biodiversity
management and conservation. In addition, they mentioned that
there was no legal backing for the use of the traditional conservation
methods. As such, many of the conservationists flouted it without any
fear of being held accountable.
Effective Implementation of Policy
The document analysis revealed that the lack of active participation
of the local people and their traditional conservation methods made
the implementation of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy less effective
[52]. In addition, the absence of incentives regarding the equitable
sharing of forest resources weakened the implementation processes of
the policy.
Another standing block to the successful implementation processes
of the policy had to do with the blurred roles of traditional authorities.
The conservationists mentioned in the Focus Group discussion
interview that the traditional councils were not told how to assist in
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J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
the implementation processes, probably because there were no clear
arrangement of incentives to be awarded them in that regard. The
elders and traditional authorities mentioned that the refusal of the
conservationists to respect, honor and factorize their cultural traditions,
beliefs and practices in biodiversity management as well as the greed on
their part for taking the greater part of the forest proceeds made them
sit on the fence without helping in the implementation processes.
Investigation of the incorporation of cultural and artistic ele-
ments in the 2012 forest and wildlife policy
Effective inclusion: The inclusion of cultural and artistic elements
in the 2012 Forest and Wildlife Policy is better than the previous
policies. The document analysis showed that there is the mention of the
need to pass legislation meant for the recognition of the rights of local
people, their customs and belief systems that aided in the conservation
of sacred sites (Strategic direction 1.5.1.c, Forest & Wildlife Policy
2012). In terms of research, the policy stated that institutions of higher
learning should undertake research activities in indigenous knowledge
systems that are beneficial in the management, conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity (Strategic direction 1.5.1.a, Forest &
Wildlife Policy 2012). There is a growing recognition of the imports
of cultural and artistic elements such as cosmological beliefs, taboos,
festivals and so forth in biodiversity conservation.
However, the conservationists admitted that the document did not
elaborately discuss the traditional conservation methods that are to be
recognized and in what capacities they were to be implemented. That
notwithstanding, the gradual inclusion of cultural and artistic elements
have improved the relationship that exist between the conservationists
and the local communities. The heads of the conservation agencies said
that there was an extensive consultation of the views of the local people
and this deepened their resolve to include the traditional methods of
the people in the policy document. They mentioned the numerous
village surveys, zonal and Regional workshops, communal forums and
meetings with the people to know how best they could assist in the
conservation efforts pursued by the conservation agencies. The elders
in the study areas said that though the conservationists do not inform
them fully about their activities, there have been some improvements.
They admitted that now the conservationists bring them posters of their
educative programs and campaigns. Some of which were seen on the
walls of the traditional courts of some of the communities.
Efficiency/clarity in providing clear direction to policy imple-
menters
The interviews showed that the inclusion of the cultural and artistic
elements in the 2012 Forest and Wildlife Policy was not exhaustive. As a
result, their full implementation in the field by conservationists slugged.
The heads of the conservation agencies reiterated the need for extensive
education and direction on how best they would use the cultural and
artistic elements of the people in heightening their conservation efforts.
Equity/fairness (in comparison with the other forms of
knowledge)
Comparing the extensiveness of the traditional knowledge in the
light of cultural and artistic elements to the scientific knowledge in
the 2012 Forest and Wildlife Policy, there was still a disparity in their
representation in the document. Yet, the conservationists and local
people all indicated through their responses that though the equity of
the traditional knowledge is not the best, it was a major improvement
on the previous policies.
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Acceptability to stakeholders
The majority of the elders and residents in the study areas who
vehemently objected the past policies made some positive remarks
of the 2012 Forest and Wildlife Policy. They said that the policy’s
support for their cultural and artistic elements have made many of
the conservationists to respect their customs and traditions, though
many of them do not believe in them. Some were still skeptical about
the policy. They admitted that their involvement in the management of
biodiversity is still minimal. The traditional leaders in one of the study
areas told the researchers that:
Many times, the foresters give out concessions to timber operators
without consulting us. When they are carrying out their programs, they
do not mention more of our cultural and artistic elements. It is only the
taboos that they tell residents to obey. In addition, our royalty payments
are not paid promptly and their accountability is not transparent (TTL-
PI, Personal Communication, 10 August 2017).
The conservationists also admitted that now many of their
colleagues are being enlightened of the conservation ethos of the
cultural and artistic elements. As such, they do not object to their use
by the local people.
Effective implementation of policy
There has been some renewed interest on the part of the local
people in supporting implementation processes of the policy. The
conservationists admitted that the local people report culprits of
environmental malfeasance, especially the illegal chainsaw operators
who operate in the forests. They added that the chiefs and traditional
council members are also assisting their conservation efforts. However,
they admitted few instances where local people, sometimes the chiefs
and elders entering into the forest under the pretense of performing
rituals to illegally take some of the forest proceeds. This, they attributed
to their impoverished state and the long chain of procedures for
paying them their royalties. Generally, the conservationists were
appreciative of the efforts of the people in helping in the achievement
of the conservation plans of biodiversity in their jurisdiction. They
emphasized that it was due to the renewed interest and/or respect
for the traditions and customs of the people by conservationists. Yet,
to heighten the supportive roles of local communities, the elders put
forward a recommendation to the researchers:
If the conservationists make us play active roles in their conservation
efforts, utilize fully, the cultural beliefs and practices of our ancestors,
give us employment while supporting the livelihood of our people,
we would wholeheartedly support their efforts (EC2-FGD, Personal
Communication, 7 August 2017).
Investigation of the incorporation of cultural and artistic ele-
ments in the 2002 national biodiversity strategy
Effective inclusion: A thorough analysis of the 2002 Ghana National
Biodiversity Strategy (NBS) shows traces of inclusion of cultural and
artistic elements. For instance, there was the mention of ‘recognition
and appreciation of traditional conservation and exploitation methods
while integrating them into modern methods of conservation’. Also, the
document mentioned of the ‘protection of the traditional knowledge
systems through patent rights’. The document recognizes that the
traditional knowledge systems used for the conservation of biological
diversity are of great value and as such, it advocates that pragmatic
measures should be put in place to protect preserve and maintain
them. Interestingly, the document also stated that the ‘traditional
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J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
laws and sanctions which promoted biodiversity conservation should
be accorded a legal backing so as to ensure effective enforcement’.
Moreover, the document mentioned ‘the empowerment of the owners
of biodiversity in the conservation and sustainable use of its resources’.
These steps that were outlined in the strategy is encouraging. However,
the strategy lacks particular actions that give explicit direction on how
the traditional conservation strategies that must be integrated into
modern (scientific) models of conservation as well as the pragmatic
ways that the traditional conservation knowledge can be protected and
promoted.
Efficiency/clarity in providing clear direction to policy imple-
menters
The lack of specifics in the 2002 National Biodiversity Strategy
leaves it as mere paper document making implementation very difficult
for conservationists working in the field. The exact action plans that are
to be undertaken with performance indicators (NBSAP 2016) as well as
sector agencies in the various sectors are conspicuously missing in the
document [53].
Equity/fairness in comparison with the other forms of knowl-
edge
The 2002 NBS commit itself to the use of both traditional
conservation practices as well as the scientific conservation practices.
Thus, the document mentions the recognition, appreciation and
implementation of the traditional conservation practices. These include:
‘Incorporating the useful wealth of traditional resources use and
conservation knowledge and skills into modern technologies and
making these available to all stakeholders’
‘Protect traditional knowledge systems through patent rights’
While there was a generic mention of traditional knowledge systems
that were to be protected and incorporated, the scientific conservation
practices were rather explicitly mentioned. For instance, the document
mentioned the adoption of mixed cropping, agro forestry, rotations
and cover cropping, the use of Global Taxonomy Initiative, Geo-
referenced Database Systems, and Risk Management on Agricultural
Biotechnology, Use of Gene Banks, Bio-Indicators, Captive Breeding
Programme and many others. Due to this lack of fairness in the
representation of both streams of knowledge in the strategy, its equity
is limited. Thus, while the scientific conservation practices provide
specific directions to conservationists on the specific scientific models
to adopt in the field, the traditional conservation practices that are not
only suggestive renders them incapable of implementing them in the
field.
Acceptability to stakeholders
Little can be said of the acceptability of the 2002 National Biodiversity
Strategy since its circulation has been criticized as woefully inadequate
[7]. Thus, ascertaining its acceptability was difficult for the researcher.
However, the document analysis revealed that the preferences of local
communities toward the strategy were not encouraging. Despite the
introduction of the CREMA concept as indicated in the strategy, the
communication between project officers or conservationists with the
local people still needs a lot of improvement. Vondolia [54] noticed
poor communication and relationship between the local people living
in the fringe communities around the Kakum National Park in the
Central Region of Ghana and the conservationists working in the
area. The researcher noticed similar disdained relationship between
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the conservationists and the local people in the study areas. This is
largely due to the often-utter rejection and usurping of the traditional
conservation practices utilized by the people. Thus, when their
traditional beliefs associated with resource use are rejected, it brings
animosity between the local people and the project officers working in
the local communities. The researcher noticed in numerous occasions
where the conservationists spoke abusively to local people, referring
to them as uncivilized because the latter observed strictly, the taboo
days and rituals in connection to some specific biodiversity resources
and sacred areas. Thus, the acceptance of 2002 National Biodiversity
Strategy by all stakeholders has not been satisfactorily met.
Effective implementation of policy
The implementation process of the National Biodiversity Strategy
has largely not materialized. The document analysis revealed that
the document lacked action plans that would ensure the effective
implementation [55]. Also, it was noted that the 2002 National
Biodiversity Strategy did not reflect the AICHI targets of the global
strategic plan for biodiversity together with its failure to fulfill the
objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The CBD Fourth
National Report [7] added that the 2002 National Biodiversity Strategy
lacked the provision of clear guidelines for the effective coordination
of all sector activities with low publicity of the document making
it difficult for some conservationists and the public to get access.
This might probably be the reason why many of the conservationists
interviewed by the researcher disclosed that though they have heard of
the 2002 National Biodiversity Strategy, they had not laid their hands
on the document or read its contents. Likewise, the few conservationists
who admitted that they have seen the contents of the 2002 National
Biodiversity Strategy pointed out that the top officials have not directly
asked them to implement it on the field. As such, many of them had
forgotten the main tenet of the strategy.
The document analysis showed that the document did not offer
clear guidelines on the institutions that were tasked with coordinating
or oversight responsibilities in ensuring the smooth implementation
of the strategy. Moreover, the FMDP (2016) added that the weak
implementation of the 2002 NBS was due to the failure of the
government in providing the operational resources for the smooth
functioning of the National Biodiversity Committee tasked with the
responsibility to ensure the effective implementation of the strategy.
In addition, the weak implementation of the strategy was also because
of poor participation of all relevant stakeholders in the strategy
formulation.
The NBSAP mentioned that the decision-making processes of the
2002 NBS were not decentralized and the logistics and officers who
were to assist in its implementation at the local levels were lacking. This
underscores why the researcher observed the no and/or less knowledge
of the 2002 NBS among the elderly residents in the study areas. The lack
of communication between the conservationists who are to implement
the strategy in the local communities may have been the sole cause of
this knowledge vacuum of the strategy.
However, the document analysis revealed that the promulgation
of the 2002 NBS attained some successes in implementation. The CBD
Fourth National Report [7] contends that the participation of local
people has been improved with the establishments of Community
Resource Management Areas and the Community Forest Committees.
Krystyna [56] mentions that the involvement of local communities in
projects has attained minimal successes though he recommended a
strong grass root involvement in future strategy formulation.
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J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
Investigation of the Incorporation of Cultural and Ar-
tistic Elements in the 2016 National Biodiversity Strat-
egy and Action Plan
The 2016 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)
is the recently released document in Ghana for the management of her
biodiversity. Its birth is still very young to find out its strengths and
weakness from the implementation bodies and conservation agencies.
The document was realized just after the data collection from the field
was carried out. Thus, not all the respondents in the conservation
agencies were equipped with the data on it. In addition, they felt its
implementation had not commenced and would be inappropriate
to evaluate the document. Therefore, the researcher would focus the
discussion from the perspective of only what has been stated in the
document.
The 2016 NBSAP is a revision of the 2002 NBS which was seen as
having several challenges. Paramount among these includes its failure
to reflect the Aichi targets in the global convention for biological
diversity 2011-2020 in lieu with the national targets and priorities for
the management of biodiversity. The guiding principles, objectives and
action plans of the strategy are streamlined with the Aichi targets of the
global convention on biological diversity (2011-2020). Implementation
of the strategy is still in the domains of the Ministry of Environment,
Science, Technology and Innovation who would work closely with all the
sector ministries, departments and agencies in Ghana. This was aimed
at showing clearly, how the 2016 NBSAP would be integrated with the
developmental plans and objectives of these government agencies in
various fields. Unlike the 2002 NBS that did not have action plans, the
2012 NBSAP has clear action plans. The document has also reiterated
the involvement of all levels of governance from the local government
systems in local communities to the national government systems to
enhance the implementation processes of the strategy. Unlike the 2002
NBS that had challenges with logistics for its smooth implementation,
the funding of the 2016 NBSAP has been catered for in the national
annual budget of the government and other development partners.
In the light of effective incorporation of cultural and artistic elements
in the strategy, the document reveals the realization by the conservation
agencies on the need to beef up the utilization of traditional knowledge
systems and practices in the country’s managerial plans for her
biological diversity resources. This is largely seen in the adoption of the
CBD Aichi target 18 as the action plan 18 of the 2016 NBSAP, ‘Ensuring
that the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous
and local communities and their customary use, are respected’ (NBSAP
2016). Owing to this, the document has highlighted the need to
‘Compile and harmonize traditional issues on biodiversity’ (NBSAP
2016). Since, education is key in assisting the public become aware
of the great import of traditional knowledge systems in biodiversity
conservation, the strategy mentions of carrying out a massive public
education and awareness campaigns and even enacting legislation to
allow the use of the traditional knowledge systems at the community
level (NBSAP 2016). The strategy indicates that an integration of
both the scientific and traditional knowledge systems in biodiversity
conservation in national development is very possible.
There are many projected challenges, which the 2016 NBSAP in
the light of the inclusion and integration of traditional knowledge
into biodiversity conservation and management plans. During
the formulation stages of the document in 2014, the Ministry of
Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation in their CBD
Fourth National Report indicated that the study, understanding ,
Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000196
doi: 10.4172/2327-4417.1000196
documentation and protection of the traditional knowledge systems in
Ghana is their biggest challenge. In the CBD Fifth National Report in
2015, the effective utilization of traditional knowledge, its integration
with the scientific conservation models and documentation was
still a target hoping to be achieved. Thus, the purported inclusion of
traditional knowledge systems in biodiversity conservation in Ghana
is blurred, overly generic and implicit. As such, its direction to policy
implementation agencies is unclear. Many questions arise again on the
thread-like representations in the utilization of traditional knowledge in
biodiversity conservation in Ghana. What are the traditional knowledge
systems in Ghana? Which of them are pertinent to biodiversity
conservation in Ghana? How are they to be implemented? What are
the justifications for their implementation? Which implementation
agencies and personnel are better equipped to ensure the smooth
implementation of traditional knowledge and its smooth integration
with the scientific conservation models? These questions need serious
attention and answers to enable the effective integration and use of
traditional knowledge in biodiversity conservation in Ghana. Probably,
it is as a result of these lapses in the acquisition, understanding and
use of traditional knowledge systems evident in the cultural and artistic
elements of the Ghanaian people in biodiversity conservation that was
why the 2012 NBSAP highlighted the need for ‘a document on the
existing biodiversity-related traditional knowledge systems.’ (p. 67).
This underscores the urgent need to complement the 2012 NBSAP with
a traditional strategic document that would address the challenges with
the use of traditional knowledge systems and their effective integration
with the scientific conservation models in Ghana.
The findings presented on the investigation on the 1948 Forest
Policy, the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy, the 2012 Forest and Wildlife
Policy, the 2002 National Biodiversity Strategy and the 2016 National
Biodiversity and Action Plan have offered great insight into the
challenges associated with the policies and strategies due to their failure
in ensuring full factorization of the cultural and artistic elements of the
Ghanaian people. These findings are further discussed in this section.
The findings have indicated that the 1948 Forest Policy failed
drastically in ensuring the effective inclusion of cultural and artistic
elements because of the expulsion of local people in the preliminary
consultations, planning and decision-making processes leading to the
formulation of the policy. On the other hand, the 1994 Forest and Wildlife
Policy made an attempt of incorporating the views of the traditional
authorities who were casually invited during the consultation stages
of the policy development. Yet, it has been indicated that it was done
just to fulfill the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development at Rio de Janiero, Brazil. The international convention
urged member countries to ensure greater participation of local
people who had experiential traditional knowledge in biodiversity
management [57]. The few traditional authorities who were causally
invited somehow knew of this action by the Forestry Commission.
Thus, the traditional leaders interviewed admitted that they knew
that their invitation it was just a formality and their expressed views
were not going to be factored into the policy development. The casual
mention of the use of traditional knowledge in the policy without giving
detailed and clear-cut direction on their application by conservationists
as noted from their responses during the interview sessions. This
indicates that the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy did not ensure an
effective inclusion of cultural and artistic elements as purported by
Bonye [50]. The 2012 Forest and Wildlife Policy bolstered the inclusion
of the views of local people. Thus, there was an improved attempt to
include cultural and artistic elements in the policy document. Therefore,
conservationists in the field were respecting the taboos and other forms
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Citation: Adom D, Asante EA, Pokuaa NAA, Boadu K (2018) Investigation of the Cultural and Artistic Elements in the Biodiversity Policies and Strategies in Ghana.
J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
of traditional knowledge systems, though, clear-cut guidelines were not
given in the policy. Also, the 2002 and the 2016 National Biodiversity
Strategy showed the importance of the cultural and artistic elements
in biodiversity management, yet, they fail to show explicitly which of
the traditional knowledge systems must be used and how they are to
be mainstreamed into biodiversity conservation programs in the local
communities.
The lack of effective inclusion of cultural and artistic elements such
as proverbs, festivals, cosmological beliefs, taboos and other efficient
traditional knowledge systems in the policies and strategies guiding
the management of biodiversity in Ghana has resulted in the less
achievements attained in biodiversity conservation over the years. The
constant reduction in the landmass of the closed forests in the country,
which are usually stepped in the local communities as shown in Table
1, demonstrates the need to increase the effective utilization of cultural
and artistic elements in biodiversity management, especially in local
communities to save the forest remnants in those Regions.
The lack of a comprehensive document on cultural and artistic
elements in the biodiversity policies and strategies in Ghana has rendered
conservationists on the field incapable of knowing how to implement
the traditional knowledge systems in the field. In terms of equity in the
representation of both scientific and traditional knowledge systems,
all the biodiversity policies and strategies in Ghana, as shown from
the findings, trails in traditional knowledge systems. While rich and
explicit information is given on the scientific knowledge systems, there
is relatively few and implicit information on the cultural and artistic
elements. Thus, the over-reliance on scientific conservation knowledge
has rendered Ghana’s biodiversity policies and strategies incapable of
meeting the acceptability of local people who are major stakeholders in
biodiversity management (Table 2) [58]. When this happens, the local
people do not help in the full implementation processes of the policies
in their local jurisdictions and/or they boycott their implementation as
Rowe and Frewer [59] argued. This situation was noticed in the study
areas where many local people, especially the traditional authorities
Table 1: Schematic Overview of the Stratified Random Sampling Design.
Sample of Population
Categories/Strata Equalization Level
Level
Conservationists 90 27
Elderly Respondents 200 60
Traditional Authorities 37 11
Source: Researchers’ Construct from Sample Survey 2017
Table 2: Procedure for Investigating the Incorporation of Cultural and Artistic Elements in the Selected Biodiversity Policies and Strategies in Ghana.
Content (Item) under Investigation
The Inclusion of Cultural and Artistic Elements
Source: Researchers’ Construct (Adapted from the Interpretive Policy Analysis Procedures by Bardach (2012) and Morestin (2012)
Table 3: Close Forest Landmass of Ghana from 1990-2015.
Year
1990
2000
2010
2015
Source: FPP Report, 2015
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doi: 10.4172/2327-4417.1000196
who still feel that they are left out in policy development and their
experiential knowledge of their forebears are not factorized; do not
wholeheartedly assist conservationists in realizing the implementation
of the policy. Therefore, there is the need to beef up the traditional
knowledge systems in the existing policies to aid in ensuring the full
participation of local communities in biodiversity management [40].
Successful countries of the world who have achieved recognizable
and laudable feats in biodiversity conservation have shown clearly how
traditional knowledge systems should be used in their policies [60].
The comprehensive and explicit information offers conservationists
fine-tuned guidelines in effectively utilizing the cultural and artistic
elements in biodiversity management. For instance, the Indian National
Biodiversity and Action Plan authorizes conservationists to respect
and use taboo systems in regulating the biological diversities in many
Regions of the country while adapting religious beliefs in dedicating
biodiversity spots and resources to particular deities so as to ensure their
conservation (Table 3) [61]. Kenya has given the traditional authorities
in their local Regions the legal rights to participate in biodiversity
management with the conservationists while ensuring that taboos and
religious beliefs in connection with biodiversity are fully observed [62].
Likewise, the Chinese National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan has
given clear guidelines in effectively using cultural and artistic elements
in biodiversity conservation. China NBSAP [63] mentions cultural and
artistic elements such as traditional festivals, rituals, taboo systems,
totemic systems, religious beliefs and sacrificial offerings that heighten
biodiversity conservation should be utilized heavily by conservationists
working in local communities. As such, there is massive support of
from the local communities in all biodiversity conservation initiatives
[64]. Tanzania is cleverly adapting the high respect that the people
have for their ancestors in promoting the conservation of biodiversity
in their country [65]. Tanzania NBSAP [66] directs conservationists to
respect the belief in ancestors while cleverly using the religious beliefs
of the local people in promoting biodiversity conservation initiatives in
their jurisdiction.
Total Population Randomization Level Sample Data Level
327 30% 98
Keys on Performance
• Effective Inclusion
• Efficiency/Clarity in providing clear direction to policy implementers
• Equity/Fairness (In comparison with the other forms of knowledge)
• Acceptability to stakeholders
• Effective Implementation of Policy
Closed Forest (ha)
2,704,422.0
2,317,165.7
1,785,801.6
1,556,146.4
• Page 12 of 15 •
Citation: Adom D, Asante EA, Pokuaa NAA, Boadu K (2018) Investigation of the Cultural and Artistic Elements in the Biodiversity Policies and Strategies in Ghana.
J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
The great successes attained by many of these countries in
biodiversity conservation is largely attributed to the clear and
comprehensive direction on how the traditional knowledge systems in
their countries must be utilized in their national biodiversity strategies
[67]. Ghana must pick lessons from the precepts set by these successful
countries in biodiversity conservation by developing and/or re-
structuring the traditional knowledge component in her biodiversity
policies and strategies, making it more comprehensive and very explicit
in offering clear-cut directions to policy implementers in the field, This
would ensure the maximized efforts in biodiversity conservation in
Ghana because it would lead to a wider repertoire of actions from both
scientific and traditional knowledge systems [10]. In addition, the local
people, especially the traditional authorities would be more determined
and willing to assist in conservation efforts [68].
Conclusions
The research sought to investigate some biodiversity policies and
strategies in Ghana to find out the incorporation of cultural and artistic
elements. The 1948 Forest Policy, the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy,
the 2012 Forest and Wildlife Policy, the 2002 National Biodiversity
Strategy were investigated. The criteria in the Interpretive Policy
Analysis methods were adapted and used for the investigation of the
selected biodiversity policies and strategies in Ghana. It was revealed
that 1948 Forest Policy was largely unsuccessful because of its failure
in incorporating cultural and artistic elements such as cosmological
beliefs, taboos, proverbs and festivals of local communities. In addition,
the findings showed that the deliberate exclusion of the views of local
communities from all managerial duties, thereby, abrogating their
efficient and result-oriented cultural and artistic elements that assist
in biodiversity conservation. The respondents indicated that this
condition has marred the relationship between the conservationists
and the local communities, culminating into the poor performance of
the 1948 Forest Policy. Local communities are embittered and are not
willing to support conservation initiatives for biodiversity when their
cultural and artistic elements they hold dear to their hearts are ignored
and stepped upon in biodiversity policy formulation. Moreover, it was
realized that local communities did not accept and even usurped the
1948 Forest Policy because it was wholly based on purely scientific
conservation models, which they remarked were alien to them.
Interviews with the conservationists showed that those who were glued
to the scientific conservation models utterly ignored the inclusion of
cultural and artistic elements in the 1948 Forest Policy because they
were ill-informed of their benefits in biodiversity conservation, with
some labeling them as counter-productive.
The investigation of the inclusion of the cultural and artistic
elements was somehow improved in the 1994 Forest and Wildlife
Policy. It was realized that few traditional authorities were invited
during the policy formulation stages. This resulted in the few threads
of cultural and artistic elements in the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy.
The revelations from the interviews with the traditional authorities
indicated that their invitation during the policy formulation stages was
just a camouflage to tell the world that Ghana was honoring the 1992
Convention on Biological Diversity that the country is signatory. The
convention mandates member countries to incorporate traditional
knowledge systems seen in the cultural and artistic elements. Again,
the investigation revealed that the conservationists working in local
territories did not implement the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy’s
directive on the utilization of traditional knowledge systems seen in the
cultural and artistic elements of the Ghanaian people. Many of these
conservationists were skeptical about the relevance of the cultural and
Volume 7 • Issue 2 • 1000196
doi: 10.4172/2327-4417.1000196
artistic elements in biodiversity conservation. Another reason given
by the conservationists was that many of them did not have clear
understanding of the directive on the utilization of cultural and artistic
elements in biodiversity conservation in the field. Another concern
raised by the respondents in the local communities was the lack of
incentives and equitable sharing of biodiversity proceeds. This often
resulted in their unwillingness to support biodiversity conservation
initiatives.
The investigation of the 2012 Forest and Wildlife Policy showed
that the inclusion of cultural and artistic elements was better than the
1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy. The respondents admitted that this
has resulted in an improved relationship between the conservationists
and the local people living in the forest fringe communities. However,
there was still great concern among the respondents regarding the
extent of inclusion of cultural and artistic elements in the policy. Many
conservationists queried the 2012 Forest and Wildlife Policy that it lacks
comprehensiveness in the incorporation of cultural and artistic elements.
The 2002 National Biodiversity Strategy that was investigated
shows recognition for the traditional knowledge systems as possessing
great wealth of conservation ethos, yet, they lack explicitly in giving
out clear directions to conservationists. Also, the respondents said that
there is imbalance in the content of scientific conservation practices
and traditional conservation practices in the strategy. While scientific
conservation models are more detailed and specific, the traditional
conservation practices are rather very brief and general.
The 2016 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan mentions
the need for the integration of scientific and traditional conservation
knowledge systems while showing high regard for traditional
knowledge systems. The document reveals the lack of an explicit
document cataloguing all forms of traditional knowledge systems that
can be utilized in biodiversity conservation. The document indicates
the gap in the study, understanding, and documentation of traditional
knowledge systems evident in the cultural and artistic elements that are
pertinent to biodiversity conservation.
These recommendations have been forwarded by the researchers
for policy implementation. The Ministry of Environment, Science,
Technology and Innovation and the National Biodiversity Committee
should ensure that skilled culturist(s) are part of the team or committee
that develops the biodiversity conservation strategy in Ghana. S/he would
advise on how cultural and artistic elements would be incorporated fully
into the biodiversity strategy that is developed. The skilled culturists will
take charge of all issues relating to the comprehensive representation of
cultural and artistic elements pertinent to biodiversity conservation in
all biodiversity related policies and strategies in Ghana. They must offer
clear and specific guidance to implementation agencies and actors on
traditional ecological knowledge in biodiversity management in Ghana.
In addition, the Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology
and Innovation and the National Biodiversity Committee must engage
in wide consultations with scholars and researchers who are experts
in researches related to the use of traditional ecological knowledge
evident in the cultural and artistic elements in Ghana to solicit for
them to offer their expert views and suggestions on how to effectively
incorporate cultural and artistic elements into biodiversity conservation
management in Ghana. Owing to the fact that they carry out current
studies in culture and its relation with biodiversity conservation in
Ghana and other areas globally, they can provide valuable information
on best traditional management practices in complementing cultural
and artistic elements with scientific biodiversity conservation models.
• Page 13 of 15 •
Citation: Adom D, Asante EA, Pokuaa NAA, Boadu K (2018) Investigation of the Cultural and Artistic Elements in the Biodiversity Policies and Strategies in Ghana.
J Biodivers Manage Forestry 7:2.
Area for Further Research
The formulation of a traditional biodiversity as a complement to
the existing scientific models in Ghana would be a wonderful field to be
explored in this area of research.
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Author Affiliation Top
Department of Educational Innovations in Science and Technology, Kwame
1
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University Post Office, Kumasi,
Ghana
Department of Wood Science and Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of
2
Science and Technology, University Post Office, Kumasi, Ghana
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