ARM 301 - PRINCIPLES OF RANGE MANAGEMENT-EDT 2023 - Compatibility Mode

ARM 301 - PRINCIPLES OF RANGE
MANAGEMENT
Instructor
DR. Koech Oscar
(LARMAT)
COURSE DELIVERY
Course delivery will comprise of:
• Lectures
• Group discussions
• Film/video shows
Reading materials
Lecture notes and a collection of reading materials (journal articles, book
chapters, etc.) will be provided as deemed befitting
Class attendance
• Class attendance is mandatory and will be tracked through signing of
class attendance list .
• Permission to miss classes for whatever reason must be obtained using
the appropriate form
Student conduct in class
Students are expected to conduct themselves with decorum in
order to create an environment that is conducive to learning for all.
To this end,
• mobile phones must be turned off or in silent mode during lectures.
• students must dress decently.
• students must be punctual to class. Interruptions after lecture has started

will not be tolerated.
• Students will be expected to maintain silence during lecture
• etc
Participation in class
• Students will be expected to participate in delivery of the course by asking
and/or answering questions
• Discussions
Course assessment
Assessment of the course will be as follows:
Continuous AssessmentTests (written quizzes & take-home
assignments = 30%
Final examination, 2 hrs = 70% . Grading will be as follows:
70 - 100% = A
60 - 69% = B
50 - 59% = C
40 - 49% = D
39% and below = Fail
What is a Rangeland?
Stoddart et al., 1975 in his 2nd edition described rangelands
as “… those lands of the world which by reason of physical
limitations such as low and erratic precipitation, rough
topography, poor drainage or cold temperatures, are unsuitable
for cultivation and which are a source of forage for free-grazing
native and domestic animals, as well as a source of wood
products, water and wildlife.”
Holecheck, Pieper & Herbel (1989) -- text book , “ RM
– Principles and Practices” have described RLs as uncultivated
lands that will provide the necessities of life for grazing and
browsing animals.”
Summary
• RLs can be described as uncultivated lands dominated by native plants -
grasses, herbaceous broad-leaved plants (forbs) and shrubs.
• RLs are also viewed as all those lands that are not farmland, dense forest,
barren desert or land covered by solid rock, concrete, or glaciers.
• Rangelands include: grasslands, shrub lands, savannas, and open
woodlands .
• Are all rangelands grazed?
• No! Grazing as an important ecological process in all rangeland, but not
all rangelands are grazed by livestock.
•
RANGE MANAGEMENT DEFINED
Like RLs, definition/description of RM has evolved over time as
range science (the organized body of knowledge upon which RM is
based) has also increased.
We will look at a few of these definitions so as to appreciate the
évolution’ tha that has taken place
Stoddart & Smith 1943, 1st edition, text book, “Principles of
RM”, defined RM as:
1. “Science and art of obtaining maximum livestock production
from RLs consistent with conservation of land resources.
2. Sampson 1952 defined RM as:
“the science and art of procuring maximum sustained use of the forage crop
without jeopardizing other resources or the use of the land”
Thus!
all students who used the above text books knew

RM as “art” and “science” of maximizing
either livestock products or forage.
3. Stoddart, Smith & Box 1975 in 2nd edition of their text book
defined RM as:
“the science and art of optimizing returns from RLs in those combinations most
desired by and suitable to society through the manipulation of range ecosystems”.
4. Hershel M. Bell 1973 (in his book) defined RM as
“the practical application of a science dealing with the vegetation that is

suitable and compatible with the environment that characterizes a given kind
of rangeland.
5. Holechek, Pieper and Herbel 1989 defined it as:
“manipulation of rangeland components to obtain the optimum combination

of goods and services for society on a sustained basis”.
Analyses of definitions
The following aspects are notable:
1. The concept of optimization of mixtures of goods/services rather

than maximization of a single good/has been adopted and widely
accepted within the profession.
2. Multi-disciplinary approach to management of rangelands has also

been adopted,
3. Multiple use -- the use of rangelands to produce several

goods/services for society -- approach to been adopted.
Summary
• As has been shown, RLs have been described in many ways

depending on who is doing it and for what purpose. As indicated
above, they have been described, for instance, as:
I. uncultivated lands dominated by native plants - grasses, herbaceous broad –l eaved

plants (forbs) and shrubs.
II. all those lands that are not farmland, dense forest, barren desert or land covered by
solid rock, concrete, or glaciers.
• Rangelands include: grasslands, shrub-lands, savannas, and open woodlands .
What is RM then?
Also described in many ways depending on who and why
1. According to Bell 1973, RM is nothing more than man’s attempt to
correlate the use of rangelands with its potential to support the
use.
2. It is concerned with synthesis and use of information relating to the
structure of and function of rangeland ecosystems.
3. It is further concerned with compatibility of plants and the way they grow together
in a balanced mixture on a given range;how they compete with one another; as well
as how they react to degrees of grazing under climatic variation;
A complete understanding of the biological systems remains a challenge
to all range scientists and, as a result, new research ideas will continue
being the hallmark of the discipline.
Sound range mangt “… doing whatever is necessary/possible to cause the best
plants to grow on the rangelands and to produce their highest Q and Q of forage,
year in year out.
• However, all must appreciate that it takes inputs to get outputs
• It takes pounds of grass to produce pounds of beef, or any other
livestock product under any set of range conditions.
• In livestock production, the primary objective is to produce and harvest the highest
possible quantity and quality of forage on a sustained basis.
Please note…
• Under normal circumstances, (mother) nature provides
an environment that furnishes plants with their
requirements to grow and produce.
• The above requirements are -- water, air, light, and space for good
root and stem development.
Like animals or human beings, plant growth requirements

must be met if they are to grow properly and produce.
If ‘mother nature’ is allowed to exert ‘her’ influence freely, optimum

growth and production will occur.
However, if these conditions are violated, growth and production is
adversely affected, or completely halted.
This is the criterion by which native RL is restored and maintained in its
most productive state.
When a range manager insures production and most efficient use of the
highest combination of goods and services form a given R/L, he has
fulfilled his obligation
As a profession, RM has two main roles:
1. To protect and enhance the soil/vegetation /animal interface
complex, and
2. To maintain/improve production of consumable range of
products/services such as red meat, fiber, wood, water and wildlife.
• Thus, RM practices should be designed in such a way that they encourage the
natural environmental elements necessary for plant growth and development, as well
as the development of the entire ecological system – soil, water, air, etc
Tools of range management?
• The proper use of rangeland is accomplished by several simple tools that must be
continually monitored and adjusted.
• The species of livestock to be grazed must be carefully selected because
each species differs in the diet it prefers.
• For example, cows generally prefer grasses, goats consume mostly
shrubs, and sheep eat mixed diets of grasses, browse and forbs
• And, different species of livestock also differ in type of terrain they use.
• For example, sheep can graze steeper slopes than cattle
Invasion of weeds on rangelands is a growing problem.
Range managers often need to use weed control practices (such as fire,
grazing, or herbicides) to reduce the growth of weeds and allow native
plants to grow.
Fire is a natural force in nearly all rangeland ecosystems.
For healthy rangelands, fires are often carefully set and controlled (by
prescribed burning techniques).
These were among the first to define problems of uncontrolled L/S grazing on
Western R/Ls.
Smith (1899) provided a description of the problems that unrestricted grazing

had created as follows:
 Reduction in grazing capacity
 Replacement of desirable forages with unpalatable plants
 Compaction of soil by L/S
 Decreased soil fertility due to loss of plant cover
 Decreased absorption of rainfall by soil
 High loss of soil during periods of torrential rains
 Rapid increase in prairie dogs and jackrabbits
Recommendations for solving these problems took the form of the following proposals:
Control of L/S Nos
Range rest periods
Water development
Bush control
Reseeding as potential means of range improvement
Above recommendations form the backbone of present day RM
Records indicate range research may have begun inTexas with the work of Bentley and
associates in the late 19th century.
Conclusion
AlthoughAmericans can lay claim to the name RM and establishment of the
science, if we take a careful look at history of mankind, we should not be so
presumptuous to assume that they invented RM.
The roots of the profession are lost somewhere in the prehistory of Homo sapiens
(Box 1968).
One has just to work among pastoral tribes in Asia, Africa and other
parts, to realize that although Americans can rightly claim to
establishing RM as a science and coining the terminology by which the
profession goes,the elements of RM – the realm where man,plants,land
and animals are bound together on an ecological basis is not confined to
them.
What are rangelands good for?
Reiteration
Rangeland are a major land resource whether measured by size, support for
animal- based industries, or source of stream flow (water).
Rangelands produce a wide variety of goods and services desired by society,
including livestock forage (Grazing), wildlife habitat, water, mineral resources,
wood products, wildland recreation, open space and natural beauty.
The geographic extent and many important resources of rangelands make their
proper use and management vitally important to people everywhere.
32 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke
What are Dry rangelands? SDGS
1. Poverty
Over 40% land mass 2. Zero Hunger
Over 80% of the Kenyan land mass 7 Clean Energy
12 Res Prod and
Consumption
13 Climate
action

WHY DRY RANGELANDS?
Across the world, Dry rangelands/Drylands provides critical goods
and services to mankind.
Hotspots for biodiversity, and are important carbon sinks.
They are critical to supporting human economies, livelihoods

and culture.

In Kenya, over 36% of the population derives their
livelihood from the dry rangelands.
Support 70% of the national livestock herd and 90% of the

wildlife that supports the country’s tourism industry
Approximately 80–90% of red meat consumed in Kenya is

produced by pastoralists, either within Kenya or from neighbouring
countries

Climate Change impacts in DRLs
Climate change and Variability?
Impacts in Rangelands?
Productivity
Livelihoods
Environment
Economy

Poor rainy seasons, coupled with the, insecurity, pests and diseases in
ASAL region of Kenya
Calls presently for Declaration of droughts as national disaster by the

President of Kenya
At least 2.1 million people are severely food insecure in 2021/2022

Why do we need to Re-Think on Dryland amidst
climate change impacts?
• What is the Value of Dry Rangelands and Livestock

systems?
• Everybody benefits from animals, including vegetarians!

Livestock products: this are the outputs we get from livestock,
Meat
Meat
deficit
300,000M
T
Milk

Horns
Hooves

Export US$18.49 Million during 2021
Hides and skins ---less than 30% is collected!
Blood

Manure for crops

Biodiversity Loss!

For How Long?? Such kind of News??

1. In term of area
•Substantial portions of all major continents

are R/Ls
Table 1 below
Distribution (%) of R/Ls of the world by
continents excluding forecasted areas
Continent Productive Potential Total
area area area
Africa 27 5 32
Australia 7 1 8
Europe & Asia 27 7 34
N. America 9 5 14
Points to note
• Accurate data on global extent of RLs are lacking,
• available data tend to underestimate rangelands -- do not
fully account for forests , wetlands and arid/semi-arid
portions of the world
Some examples
ASIA
• China and Mongolia
• 654m. ha (53%) = permanent pasture
Canada
• Rangeland is a prominent land typed of rural Canada.
• A provincial jurisdiction, administration and policy regarding

range use varies across the country.
• Like many Commonwealth countries, public tenures on crown

land for the purpose of range activities is common in
geographically compatible areas.
• Reconciling the economic needs of ranchers and the need for

environmental conservation is one of the primary themes in
modern range discourse.
United States
• Historically much of the land in the western United States was used
for grazing and much of some states still is.
• In many of those states, such as Arizona, an open-range law applies
which requires a land owner to fence cattle out rather than in; thus
cattle are theoretically allowed to roam free.
• In modern times open-range laws can conflict with urban
development as occasional stray cows, bulls, or even herds wander
into subdivisions or onto highways.[15]
Australia
• About 75% of Australia’s land mass is Rangeland.
• 53 of Australia's 85 bioregions have rangelands.
• In Western Australia, rangelands cover about 87% of the state’s 2.5 million square kilometres.
• Australian Rangelands support most of their economy.
• Rangelands support Australia's valuable mining industry ($12 billion/yr), tourism ($2 billion/yr),
pastoralism($5.5 billion/yr –cattle $4.4 billion & sheep $1 billion).
• Australia's rangelands include a diverse group of relatively undisturbed ecosystems such as; tropical
savannahs, woodlands, shrublands, grasslands and deserts. Rangelands in Australia cover low rainfall
and variable climates which include; arid semi arid and seasonally high rainfall areas.
• Australian rangelands are important in; biodiversity, income, social and cultural heritage, sub-artesian
water sources and major river systems, clean and green food and fiberproduction, and carbon
storage. Rangelands contain a wealth of biodiversity including a total of 1800 types of plants and 605
vertebrate animals currently identified. Rangelands are managed by Australia's Department of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF) and the ESRM Programs on the local level [16]
South America
• Rangelands in South America are located in regions with climate ranging from
arid to sub-humid.
• Annual precipitation in these areas ranges from approximately 150 to
1500 mm (6–60 inches).
• Within South America, rangelands cover about 33% of the total land area.
• South American rangelands include; grasslands, shrublands, savannas,and hot
and cold deserts.
• Rangelands in South America exclude hyperarid deserts.
• Examples of the South American rangelands include the; Patagonian Steppe,
the Monte, the Pampas, the "Lianos" or "Cerrado," the "Chaco" and the
"Caatinga."
• The change in the intensity and location of tropical thunderstorms and other
weather patterns is the driving force in the climates of southern South
America.
Africa
• 46% = RL
• 23 out of 40 countries have R/Ls
• Some countries, e.g., Somalia and Mauritania = 100% R/
• In Kenya, rangelands make up for 75% of the land
surface area,and are largely inhabited by nomadic
pastoralists who are largely dependent on livestock.
This movement often brings along an incursion of
different diseases with the common one being the
rinderpest virus in the Kenyan wildlife population
from the Somalian ecosystem.
Asia-China
• In the past, rangelands in western China
supported a pastoral economy and large wildlife
populations.
• Today, the rangelands have greatly shrunk
• Rangeland types in China include: Semi-desert,
Dry Alpine Grasslands, Alpine Dwarf Shrub,
Wetland types.
INDIAN
• 12mill Ha (c. 4% India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and
Bhutan)
• Mostly described as overgrazed with serious soil erosion,
due to overstocking, drought, inappropriate cultivation
methods
• rapid expansion of agriculture onto rangeland areas
2. In terms of human population
Many scientists consider rapid increase in human population as the most

pressing problem confronting mankind – the‘root’ of all problems
Rapid population growth generally confounds the problems for a country
It means increased need for food, infrastructure, and services.
These are services that most under/developing countries have little ability to
provide today,
Table below , based on anthropological records, represents world’s population
growth rate trends -- long-term
World population growth since year one and projections through the year 2050 .
Year Population
1 200 million
1000 275 million
1500 450 million
1650 500 million
1750 700 million
1804 1 billion
1850 1.2 billion
1900 1.6 billion
1927 2 billion
1950 2.55 billion
1955 2.8 billion
1960 3 billion
1965 3.3 billion
1970 3.7 billion
1975 4 billion
1980 4.5 billion
1985 4.85 billion
1990 5.3 billion
1995 5.7 billion
1999 6 billion
2006 6.5 billion
2009 6.8 billion
2011 7 billion
2025 8 billion
2050 9.4 billion
Points to note…
“Doubling time," – how long it will take for a country's current population to
double is an important characteristic of population
“Doubling time” is calculated by dividing the number 70 by the growth rate .

The world's current pop. growth rate is about 1.14%,
representing a doubling time of 61 years.
Thus, we can expect the world's population of 6.5 billion to rise
13 billion by 2067 if current growth continues.
The world's pop growth rate peaked in 1960s to 2% with a
doubling time of 35 years.
Most European countries have low growth rates.
In UK, growth rate is 0.2%, Germany 0.0% and in France, 0.4%.
Germany's zero growth rate includes a natural increase of -0.2%, without

immigration representing a shrinking trend
In Czech Republic and some other European countries' growth
rate is actually negative
On average, women here give birth to 1.2 children
This rate of natural growth rate can not be used to determine
doubling time because the population is actually shrinking in size.
Asia & Africa
Many Asian and African countries have high population growth rates.
Afghanistan has a growth rate of 4.8%, representing a doubling time of 14.5
years!
If Afghanistan's growth rate remained the same (which is very unlikely and the
country's projected growth rate for 2025 is a mere 2.3%), then the population
of 30 million would jump to 60 million in 2020, 120 million in 2035, 280
million in 2049, 560 million in 2064, and 1.12 billion in 2078!
This is a ridiculous expectation.As you can see, population growth percentages
is better utilized for short term projections.
Please note…
1. Birth rates remain high in under/developing countries -South America, Central

America andAfrican countries
2. Religious beliefs, family labor needs, and lack of education on birth control largely
account for the high birthrates in these countries compared to those of developed
countries.
3. In developed countries such as USA, food production has kept far ahead of pop growth
rate.
2010,Matt Rosenberg
4. In fact, since 1980s food surpluses have been a major problem of agric in these
countries, while food shortages remain an important problem in many
developing countries; this is expected to continue for many years to come
5. The above trends in pop.growth will have considerable influence on how

RLs in various countries will be used in coming years.
6. And,although emphasis may shift among RL products,the rapid

expansion of human pop will undoubtedly make RLs more important to
human kind than ever before.
Other useful ways of assessing RLs
1. Recreation: Rangelands are increasingly important for recreational
uses such as:
• Hiking
• Hunting
• Camping
• Mountain biking
• Cross-country
• skiing
• Snowmobiling
2. Animal Products
RLs play major role in supplying human pop with animal products
globally.
India, Australia and China have the largest % of the world’s cattle,
sheep, and goat pops, respectively.
USA- leading beef producer, while China leads in mutton production.
Australia is a leader wool producer.
Although India has largest cattle pop, it has lowest output of meat per animal.
Why
Due to religious customs which oppose slaughter of cattle for meat; used for
draft and milk only
Although Africa has nearly x5 as many cattle as USA, production per unit is
very low.WHY?
This is mainly attributed to:
1. In Africa, livestock production is mainly in hands of pastoralists with
emphasis on livestock numbers rather than productivity/AU
2. Many animals in the herd contribute little/nothing to meat
production.
3. Numbers are signs of wealth
3. Wildlife Habitat
Rangelands provide primary habitats for countless mammals,
birds, amphibians, fishes, and insects; most highly valued for meat,
trophies, and aesthetic viewing.
Of the total number of animal species found in United States
84% of the mammals, 74% of the birds, 58% of the amphibians
and 38% of the fishes are represented in rangeland ecosystems.
Economic value ofW/L on R/Ls is becoming increasingly important in
developed and developing countries.
In parts ofWestern USA,TX in particular, income generated from sale of hunting

rights can exceed that from livestock on some ranches.
In certain African countries, such as Kenya, income from tourists viewing wildlife
is of critical importance to the economy.
Game ranching Is picking up in all ASAL.

4. WATER
• Many RLs are too dry to significantly affect the water resources
• However, at high elevations, water may be the principal contribution of

RLs
• The Western United States has a much drier climate than the Eastern
U.S. ... water is doubly precious to the 30% of the U.S. population that
lives in the West
• Most of the water in the streams and rivers of Idaho fell initially on
rangeland or forestlands
• Therefore, proper management of rangeland requires careful attention to
the amount & quality of water that flows off rangeland
5. Importance of rangelands in terms of recreation
Outdoor recreational pursuits are becoming increasingly

important especially in the west
Game Reserves and National Parks which are mainly found in the
Rangelands are the basis for such services,
These services are difficult to quantify in monetary terms.
Outdoor recreation refers to recreational activities, or the
act of engaging in recreational activities, that are associated
with outdoor, natural or semi-natural settings
Examples include adventure racing, backpacking, bicycling,
camping, canoeing, caving, fishing, hiking, horseback riding,
hunting, kayaking, mountaineering, mushing, rock climbing,
sailing, skiing, and surfing.
Outdoor recreation may also refer to a team sport game or
practice held in an outdoor setting.
6. Importance of rangelands in terms of plant products
Low trees and shrubs sometimes the only source forage or livestock.
Range plants also widely used for construction of houses and other structures
For landscaping and woodfuel
Range plants also used as ornamentals,
herbal medicine
Industrial oil (jotropha), gum Arabica, moringaand fuel wood
7. Multiple Use:
Because rangelands have many important uses, most rangelands are managed
under principles of multiple-use
Several uses or values of rangeland are addressed simultaneously with care to avoid
overuse or destruction of natural resources.
Thanks!
PONDER THIS
• Curiosity is one of the permanent and certain

characteristics of a vigorous mind (S. Johnson)
• No one can make you feel inferior without your

consent (E. Roosevelt)
Types of Rangeland
A. Grasslands
= are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae) and
other herbaceous (non-woody) plants (forbs).
However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) families can also be
found.
Grasslands occur naturally on all continents exceptAntarctica.
In temperate latitudes, such as northwest Europe and the Great Plains
and California in North America, native grasslands are dominated by
perennial bunch grass species, whereas in warmer climates annual
species form a greater component of the vegetation.[
B. Prairies
These are considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas and
shrubland biomes by ecologists, based on similar temperate
climates, moderate rainfall, and grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather
than trees, as the dominant vegetation type.
Temperate grassland regions include the Pampas of Argentina, and
the steppes of Eurasia
C. Steppe
In physical geography, refers to a biome region characterized by grassland
plain without trees apart from those near rivers and lakes.
The prairie (especially the shortgrass and mixed prairie) is an example of a

steppe, though it is not usually called so.
It may be semi-desert, or covered with grass or shrubs or both, depending

on the season and latitude.
The term is also used to denote the climate encountered in regions too dry
to support a forest, but not dry enough to be a desert.
D. The Pampas
The are the fertile South American lowlands that include theArgentine provinces of
Buenos Aires, La Pampa, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos and Córdoba, most of Uruguay, and the State
of Rio Grande do Sul, in the southernmost end of Brazil covering more than 750,000 km2
(289,577 sqmi).
The climate is mild, with precipitation of 600 mm (23.6 in) to 1,200 mm (47.2 in), more
or less evenly distributed through the year, making the soils appropriate for agriculture.
This area is also one of the distinct physiographic provinces of the larger Paraná-Paraguay
Plain division.
These plains contain unique wildlife because of the different terrains around it.
Some of this wildlife includes the rhea, the badger, and the prairie chicken.
E. Savana
Is a grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being sufficiently small or
widely spaced so that the canopy does not close.
The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an
unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of C4 grasses.
F. Scrubland
is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs, often also
including grasses, herbs, and geophytes.
Shrubland may either occur naturally or be the result of human activity.
It may be the mature vegetation type in a particular region and remain stable over time,
or a transitional community that occurs temporarily as the result of a disturbance, such
as fire.
A stable state may be maintained by regular natural disturbance such as fire or
browsing.
Shrubland may be unsuitable for human habitation because of the danger of fire.
The term "shrubland" was first coined in 1903.[
G. Woodland
Is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight
and limited shade.
Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous
plants including grasses.
Woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions
or during early stages of primary or secondary succession.
Higher densities and areas of trees, with largely closed canopy, provide
extensive and nearly continuous shade are referred to as forest.
H. Desert
is a landscape or region that receives an extremely low amount of
precipitation, less than enough to support growth of most plants.
Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less than
250 millimetres (10 in) per year,[6][7] or as areas where more water is lost by
evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation.
In the Köppen climate classification system, deserts are classed as BWh (hot
desert) or BWk (temperate desert).
In theThornthwaite climate classification system, deserts would be classified

as arid megathermal climates.
I. Tundra
Is a biomewhere the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing
seasons.
The term tundra is Russian (tūndâr) meaning "upland," "treeless mountain tract.
There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra, alpine tundra, and Antarctic
tundra
In tundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses, and
lichens.
Scattered trees grow in some tundra.
The ecotone (or ecological boundary region) between the tundra and the forest is
known as the tree line or timberline.
WHAT IS SUCCESS?
IT IS FOCUSING THE FULL POWER OF ALL

YOU ARE ON WHAT YOU HAVE A
BURNING DESIRE TO ACHIEVE!
Principles of range management for
forage production
ARM 301: 2012/2013

INTRODUCTION
Range plants are living individuals designed to function I
precision
They respond to environment, considering the treatment and use
given to them
We must understand plants relationship with soils, climate,
treatment, and use by grazing animals
The plants respond to the environment and treatments conferred

to them
ARM 301: 2012/2013

Soils influence plant growth, determine kinds of plant that can grow in an area, also quality
of forage produced
Photosynthesis is the key mechanism controlling growth of plants-roots, shoot growth, etc
(productivity)
Photosynthesis is the process by which organisms that contain the pigment chlorophyll
convert light energy into chemical energy which can be stored in the molecular bonds of
organic molecules (e.g., sugars).
Photosynthesis powers almost all trophic chains and food webs on the Earth-Ecosystem
processes
In any grazing system, forage production is key and hence the process of photosyntheis
becomes important
ARM 301: 2012/2013

After food manufacture, it is translocated to roots and lower stems
The plants grow with a complete cycle from active growth to dormancy and back to
active growth
Range plants require these alternate growth and rest periods for their normal and
highest production
Seasonal climatic changes that bring about the alternate seasons are important for
both cold and warm season plants.
They utilize the seasonality of growth to grow and avoid competition and hence
productivity whole year
This are important consideration for grazing use and management of plants with
these different growth characteristics
ARM 301: 2012/2013

Plant growth requirements during grazing
Good grazing management considers proper range use and maximum
production can be achieved by;
Not using more that 50% of current years production of important
range forage plants
Allow plant growth to get beyond infancy and avoid early grazing
Graze during the best season of use for both the plant and the
livestock-benefits both
Graze with the kind of livestock that will make most efficient use of
forage with least abuse to individual plants, or to the plant
community
ARM 301: 2012/2013

These rules are used with appropriate grqazing management practices
Proper range use, deffered grazing, rotation grazing or even year long or
season long use of properly stocked ranges are good management
practices
One needs a working knowledge of how plants react to degrees of
grazing, drought periods, or other stresses and adversities in planning
management that delivers desired results
For example, the rooting system is the foundation of individual plant,
plant community and range site
Without well developed strong root system, maximum production is
impossible-regardless of soil fertility, climatic conditions, and best
managements
Seed crop is also key for establishment of future crop, and strong plants
as evidenced by good seed crop, means there is good root system in place
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Range determination may prevail in most parts of the range but
range manager should ensure best kind of plants are kept and
produced to improve the range
Much has been written and said about proper range use
“Take half and leave half the forage”
“It takes grass to grow grass”
“Defer the range”
The understanding of how plants respond to their environment and

treatment and use should explain the “why”, and possibly the
“how”and “when” of the above concepts
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Plant growth and development in
relation to RM
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Definition of terms
Growth
Irreversible change in Mass
Quantitative
Number, size, and volume increase
Development
Irreversible change in State
Qualitative
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Emergence of specialized body parts
Embryogenesis
Juvenile
Adult Vegetative
Adult Reproductive
Primary growth produces primary plant body;
parts of root and shoot systems are produced by
apical meristems
…Definitions…
The vegetation managed for livestock and wildlife

production systems is produced by a series of
developmental and physiological processes within
individual plants
Developmental morphology = a series of
structural changes displayed by organisms from
inception to maturity, including cellular division,
differentiation and growth
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Developmental morphology of plants defines their
architectural organization, influences their palatability
and accessibility to herbivores, and affects their ability to
grow following defoliation
Physiological processes establish the capacity for
solar energy capture and product synthesis necessary to
sustain structural development
Architectural Organization: Grasses
Developmental
morphology of grasses is
remarkably similar among
species with only minor
morphological variations
separating growth-forms.
The figure here shows
parts of typical grass plant.
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To a layman, essential parts of a plant
include, leaves, stems ,roots, buds, flower,
and fruit
Scientists recognize parts like, culm, ligule,
node, internode, inflorenscence, stamen,
anther, pistil, meristematic tissue,
Chrorophyll, etc
Individual
phytomers, which
consist of a blade,
sheath, node,
internode and
axillary bud, form
the basic unit of
growth
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Size, number and spatial arrangement of phytomers
determines the architectural organization of individual
tillers.
A tiller consists of a
series of phytomers
successively
differentiated from an
apical meristem with the
initial phytomer located
nearest the soil surface.
Individual grass plants

are composed of an
assemblage of tillers
originating from the
axillary buds of previous
tiller generations.
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Phytomers are differentiated
from the apical meristem
(growing point or shoot
apex) by rapid cell division in
the two outer layers of the
apical meristem, the
dermatogen and hypodermis.
Phytomer differentiation
continues as long as the apical
meristem remains in a
vegetative state giving rise to a
series of leaf primordia at
progressive stages of
development
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Floral induction
Floral induction marks the transition

of the apical meristem from a vegetative
to a reproductive status (Sharman 1945,
Etter 1951, Langer 1972).
…occurs in response to a photoperiodic
stimulus (i.e., day length) following a
sufficient juvenile growth period.
At the time of floral induction, both
leaf primordia and axillary buds are
rapidly differentiated producing a
double ridge appearance on the apical
meristem.
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Vegetative growth
Terminal bud
Bud scale
Vegetative growth can only occur from Axillary buds

immature intercalary meristems of existing Leaf scar
phytomers or from previously differentiated This year’s growth
Node
Stem
axillary buds in reproductive tillers. (one year old)
Internode
One-year-old side
branch formed
Tillers = accumulation of successive from axillary bud
near shoot apex
phytomers differentiated from a single
apical meristem. Last year’s growth
Leaf scar
Scars left by terminal
(two years old)
Tillers are initiated from the axillary buds bud scales of previous
winters
of ontogenetically, older parental tillers
Leaf scar
Growth of two
years ago (three
years old)
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Tillers
Tillers are potentially capable of
initiating additional tillers from
axillary buds differentiated
with each phytomer
The spatial arrangement of tillers
within the grass plant, in addition to
morphological variation within
individual tillers, is a major
determinant of architectural
variation within the grass growth-
form (e.g., bunchgrasses Vs
sodgrasses).
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Spatial arrangement of tillers within the
plant is dependent upon the pattern of
tiller development.
The number of live tillers per plant or per
unit area is determined by the rate and
seasonality of tiller recruitment in relation
to tiller longevity.
Changes in tiller density occur when
recruitment lags behind or exceeds mortality
The density of live tillers defines the potential

for biomass production, within the constraints
of resource availability, by determining the
number of intercalary meristems, apical
meristems and axillary buds available for growth
(Olson and Richards 1986b).
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Tiller longevity in temperate perennial
grasses is approximately 1 year and does not
exceed 2 years (Langer 1956, Robson 1968,
Butler and Briske 1988, Briske and Butler
1989).
Longevity is directly influenced by season of

tiller recruitment and phenological
development
Tillers recruited early in the growing season will
have the greatest probability of becoming
reproductive and terminating growth at the end
of the season in which they were recruited.
Tillers initiated later in the season apparently do

not surpass the juvenile growth requirements
necessary to respond to the long-day
photoperiodic stimulus.
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Tiller growth, including dry weight, leaf
number and seed yield, is greatest in
tillers initiated in the latter portion of the
previous season or early in the season of
reproductive development because they
experience a longer period for growth
and development (Langer 1956).
Leaf Demography
Leaf longevity also displays seasonal patterns of

recruitment and mortality (Vine 1983, Chapman
et al. 1983, 1984).
Leaves initiated when growing conditions are

most favorable, spring and early summer in
temperate environments, have shorter longevities
than those initiated during periods of less
favorable environmental conditions
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The environmental conditions experienced by
emerging leaves may program their subsequent
development to a larger extent than the
conditions during growth or maturity.
Synchronous leaf initiation and senescence
maintains a relatively constant leaf number per
tiller throughout much of their developmental
history. Generally, a tiller possesses an emerging
leaf, immature leaf, mature leaf and senescing
leaf (Anslow 1966, Chapman et al. 1984).
Leaf demography determine the amount of
live leaf area per tiller, whiuch influences
both the potential photosynthetic capacity
of the tiller and the amount of leaf biomass
available for consumption by herbivores.
Leaf and tiller demography collectively

determine the rate of biomass turnover
(i.e., production versus senescence) within
the plantcommunity.
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Benefits of Vegetative Growth
Grasses exhibit vegetative growth or
reproduction by the successive
recruitment of tillers from previous
generations.
Each tiller establishes a shoot and root
system (adventitious) to acquire resources
from the environment.
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Vegetative growth may confer several
ecological advantages originating from
resource allocation between and among
tillers within individual plants (Pitelka and
Ashman 1985).
The capacity for continuous tiller
replacement and site occupation based upon
parental support of juvenile tillers is
perhaps the most significant ecological
benefit.
Resource allocation from parental to juvenile tillers
confers a greater likelihood of establishment and
survival in comparison with seedlings which must
become established from energy and nutrient reserves
available within the endosperm (Tripathi and Harper
1973).
Survival and growth of stressed tillers are also enhanced
by resource import from associated non-stressed tillers
within a plant
All this ensure plants adaptability and provide forage for
browse and grazing animals in the rangelands
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Grazing Resistance
Grazing resistance is an ambiguous term used to describe the
relative ability of plants to survive grazing.
Strategies to cope with grazing vary greatly in form and expression
among plant species.
Additional insight can be gained by organizing grazing resistance into
a tolerance and avoidance component
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Avoidance mechanisms reduce the probability and severity of plant
defoliation (i.e., escape mechanisms)
Tolerance mechanisms =facilitate growth following defoliation (i.e.,

mechanisms of rapid leaf replacement).
The ability of a species to survive grazing undoubtedly results from a

combination of these two components, but in certain species and under
specific environmental conditions, one component may predominate over
another.
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Grazing Avoidance
Mechanical Mechanisms
Avoidance mechanisms primarily influence plant accessibility and
palatability to specific herbivore
Tissue accessibility is primarily a function of tissue proximity to the
soil surface as influenced by the length and angle of leaves and tillers.
Mechanical deterrents including spines, awns and epidermal
characteristics (e.g., silica bodies, pubescence and cuticular waxes)
directly influence palatability (McNaughton et al. 1985
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Biochemical Mechanisms.
A diverse array of biochemical compounds referred to as secondary
compounds or metabolites may also contribute to grazing avoidance.
These compounds are divided into two,
1. Qualitative and
2. Quantitative
Qualitative compounds -Secondary compounds which deter
herbivores in low concentrations (< 2% dry weight) by interfering
with herbivore metabolism are referred to as (Rhodes 1979, 1985).
This category of compounds, including alkaloids, glucosinolates and cyanogenic
compounds, are produced at a relatively low cost to the plant and concentrations
may increase rapidly in response to grazing.
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Quantitative compounds are present in relatively large
concentrations (5 - 20% dry weight).
This group of compounds, including tannins, lignin, and resins, are

more costly to produce and increase in concentration only slowly, if at
all, in response to grazing.
Secondary metabolites are known to be effective in deterring specific
herbivores from grazing grasses, forbs and shrubs (Simons and Marten
1971, Provenza and Malechek 1983).
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Grazing avoidance mechanisms do not necessarily remain constant,
but may increase with an increase in grazing intensity.
The qualitative biochemical compounds which increase in response

to grazing, referred to as inducible defenses
Similarly, grazing can modify morphological parameters influencing

avoidance mechanisms.
Long-term grazing has been observed to function as a selection

pressure against the tall upright growth-form in several perennial
grasses
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Grazing Tolerance
1. Morphological Mechanisms.
Leaf replacement potential, defined as the rate at which leaf area is Re-
established following defoliation, is largely a function of the number,
source and location of meristems within a plant following defoliation.
2. Physiological Mechanisms
A) Compensatory photosynthesis. Grazing alters the age structure of
leaves within plant canopies in addition to reducing total leaf area.
This has direct consequences for the photosynthetic capacity of plants
because leaves generally exhibit maximum photosynthetic rates at about
the time of full expansion and decline thereafter (Caldwell 1984).
Consequently, leaves of defoliated plants may display greater rates of
photosynthesis than non defoliated plants because many of the leaves are
chronologically younger and more efficient photosynthetically.
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However, the carbon gain capacity of plants is a function of both total
leaf area and photosynthetic rate.
Increased rates of photosynthesis following partial defoliation relative to

similar aged leaves of non-defoliated plants is referred to as
compensatory photosynthesis
B) Carbon allocation.
The allocation of photosynthetic products within grasses is
consistently altered by defoliation.
The proportion remaining above-ground to re-establish
photosynthetic tissues increases relative to the proportion allocated
below-ground (Ryle and Powell 1975, Detling et al. 1979).
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Flexible patterns of carbon allocation may increase grazing tolerance
by increasing the rate of leaf replacement and re-establishing the
photosynthetic capacity of plants.
For example, crested wheatgrass, known to be more grazing tolerant
than bluebunch wheatgrass, exhibits a greater capacity to reallocate
carbon to reestablishment of photosynthetic tissues while
temporarily decreasing allocation below-ground (Caldwell et al.
1981, Richards 1984).
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Carbohydrate reserves. The significance of carbohydrate
reserves to the grazing tolerance of grasses has been investigated
for half a century.
The major premise for monitoring carbohydrate reserves has been
to provide an index of leaf replacement potential (i.e., vigor) based
upon the assumption that the depletion of carbohydrate reserves by
excessive defoliation reduces growth, and in extreme cases, causes
plant mortality (Weinmann 1948).
Carbohydrate reserves are utilized for plant growth and
maintenance when photosynthetic capacity is limited, as evidenced
by the reduction in reserves following defoliation (Deregibus et al.
1982).
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Apical dominance and grazing
Apical dominance is the phenomenon whereby the main central stem of
the plant is dominant over (i.e., grows more strongly than) other side
stems; on a branch the main stem of the branch is further dominant over
its own side branchlets.
Removing the apical tip and its suppressive hormone allows the lower
dormant lateral buds to develop and the buds between the leaf stalk and
stem to produce new shoots, which compete to become the lead growth.
This aspect benefits the grazing animals by ensuring more forage
produced from the lateral growth
The defoliation process of animals also removes the apical
dominance and enhance vegetative growth during regrowth
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Conclusion
Understanding plant growth and development is critical in the
management of rangeland vegetation
The decisions of a range manager in regards to grazing determines
the range health and conditions
Any grazing planning and management should consider the plants
health in terms of growth and development requirements
Poor grazing without understanding the plant requirements leads
to loss of key vegetation species, reducing productivity of
rangelands and the end is land degradation
Range manager should understand the vegetation resources under
his management, make informed decisions on the search to
achieving the desired goals of production
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Principles of range management for
grazing
Grazing Systems
Management tools designed to balance the conflicting relationships
between energy capture, harvest, and conversion efficiencies
Grazing or herbivory is the process by which animals consume
plants to acquire energy and nutrients
Grazing management involves the regulation of this
consumptive process by humans, primarily through the
manipulation of livestock, to meet specific, predetermined
production goals
Cont….
Humankind has historically fostered and relied upon livestock
grazing for a substantial portion of his livelihood because it is the
only process capable of converting the energy in grassland
vegetation into an energy source directly consumable by humans.
Both the grazing process and associated managerial activities
occur within ecological systems and are therefore subject to an
identical set of ecological principles which govern system
function.
The fact that both the grazing process and efforts to manage it are
influenced by a common set of ecological principles justifies the
evaluation of grazing management in an ecological context.
4 main Principles of range
management
Balancing the number of animals with available forage
supply
Obtain a uniform distribution of animals over the range
Alternate periods of grazing and rest to manage and
maintain the vegetation.
Use the kinds of livestock most suited to the forage supply
and the objectives of management
The four principles forms the basis for designing good grazing
management system
Cont…
A grazing system "a specialization of grazing
management which defines recurring periods of grazing
and deferment for 2 or more pastures or management units" (Soc.
Range Manage. 1989).
GP is critical in designing a grazing system-Both in continuous
grazing or differed grazing/ year long or seasonal grazing
GP is the ratio of forage demand (FD) to forage available (FA) at
any instant.
GP= FD
FA
GP will determine the performance of animals in any GM/S
Improvement of livestock production is dependent primarily on
improvement in quantity and/or quality of forage available
and/or consumed over time or space.
There are two fundamental management tactics utilized to
enhance quantity and/or quality of forage produced over
time.
1. High utilization grazing (HUG); and

2. High performance or high production grazing (HPG)
Difference between these two tactics manner in which

they affect the competitive interactions of preferred
(high GP) and non-preferred (low GP) plant species.
Cont….
HUG strategies, all plants are moderately to intensively defoliated
during a grazing period, whereas with
HPG strategies only the preferred plants are defoliated and then only
at light to moderate intensities.
Immediate or short-term impact of these two tactics on livestock
production are quite different
Cont…
HUG tactics necessarily require livestock consume
non-preferred forages whereas HPG tactics require
consumption of only preferred forages.
As a result, individual animal performance is usually
less with HUG than HPG tactics whereas animal
production/unit area is greater.
Implementation of a grazing system may also enhance
livestock production if additional fencing is required
whereby improved livestock distribution patterns are
realized.
Types of Grazing Systems.
There are four basic types of grazing systems
1. Deferred rotation (DR);
2. Rest rotation (RR);
3. High intensity-low frequency (HILF); and
4. Short duration (SD).
The functional aspects of each system center

around the employment of either HPG or HUG
tactics.
SR helps insure HUG tactics and HPG regardless
of type of system.
1. Deferred rotation (DR)
This is a multi-pasture, multi-herd systems
designed to maintain or improve range
condition utilizing HPG tactics.
Stock density is moderate, length of graze long,
and length of rest moderate.
Rotational grazing is a process of planned
grazing that encourages pasture growth,
provides maximum benefits to the animals, and
prevents overgrazing
Cont…
The pasture is grazed while it is leafy and
nutritious, still in the vegetative stage, and
before the forage matures.
By preventing overgrazing, a D-rotational
grazed pasture provides better cover to
reduce erosion
2. Rest rotation (RR) systems
Either multi-pasture, multi-herd or multi-pasture,
single herd.
Designed to maintain or improve range condition
utilizing a combination of HPG and HUG tactics.
Stock density ranges from moderate (multi- herd) to
heavy (single herd); length of graze ranges from short
(HPG tactics) to long (HUG tactics),
length of rest from long to short.
Rest rotation Grazing
Deciding on the number and size of paddocks
to be grazed are key factors in creating a
grazing plan in RG.
Paddock layout will vary from farm to farm
because of topography, available water, animal
traffic, and individual management concerns
Plan the paddock layout to reduce lane use and
cowpath erosion.
Benefits of Rest Rotation and Differed Rotation G
reduce cost of machinery, fuel, and facilities
reduce supplemental feeding and pasture waste
improve monthly pasture distribution and yield
improve animal waste distribution and nutrient use
improve pastures’ botanical composition
minimize daily fluctuations in intake and quality
allocate pasture to animals more efficiently, based on
nutritional needs
3. High-intensity, low-frequency (HILF)
systems
Multi-pasture systems usually stocked with a single
herd of livestock
They are designed to maintain or improve range
condition utilizing HUG tactics.
Stock density is high, length of graze moderate, and
length of rest long.
Note:
Deferred grazing: The delaying of grazing in

a nonsystematic rotation with other land units
while Rotational stocking: A grazing
method that uses recurring periods of
grazing and rest between two or more paddocks
in a grazing management unit throughout the
period when grazing is allowed.
4. Short duration (SD) systems
Similar to HILF systems, except HPG

rather than HUG tactics are employed
to maintain or improve range
condition.
This is achieved by reducing length of
graze and rest period while
maintaining high stock densities.
Other GS
5. Seasonal suitability grazing
Distinct grazing system, different in its essential

feature from the other recognized systems, and
co-ordinate in value with them.
Like the other systems, it is an integration of the
pastures of a ranch into a whole, functioning to
supply forage and maintain range, both at an
optimum level.
Cont….
Characterized by the integration on the basis
of best season of use of the pastures
Seasonal suitability grazing involves utilization
of the various range vegetation types,
subtypes, and/or condition class areas
comprising a ranch when grazing is most
advantageous to vegetation or livestock or
both.
6. Range—free choice system
The animals are left to graze freely
Preference for species is allowed by the animals without
restriction
7. Continuous Grazing
The entire pasture area is grazed continuously for periods from 6
weeks long to the whole growing season.
This method appears simple because it requires few fences and
water sources, and less monitoring of the pasture condition.
Uncontrolled continuous grazing uses a fixed stocking rate on a
fixed land area and often leads to under- or overgrazing and poor
pasture utilization.
8. “Creep” Grazing
Excluding mature animals while allowing young
calves and lambs access to high-quality, highly
palatable forage is known as creep grazing.
This can be achieved by raising the electric

fence high enough to allow young animals to
walk under but low enough to restrict the
movements of larger, more mature animals.
•A special creep gate also can
be used to allow the young
animals to graze the “creep”
pasture and to return for
suckling, much like a creep
grain feeder.
• In rotational grazing systems,
the “creep” gate can allow
young animals to graze the
next fresh paddock before
mature cows or ewes.
9. Mixed Grazing
Grazing of pastures by two or more species of animals
(beef and sheep, sheep and goats, etc.) has advantages.
Animal species differ in the types of forage they
prefer. Beef cattle prefer legumes over grasses, while
sheep prefer immature grasses and weeds over
legumes.
Goats consume shrubby vegetation, in addition to
forage plants. Sheep, goats, and cattle tend to be
complementary in their grazing habits; thus, two or
more animal species together can better utilize the
forage.
Importance of grazing management
The goal of grazing management is to economically provide
quality forage to meet some if not all of the animal’s
nutritional requirements during the grazing season, while
maintaining the forage in a healthy vegetative state.
Management of soil, water and nutrients

A tool to maintain biodiversity
Influence animal output
Management of habitats
Efficient utilization of energy
Good Grazing Management/Manager
Good grazing management achieves the right balance between
standing forage availability, forage utilization, and animal
performance.
The good manager stocks pastures heavily enough to graze
available forage down to a target height that will allow rapid
and maximum regrowth (during the growing season) without
compromising nutritional needs of livestock.
A good manager will observe pastures frequently for
overgrazing and undergrazing and will periodically adjust the
stocking rate or movement of cattle as needed.
Range Management for Livestock Production
R.K. Heitschmidt and C.A. Taylor,

Jr.
Outline
Premise
Concepts and terminologies
General principles
 Numbers of animals
 Kinds and classes of animals
 Spatial distribution of animals
 Temporal distribution of animals
Grazing systems
Concepts and terminologies
Effects on livestock production
Introduction
Key observations
Level of livestock production on a given site is an integrated
measure of energy capture, harvest, and conversion
efficiencies .
Livestock production is a dynamic process varying as a
function of both plant and animal factors.
Cont…
Principle factor affecting these efficiencies, and therefore
livestock production, is grazing intensity which varies as a
function of:
a. temporal and spatial distribution of various
kinds/classes and
b. number of livestock
The objective of this topic is to examine the relative effect

of each of these four factors on livestock production.
Concepts and Terminology
Use of several closely related, often confusing terms is

required to conceptualize and/or quantitatively describe the
effects of these factors on livestock production (Booysen
1967; Hodgson 1979; Scarnecchia and Kothmann 1982; Soc.
Range Manage. 1989).
Cont…
For the purposes of this lecturer we use the following specific
definitions:
Forage available (FA) is any herbage and/or browse
available for grazing.
Forage demand (FD) is the amount of any specified
forage required to meet the nutrient requirements of an
animal over a specified period of time.
Grazing pressure (GP) is the ratio of FD to FA for any
specified forage at any instant (i.e., FD/FA).
Stocking density (SD) is the number of
specified animals/unit area of land at any instant.
Animal-unit (AU) is any specified combination
of animals with a total FD of 12 kg of dry
matter/day.
Stocking rate (SR) is the number of animals of a
specified class or animal units/unit area of land
over a specified period of time (i.e., SD integrated
over time).
General Principles
1. Number of Animals
Determining the proper number of
animals to be placed on an area is the
principal factor affecting the relative
success of any grazing management
strategy.
This is so because number of animals
affects not only individual animal
performance but also production/unit
area of land .
Regardless of vegetation complex or the kind or
class of animal, number of animals occupying an
area over a given period of time (stocking rate)
has a profound effect on livestock production
because it affects GP directly by virtue of its
direct effect on FD and the subsequent effects
of FD on FA.
Example
For example, at low rates of stocking, individual
animal performance is maximized relative to the
quality of forage available because GP is low.
However, production/unit area is also necessarily low
because number of animals/unit area is low.
But as stocking rate is increased (moderate GP),
individual animal performance begins to decline
because of restrictions imposed on nutrient intake by
either quantitative and/or qualitative declines in the
forage resource.
The stocking rate at which this decline begins is
commonly referred to as the critical
stocking rate (Hart 1978), and any increase
in stocking rate beyond this point normally
results in a reduction in individual animal
performance.
Production/unit area, however, continues to
increase as stocking rate is increased from low
to moderate because of the increase in number
of animals.
This increase continues to some maximum as
stocking rate is increased, but eventually it too
decreases as nutrient intake becomes
progressively more restrictive.
The stocking rate at which maximum production/unit
area is achieved varies as a function of rate of decline in
individual animal performance.
Most often it is assumed for practical reasons that rate of

decline is linear (Hart 1978) because in such cases it can
be shown that the stocking rate at which maximum
production/unit area is achieved is precisely one-half of
the stocking rate at which individual animal performance
is zero.
In reality, however, the relationship between stocking
rate and individual animal performance is probably
curvilinear (Peterson et al. 1965; Connolly 1976;
Edwards 1981).
The reason it is curvilinear is because a linear decline
in individual animal performance is only possible if the
decline in the net assimilation rate of the individual
animals is uniformly linear.
This is doubtful particularly in multispecies extensive
grazing systems because quantity and quality of
available forage (nutrients) are seldom uniformly
distributed (vertically and horizontally) over time.
As a result, it is doubtful quantity and/or quality of
forage consumed (nutrient intake) declines in a linear
fashion as stocking rate is increased.
The resulting effect is that as stocking rate is
increased in extensive rangeland settings, rate of
decline in individual animal performance is
accelerated
Moreover, it is doubtful that the amount of energy

expended per animal in search of nutrients
(grazing) remains constant as stocking rate
increases.
Basic problem in grazing management
Regardless of the precise rate of stocking required to

maximize production/unit area, the basic problem in grazing
management is that the relationships between rate of stocking
and livestock production are extremely complex and highly
variable in any livestock production system because GP varies
widely over time and space.
This variation is the result primarily of variations in quantity
and quality of available forage (nutrients available) over time
and space as a result of both managerially uncontrollable
variables, which are primarily abiotic, and controllable
variables, which are primarily biotic .
Major abiotic variables are climate and the
inherent productivity potential of a site as defined
by such factors as soil fertility, slope, and aspect
(range site).
Thus, quantity and quality of available forage vary
seasonally, among years and range sites, and
within and among geographical regions (Sims
and Singh 1978; Sala et al. 1988) regardless of the
relative impact of any biotic factors.
The major biotic factor affecting quantity and
quality of available forage is grazing intensity, of
which stocking rate is a major determinant.
Generally, as stocking rate is increased, quantity of
available forage declines on both a short- and long-
term basis.
On a short-term basis, this decline occurs because
rate of forage depletion exceeds rate of
accumulation.
On a long-term basis, this decline results because of
the interaction effects of both abiotic and biotic
factors on plant growth and plant successional
processes.
Grazing intensity is a major factor affecting the
direction, magnitude, and rate of vegetal change
(range trend and condition) in rangeland
ecosystems.
Effects of SR
Stocking rate often affects quality of available forage also, but

the relative effect varies over time and space depending upon
the specific situation.
On a short-term basis, overall forage quality often increases as
grazing intensity increases because of the removal of low-
quality (senesced) forage (Heitschmidt et al. 1987b, 1987c),
whereas quality of available forage over the long-term varies
depending upon the quality of the replacement species
resulting from changes in species composition.
As a result of the integrated effects of abiotic and
biotic factors on quantity and quality of available
forage over time, and because of the relationship
between GP and livestock production, the
quantitative relationships between stocking rate and
livestock production are situation specific in that
they vary over time and space.
As a result, optimal rates of stocking vary over time
and space depending upon season, year, site, and
management goals.
Unfortunately, quantity and quality of available forage in
dynamic, multi-species rangeland ecosystems often vary
more as a function of the highly variable, managerially
uncontrollable abiotic factors, as discussed earlier, rather
than the managerially controlled biotic factors (Noble
1986).
As a result, the optimal stocking rates for livestock
production in extensive rangeland settings vary widely
among seasons, years, and sites, within and among
geographical regions (Morley 1966; McCown 1982).
Stocking Rate Effects on Livestock Production Systems
Overstocking of rangeland, or overstocking introduced forages

coupled with a poor fertility program, typically leads to a
reduction in desirable forage species and an invasion of weeds and
undesirable grasses
As the incidence of undesirable species increases at the expense of
the more desirable forage species, animal performance declines
and the carrying capacity of the grazing management unit is
reduced. This situation is characterized as an overgrazed situation
because of a change in forage species.
The results are decreased profitability both from a livestock
production standpoint
Conversely, understocking results in patch (or spot)
grazing. Patch grazing occurs where animals repeatedly
graze the same area as soon as regrowth is available.
Animals continue to utilize previously grazed areas
because the immature regrowth is more palatable and
of higher nutritive value.
Ungrazed areas in the pasture continue to increase in
maturity, decline in nutritive value, and become
increasingly less palatable.
Cont..
The decline in forage utilization (harvest efficiency)
results in wasted forage and decreased profit potential
from the livestock operation.
In either case, proper stocking rate and some form of
rotational stocking could improve the net profitability
of the livestock production system.
Stocking rate has a major impact on animal
performance and overall profitability of the livestock
production system.
Example of Calculation of stocking rate:
A livestock producer has 50 head of 1,000-lb cows on 200 acres

for 12 months. The stocking rate of this operation would be
calculated as follows:
Calculation of stocking rate:

Total Land Area ÷ [(#AUs) x (Grazing Season)]
200 acres ÷ [(50AUs) x (12 months)] = 0.33 acres per AU

month (AUM)
or 4 acres per AU year (AUY)
Suppose a producer has 100 head of stocker calves that weigh approximately 500
lbs., the size of the pasture is 100 acres, and the grazing season is 6 months long.
The stocking rate would be calculated as before with the exception that the total
number of AUs must first be calculated using the AUE information from Table
below.
Table . Animal unit equivalent (AUE) and estimated daily forage dry
matter (DM) demand for various kinds and classes of animals.
Animal type AUE
300 lbs. 0.4

400 lbs. 0.5
500 lbs. 0.6
600 lbs. 0.7
Cows 1.0
Bulls 1.25
Horses 1.25
Sheep 0.2 5
Goats 0.17
First, estimate the total number of AUs based on AUEs:
(# Head) x (AUE) = Total Aus
100 head x 0.6 = 60 Aus
Then, calculate the stocking rate as before.
Total Land Area ÷ [(# AUs) x (grazing season)] = Stocking

Rate
100 ÷ (60 x 6) = 0.27 acres per AUM or 1.7 acres for the
season.
Calculating stocking rate is relatively simple once the
concept and terminology are understood.
The ability to calculate stocking rate and make timely
management decisions is vital to maximizing net
returns from the livestock operation.
2. Kinds and Classes of Animals
The concept of GP is related generally only to total forage

demand/availability within a given area (Hodgson 1979; Scamecchia and
Kothmann 1982).
But when forage demand is defined so as to incorporate the concept of
preference within the GP function, the underlying rationale for mixed
animal grazing is easily grasped because:
1. Most grazing lands generally support a combination of forage classes
(grasses, forbs, shrubs, and trees); and
2. 2. Dietary preference, nutrient requirements, and foraging abilities
vary among kinds and classes of animals .
Thus, GP varies among forage classes over time and space as a function
of the unique assemblage of plants and animals present.
By matching the forage demand of various kinds and classes of animals

to the forage available, an overall increase in harvest and conversion
efficiencies can often be realized, thereby increasing livestock
production.
The most common practice employing this strategy is multi-species
grazing.
The effects of multi-species grazing on livestock production has been

the subject of many studies throughout the world (Aucamp et al.
1986).
For example, in the Edwards Plateau region ofTexas such studies have
continued without interruption for the past 38 years (Taylor 1985).
Vegetation in this region is a mixture of short and mid-grasses with an

abundance of forbs and a moderate overstory of browse.
Grazing studies have focused on quantifying the relative effects of
various combinations of cattle, sheep, and goats on livestock
production.
Yearlong grazing treatments stocked at equal rates of total FD include:
cattle (100%); sheep (100%); goats (100%);
cattle (50%) + goats (50%); and
cattle (50%) + goats (25%) + sheep (25%).

Results show that:
1. Production/animal was significantly greater for steers when grazed

in combination with sheep and goats than when grazed alone;
2. Production/ewe was significantly greater when sheep were grazed

with cattle and goats than when grazed alone; and
3. Production/goat was not affected by species mix.

The results from these studies reflect the relative effects of varying levels of
GP on livestock production.
Previous research has clearly established that
cattle prefer grass,
sheep prefer grass and forbs,
and
goats prefer browse and grass .
Although forage availability was not measured in these
studies, results from diet studies (Taylor 1985) suggest that
when cattle were replaced by goats and/or sheep, individual
cattle performance increased because FD for the grass
component was reduced (lower GP).
3. Spatial Distribution of Animals
It is well known that livestock preferentially select various plants and
plant parts during the grazing process.
They also preferentially select various assemblages of plant species

(plant communities) in which to graze.
Because the distribution of various plant communities varies spatially as

a function of such factors as toposequence, soil type, aspect, and past
grazing history, GP varies among plant communities depending upon
livestock distributional patterns across a landscape relative to the kinds
and amounts of forage available.
Common practices utilized to enhance livestock distributional patterns are
crossfencing and strategic placement of salt,mineral,and watering facilities.
There is also a strong interaction between multi-species grazing and spatial
grazing patterns.
This interaction effect is related primarily to the spatial distributional pattern of
preferred and non-preferred plant communities/forage classes across a
landscape, the innate behavioral patterns of various kinds and classes of animals,
and the social interaction effects of various animal species that promote the
establishment of multiple herds of grazing animals.
PIOSPHERES
4. Temporal Distribution of Animals
Distribution of animals in in space
In livestock grazing strategies this is related primarily to the short- and long-term
effects of defoliation on quantity of forage produced (efficiency of energy
capture) and consumed (harvest efficiency), and
Secondarily to the quality of forage produced and consumed (efficiency of

conversion).
This conclusion derives from the first law of thermodynamics because
the presence of forage (captured solar energy) is a prerequisite to forage
quality determinations.
All the same, the nutritional aspects of the grazing animal should be
considered in light of the effect of temporal variations in quantity and
quality of forage available on livestock production.
There is essentially only one mechanism whereby an increase in
livestock production can be expected to result as a direct function of
temporal adjustment of grazing events, i.e. increased forage quality.
Forage quality is seldom directly enhanced by deferment from grazing
although it may be indirectly enhanced if deferment induces qualitative
change in species composition
This long-term response is in contrast, however, to the potential short-
term effect of grazing on forage quality.
Spatial distribution (ctd)
An example of a management practice designed in consideration of the

nutritional needs of grazing livestock is adjustment of breeding seasons in
accordance with the cyclic dynamics of forage quality and the cyclic
nutritional needs of breeding animals.
Because both the nutritional needs of breeding stock and quantity and quality
of available forage vary over time, livestock production can be enhanced by
proper manipulation of GP over time relative to nutrient demand and
nutrient availability.
The relative benefits derived from this practice are similar, however,
regardless of stocking rate or grazing system because temporal growth
patterns of vegetation in most rangeland ecosystems are similar regardless of
grazing regime.
This conclusion derives from the first law of thermodynamics because
the presence of forage (captured solar energy) is a prerequisite to forage
quality determinations.
All the same, the nutritional aspects of the grazing animal should be
considered in light of the effect of temporal variations in quantity and
quality of forage available on livestock production.
Ecology in Relation to Range
management
Definition of Ecology
Ecology = that phase of biology which deals with the

mutual relationships among organisms and between
the organisms and their environment.
The study of the biotic and the abiotic components of
an ecosystem
Facts about ecology & RM
1. Since range plants and range animals are biological
organisms, their interrelationships are ecological in
nature
2. Since RM involves manipulation of environment in
which both plant and animal live in … to provide each
with its most favorable habitat, RM = applied ecology,
3. The grazing animal is a part of the plant’s
environment and the plant a part of the animal’s
environment.
4. So long as the two live together, the welfare of each

is dependent upon the other. This is fundamental in
RM
5. Never can the plant (forage) or the animal be

considered separately.
6. Rather, each of these components should be seen as

part of a great and intricately related biological
complex or ecosystem
7. This complex system includes both living organisms
and the nonliving environment.
8. The parts of this complex are called habitat factors,

and can be classified as:
climatic
edaphic,
biotic,
Physiographic
anthropic
9. All are interrelated and a change in one changes

the relationships among all other factors in system.
Ecosystem
It describes the entire complex of organisms and their
environment –both the biotic and the abiotic
It is a functional unit with the interrelationships between the

organism and their environment that ensures ecosystems
services
Fig: Scheme of habitat factors in an ecosystem
Anthropic Factors:
Edaphic factors: • Agric
• Soil fertility • Industries Climatic factors
• Soil structure • Waste disposal • Light
• Soil moisture • Temp
• Ppt
• Humidity
• gases
COMMUNITY
Physiographic (Ecosystem)
Factors:
• Topography Pyric factors
• exposure Biotic factors: • Uncontrolled burn
• Plant competition • Prescribed burn
• Grazing
• Microbial activity
• Native animal use
The balance of nature concept
1. Derived from the fact/observation that nature tends to

balance each member/component of an ecosystem with
others
The concept assumes that any organism in an ecosystem
must attain a point of equilibrium between itself and all
other factors, e.g.,
food supply
predators
diseases,
physical needs, e.g., 0T, cover, moisture, etc,
• … which are conducive to such critical processes as
reproduction
In ecological terms, the above equilibrium is called
CLIMAX… a ‘dynamic’ status (not static)
… involving constant fluctuations of the
factors…warm/cold; wet/dry cycles, etc., all of which
induce wide spread changes in the system, e.g.,
population change, reduced food supply, diseases,
etc.
Note…
1. These changes are product s of changed
environment.
2. Whenever we change one factor of this complex
habitat, (through management) we must expect
change elsewhere.
…notes
3. Stockmen and range managers must realize that
change/introduction of new elements into nature’s
balance, must cause changes/disturbances in the system.
4. No ecologist/biologist has to date claimed to thoroughly
comprehend all the complex interrelationships among
organisms or between organisms and their environment.
5. However, all admit that the interrelationships are real,
important and actually take place.
Thus, the fundamental role of ecology as a branch of
natural science is to endeavor to “disentangle” this
complex system in order to lay foundation for sound
management of natural ecosystems.
Succession
We learnt that ecosystems are dynamic in nature … they
are constantly changing
… the orderly process of community change is called
succession
It is a gradual process involving a series of changes which
follow more or less regular course…
… entails shift/change in spp composition and
abundance…
… replacement of one association of species by another,
or
… one type of vegetation by another
However, the interphases from one distinct type of veg to
the other may not be very distinc as there are ‘gray’ areas,
The ‘steps’ are ‘man-made’
Types of succession
FOUR main types of succession
1. Natural Succession which occurs under natural
conditions/until climax attained/accompanied by soil
changes
… natural succession in ASAL = slow; seral stages not clear
2. Induced Succession arises from the action of man; they
are not induced by nature. These
◦ Can be modified by man more readily than natural
succession
◦ Climax status never attained
◦ Common phenomenon – cultivated areas
3. Primary succession – generally applied natural plant
succession on previously bare area leading to
climax
4. Secondary succession – succession process usually

induced on land previously occupied by highly
developed vegetation destroyed by unusual
circumstances such as fire… soil already developed
Significance of succession
As indicated above, succession is constant/normal
phenomenon in natural ecosystems… triggered by
changes/disturbances in habitats, eg.,
introduction/encroachment of orgs
Thus, understanding it is basic to RM … since RM involves
manipulation/alteration of ecosystems/habitats…directing
them towards a desired “end-point” or “destination”
Therefore, ‘succession’ must be well understood in order to
be managed
Competition
Another important concept in ecology
… a function/factor of succession
Simply defined as the ‘scramble’ for limited resource(s),
It is an inevitable phenomenon in an ecosystem
Easier to visualize than to see in plants but visible in
animals
Its understanding is important to understanding
succession
…best adapted orgs compete best … make most efficient
use of resources provided by environment,
Competition only applicable when resources are limited
Retrogression
Another important concept closely related to succession

The reverse of succession,
Described as the … “moving away from climax…”
Brought about by disruption of succession
May be brought about by drought, fire, or improper grazing
If the disruption is temporary, succession will resume
Ecosystem
Analogous to ‘ecological system’
Figure below is diagramatic scheme of the habitat factors in

an ecosystem
Divided into 2 categories:

a)Biotic
Easily controlled; their manipulation = basic tool used in determining

productivity and usefulness of ecosystem
b)Abiotic
Forms the setting or environment in which biotic factors operate.

Manager has limited control over these
Ecosystem conceptual framework
SOIL= FIGURATIVE BRIDGE

BETWEEN BIOTIC ANF ABIOTIC
BIOTIC (functional) ABIOTIC (controlling)
• PRODUCERS • GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS

• CONSUMERS • TOPOGRAPHY
• REDUCERS • FIRE
• MANIPULATORS • CLIMTE
Producer organisms
plants => capture energy from sun;
sole agents converting solar energy to

food for animals
Carrying capacity/stocking rate depend

on plant’s ability to synthesize food
through PHS
Consumer organisms
= animals that eat/rearrange/distribute energy
captured by plants
Primary consumers = herbivores = live directly off
plants, e.g., livestock and large ungulates, some
insects
Secondary consumers = animals that eat herbivores,
i.e., carnivores – lions, hyenas, leopards, jackals,
vultures
Reducers
Decompose and rearrange organic bodies of both
producers and consumers
Include bacteria and fungi
Perform vital function of recycling minerals and
organic matter maintaining soil fertility
Manipulators
Organisms which deliberately rearrange factors of
ecosystem for own benefit
Man – master manipulator
A thinking/planning animal
Brings his knowledge, experience and technology to

bear on ecosystems
May augment or destroy ecosystems

Functioning of the ecosystem
H, C, O, N + other elements cycle continuously in
among plants, animals, micro-orgs, soil and
atmosphere
In stable ecosystems the amount of each element is
constant, but the amount w/i each component of
the system may vary
However, losses occur when volatile gases e.g., N
are released to the atmosphere or soils are leached
Movement of elements between ecosystem
components varies w/:
Climate, principally temperature and ppt,
Often a large proportion of particular

element may be tied up in one
component
Energy
The prime ‘driver’ of ecosystems
Does not cycle, but flows thro system following the 1st
law of thermodynamics
Energy transfer follows the 2nd law of thermodynamics
– energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but
transformed from one form to another, e.g., heat to
light
Energy enters ecosystem as sunlight,
Plants capture some of it, covert it to plant materials
Energy flows via successive trophic levels until
released from ecosystem
Amount of stored energy in biomass is always
greater in producer than consumer level
Amount at each consumer level gets less as ones
goes up the pyramid
Schematic presentation of energy flow through ecosystem
lost energy
harvest Tertiary consumers

lost energy
Secondary consumers
lost energy
lost energy Primary consumers -herbivores
sun Primary producers – green plants

lost energy
soil decomposition
Notes
 Complete data sets on energy transfer w/in entire

ecosystems are not available,
 Most conspicuous characteristic of any ecosystem

is that they are very inefficient – they capture a
very small fraction of the total solar energy and
there are heavy losses at each level,
Role of ecology in management of range
ecosystems
1. Mainly to furnish range managers with
knowledge/understanding of the many interlinking
functions of an ecosystem, to enable him/her
2. To equip them with skills to do detailed analyses of
structure & function of the range ecosystem to provide
a basis for developing productive systems
THANK YOU
“BELIEVE IN YOURSELF.
NO ONE CAN DO IT FOR YOU!
Range Management Knowledge
Knowledge Nuggets
• Range management is the art and science of obtaining sustainable animal production on
native rangeland while also maintaining the natural resources.
• There are four basic principles of range management:
– Balance the number of animals with available forage supply.
– Obtain a uniform distribution of animals over the range.
– Alternate periods of grazing and rest to manage and maintain the vegetation.
– Use the kinds of livestock most suited to the forage supply and the objectives of management.
Principles of range management
The principles of range management are based on two fundamental
ecological principles:
Physical factors, plants, and animals function as a unit and any change in
one factor, such as that caused by fire or grazing, changes the whole
system.
Vegetation changes are natural phenomena, which follow certain patterns.
Soil and vegetation on native rangelands
• Soil and vegetation on native rangelands developed together over time under the
prevailing climate.
• The vegetation community that develops on a specific soil under a specific climate is called
the climax community.
• This plant community is relatively stable, capable of perpetuating itself, and fully uses the
available moisture, nutrients, and solar energy.
Natural laws that help explain range ecology
• Four natural laws help explain range ecology:
– If we keep down the shoot, we kill the root. Green leaves make the food that sustains plant roots. If too
much leaf area is repeatedly harvested, the root starves and shortens, limiting the plants ability to reach
moisture and soil nutrients. Eventually plants die.
– Native stands abhor a vacuum and try to keep soil covered with vegetation. If grazing removes taller,
more productive grasses, forbs, shrubs and unpalatable plants and low-growing grasses will fill the
empty spaces.
– Changes in vegetation proceed until there is a combination of plants that fit the soil and climate so
perfectly that no other plants can move in.This is the climax community.
– The principal factor limiting growth in grassland climates is water supply. More water is stored in soil
covered with vegetation or a mulch of old growth than in bare soil. Bare soil increases moisture losses
from evaporation and run off. Moisture conservation is critical on rangeland.
Ecosystem - Level Processes
Steve Archer and Fred E. Smeins
• Vegetation, plant species composition and productivity within a
site largely reflect the prevailing climate,
• Seasonal and annual variability in rainfall and temperature

play a central role in dictating the dynamics of populations over
time.
• Substantial spatial variability occurs across landscapes, and broad-

scale climatic variation cannot account for the spatial patterns
which shape vegetation form and function on a local scale.
• Soils and topography exert a strong influence on
patterns of plant distribution, growth, and abundance
over the landscape through regulation of the availability
of moisture from precipitation, which also affects
nutrient availability.
• Grazing influences are superimposed on the topo-

edaphic heterogeneity and climatic variability to further
influence community-level processes.
Consequently, species whose adaptations to
the prevailing climate and soils would make
them the competitive dominants of the
community under conditions of light grazing
may assume subordinate roles or even face
local extinction as grazing pressure increases.
Effect of grazing animals
Grazing animals affect plants directly and indirectly.
Direct effects of grazing are those associated with
alterations in plant physiology and morphology resulting
from defoliation and trampling.
Grazing also influences plant performance indirectly by
altering microclimate, soil properties, and plant
competitive interactions.
These indirect affects accentuate plant response to
defoliation in ways not readily simulated by clipping
experiments.
• Over time, the combined direct and indirect effects of grazing
on plant growth and reproduction are manifested in plant
population dynamics.
• Herbivores affect the productivity, composition, and stability of
plant assemblages through mediation of plant natality,
recruitment, and mortality … may cause directional changes in
community structure and function.
• A community may be relatively stable and resistant to changes
produced by grazing up to a certain threshold point(s).
• Beyond these thresholds, changes are rapid and often
augmented by climatic events.
• The pathway of succession following relaxation or removal of
grazers may differ substantially from the pathway of
retrogression, depending on the mobility and availability of
propagules, soil conditions, and climatic variables.
• In addition, the probability of ecosystem recovery to previous

states may be greatly reduced beyond certain critical threshold
levels of disturbance or change.
• The goal of grazing management for sustained yield is to

identify these critical thresholds and manage landscapes so as
not to exceed them.
Management & manipulation of plant communities:
Principles
• Management and manipulation of plant communities for sustained livestock and

wildlife production requires the seasonal integration of information on plant species
composition and production across expansive, often heterogeneous areas (landscapes)
and over extended planning horizons (decades).
• If the structural and functional aspects of grazed ecosystems are to be understood at

spatial and temporal scales appropriate for long-term sustainability, key plant and
population processes must be identified and linked across time to community and
landscape levels of integration.
• In topic, we will summarize the direct effects of grazing (defoliation) on plant and
population level processes developed from short-term, small-scale controlled
experiments.
CONT…
• We will review long-term, large-scale changes in plant communities on grazed
landscapes.
• At this level of organization, herbivore effects on microclimate, hydrology,

energy flow, nutrient transformation and translocation, and soil
physical/chemical properties operate against a backdrop of climatic variability
to influence plant species interactions and cause fluctuation, retrogression and
succession in communities.
Organization of Ecological Systems
• Ecosystems are dynamic, complex, and difficult to define or delimit in space and time.
• Hierarchical ordering has been applied to multilevel ecological systems to provide a
conceptual framework for practical definition.
• Systems, including ecological systems, are groups of interacting, interdependent
parts operating together for some purpose.
• Systems have unique characteristics o… which are manifest only when sub-
components interact to produce larger functional wholes.
• Hence the axioms "the whole is greater than the sum of the parts" and "a
forest is more than just a collection of trees' "
•
CONT….
• Thus, a system's principal attribute is that we can only understand it fully if we
view it as a whole.
• Water, for example, might be considered a system comprised of hydrogen and
oxygen subcomponents.
• However, the physical/chemical attributes of hydrogen and oxygen by
themselves could not be used to predict the unique physical characteristics of
H20.
• Thus. in ecological systems, the study of individual organisms does not reveal the
unique properties of higher levels of organization that emerge from interactions
of organisms with each other and their environment.
Hierarchy Theory
• Because ecological systems are complex and composed of many interacting parts, it is useful to
view their organization as a hierarchy, or a graded series with several levels of organization,
• For example, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and landscapes (Rowe 1961;
MacMahon et al. 1978;Allen and Starr 1982).
• Any level of organization in the hierarchy can be represented as a system, and interactions with
the physical environment at each level produces a characteristic, functional system.
CONT….
The components of ecosystems (plants, animals, microbes, geologic
substrates, soils, climate) interact and are dependent upon one another
for the flow of energy and cycling of nutrients.
Each level of organization has characteristic processes that operate at
prescribed spatial and temporal scales (Woodmansee and Adamsen 1983;
Woodmansee 1988)
Conceptual framework
• Conceptual schemes such as those depicted in Fig below are important in that they
explicitly identify levels of organization and hence give concrete meaning to the
abstract concept of "ecosystem".
• To minimize misleading & confusing, or confounding comparisons, the same level of

organization and the same processes, inputs, and outputs should be compared in
ecological studies.
• At different levels of organization other processes, inputs, and outputs should be
evaluated.
• The goal of research is to understand the behavior of ecological systems at various
levels of organization and ascertain the properties emerging at each level.
• Management can then focus on the processes and inputs that regulate these key
properties.
NOTE!
• In contrast to reductionism, hierarchy theory permits evaluation of a
complex system without reducing it to a series of simple, disconnected
subsystems.
• No single level in the hierarchy of an ecological system should be considered

fundamental.
• Understanding a system at one level of organization requires knowledge of

the levels both above and below the targeted level (Webster 1979;Allen et al.
1984).
• Interpreting the behavior of a system at one level of organization without

consideration of adjacent levels may generate misleading results.
• Plant response to grazing illustrates this point (Archer and Tieszen
1986).
• Controlled defoliation studies have increased understanding of
adaptations that confer tolerance to leaf removal at the organism
level.
• However, such studies do not account for other factors which
come into play at higher levels of organization.
• e.g., at the organism level, species tolerant to leaf removal in a
controlled environment may disappear from the community if
they are grazed more frequently or intensely than neighboring
plants which are perhaps less tolerant of defoliation.
Cont…
• Thus, infrequently grazed or ungrazed plants may come to dominate the
site by virtue of their competitive advantage over the species used more
frequently.
• Studies at the individual plant level often do not take into account key processes
operating at the community level of organization,for example,differential grazing of
competing species under conditions of limiting resources.
Spatial Scale of Disturbance
• Grazing influences interact with climatic variability and other variables
to cause changes in plant communities at various spatial and temporal
scales.
• On a large scale, precipitation and temperature regulate vegetation
dynamics in semiarid systems (MacMahon 1980; Austin et al. 1981; Sala
et al. 1988).
• However, most plant communities and landscapes are extremely patchy
(Belsky 1983), and broad-scale climatic factors cannot account for the
existence of these small-scale patterns.
Cont…
• Frequent, small-scale perturbations such as ant mounds, small
animal activities, patch grazing, and dung and urine deposition
(Coffin and Lauenroth 1988) occur within the context of larger-
scale, less frequent disturbances such as fire and drought to produce
a complex disturbance regime (Collins 1987).
• Thus, as spatial and temporal frames of observation are diminished,
and resolution increased, edaphic heterogeneity and biotic processes
(such as grazing) assume greater importance in determining
community structure and function.
Role of Climate
The type, magnitude, duration, frequency, and season of climatic change plays
an important role in regulating the rate and direction of plant community
changes.
On grazed landscapes it is often difficult to assess the extent to which
herbivory influences ecosystem processes relative to abiotic factors
(McNaughton 1983a; Foran 1986).
Despite numerous studies of secondary succession in grasslands, few
generalizations have emerged, perhaps because vegetation dynamics in semiarid
systems is influenced so strongly by climate (MacMahon 1980).
Infrequent but extreme climatic events may be especially important in masking
or confounding patterns of vegetation change (Chew 1982).
Cont…
• The influence of grazing on species composition and productivity can
be minor relative to the changes caused by variations in rainfall
• In some cases, effects of climate have been erroneously ascribed to
grazing (see Hastings and Turner 1965, Western and van Praet 1973,
Chew 1982, Branson 1985).
• The extent to which shifts in vegetation structure lag behind climatic
changes which drive them and the extent to which vegetation can ever
be said to be in equilibrium with climate are largely unknown.
• This makes it difficult to form a baseline from which to judge the
effects of grazing on community structure and function or range
condition and trend.
Grazing Effects on Ecosystems
Domestic Livestock
• The impact of livestock grazing on ecosystems varies in relation to the
evolutionary history of the site and the level of grazing pressure (Stebbins 1981;
Milchunas et al.1988).
• Although plant species in ecosystems that evolved with grazing are
well adapted to defoliation,domestic livestock can substantially impact their growth
and persistence in numerous ways (Pieper and Heitschmidt 1988):
Note
While grazing has been an important selection pressure in many
ecosystems, man has substantially changed its frequency, intensity,
extent, and magnitude with the introduction of livestock.
The result has been rapid and widespread changes in species
composition and productivity of plant communities.
Effects of other Herbivores
• Herbivores other than livestock also influence plant community structure and
productivity, and their effects on vegetation must be considered when setting livestock
carrying capacity and interpreting the effects of livestock grazing on community
structure.
• E.g.,Activities of root-feeding nematodes, leaf-chewing grasshoppers, termites,
herbivorous rodents, lagomorphs, large mammals, and granivores (seed eaters)
interact with livestock to affect rangeland vegetation.
• High densities of rodents and lagomorphs are perhaps indicators of degraded
rangeland.
Wild herbivores
• Wild herbivores are often regarded as pests because they may compete with livestock for
forage, consume seeds of desirable plants, impair restoration efforts, or disperse seed
of undesirable weed and woody species.
• However,regarding these organisms as wholly detrimental oversimplifies their role.
• Beneficial activities include consumption of undesirable plants and their seeds,dispersal

of desirable species, consumption of insect pests, loosening and aerating soils, and
enhancing nutrient cycling (Huntly and Inouye 1988).
Rodent - below-ground feeders
• Rodent densities are correlated with factors such as a high incidence of

eroded ground, a high diversity of herbaceous or woody dicots, and low
grass cover (Fogden 1978).
• These organisms may therefore represent symptoms of rangeland

deterioration rather than its cause.
• Potential competition between rodents or lagomorphs and

livestock for grasses may be more than offset if these wildlife
species retard invasions of undesirable woody plants or weeds.
…below-ground herbivores
• Although most research has focused on the effects of above-ground grazers on
vegetation, below-ground herbivores may actually consume more plant material
(Coleman et al. 1976).
• For example, root-feeding nematodes, grubs, and scarabaeid larvae
reduce above-ground productivity by adversely affecting plant
growth, metabolism, and nutrient and water uptake (Ridsdill Smith
1977; Ueckert 1979; Detling et al. 1980).
• Some evidence also suggests aboveground herbivory may change
plant-soil-microbial interactions in a manner that benefits soil
herbivores (Seastedt et. al. 1988).
• The role of these important but unseen herbivores in causing
vegetation change relative to conspicuous above-ground grazers is
not well understood (Anderson 1987).
Meditation of Ecosystem Processes and
Characteristics
• Indirect effects associated with grazing activities further influence
plant growth and community composition in the following ways:
• Alteration of energy flow through the detritus pathway.
• Redistribution and transformation of nutrients.
• Modification of microclimate.
• Alteration of edaphic, physical, and hydrologic properties.
• Destabilization of plant competitive interactions.

Cont….
Acting in concert, these factors associated with the grazing process
dictate the net impact of plant defoliation on community processes.
When direct and indirect effects are considered together, it is easy to

understand why activities of grazing animals may exaggerate variations
within the community in ways not easily simulated by clipping
experiments on individual plants.
Microenvironment and Hydrology
• Modifications of site microclimatic and hydrologic properties by grazing

constitute potentially important feedbacks that regulate plant responses to
defoliation,community composition,and productivity.
• Grazing and related activities reduce litter accumulation and decrease plant
cover which results in increased bare ground.
• The result may be a warmer, drier, and more extreme microenvironment

facilitating an increase in short-lived perennials, annuals, or more xerophytic
plants adapted to such conditions.
Microclimatic studies
• Microclimatic studies on grazed and ungrazed sites are few, but they generally
indicate that air and soil temperatures are higher and ground-level wind speeds
greater on grazed sites (Whitman 1971).
• Such conditions affect primary productivity and species composition over time.
• E.g., in semiarid systems where water is commonly a limiting factor, herbivore

alteration of microclimate may affect availability and utilization of water by
primary producers.
…Microenvironment and Hydrology
• On the other hand, higher rates of transpiration and evaporation on grazed sites
resulting from higher radiant heat loads, soil temperatures, and wind speeds may
contribute to depletion of soil moisture.
• Defoliation during periods of low soil water availability may also accentuate plant
water stress by reducing root initiation,extension,and activity
• However, removal of leaf tissue can increase the ratio of root: leaf area, improve the
water relations of remaining tissues, and result in conservation of soil water (Archer
and Detling 1986;Svejcar and Christiansen 1987).
Cont…
The net result of grazing-induced modifications of
microenvironment on community structure and function is
complex
… has been estimated with the ELM ecosystem-level grassland
simulation model on tallgrass prairie.
Please note…
• Where grazing has reduced plant cover, sealing of soil surfaces via raindrop
impact and hoof compaction may reduce infiltration and increase erosion and
runoff .
• In addition, germination and survival of perennial grasses may be greatly
reduced on such sites and recovery of surface soil properties following cessation
of grazing may require decades (Braunack and Walker 1985;Salihi and Norton
1987).
• Thus, the rate and direction of plant succession following relaxation of grazing may
therefore depend upon the degree to which soil properties have been altered in addition to
the climatic factors discussed previously.
•
Nutrient Cycling
• Grazers influence nutrient inputs, outputs, and
transformations.
• Consumption of foliage diverts above-ground biomass from
the litter component and modifies microclimate,both of which
affect activity of soil microbes.
• In addition, defoliation affects the below-ground nutrient
exchange pool by reducing root initiation and extension and
increasing root mortality .
• Nutrients are also exported from the system when livestock
are moved to other pastures or sold.
Cont…
• Grazing- induced changes in microbial activity and the local distribution,form,and
abundance of nutrients may then feed back and intensify plant response to
defoliation and contribute to changes in species composition.
• Over the long term, changes in plant species composition or diversity additionally
affects litter quality, mass, and seasonal dynamics of decomposition such that a
positive feedback loop develops.
• Under conditions where erosion and runoff increase because of grazing , nutrient
losses from a site may be greatly accelerated.
…N-cycling
• Nutrient cycling via grazing animals can be important in enhancing or maintaining soil fertility
(Floate 1981).
• Cycling of nutrients through grazers may help keep a pool of readily mineralizable organic
nutrients near the soil surface where they are more accessible to plants and microbes (Botkin
andWu 1981).
• Consumption of vegetation and subsequent defecation could also increase the turnover and
availability of various elements that would otherwise remain in recalcitrant organic forms.
•
Pls note…
The fact that shoots of plants on grazed areas may have higher nutrient concentrations than plants
from comparable ungrazed areas (Coppock et al. 1983; McNaughton 1984) may be a
consequence of:
1. Enhanced nutrient uptake by defoliated plants (Ruess 1984).
2. Increased nutrient availability resulting from input from dung and urine;
3. Enhanced microbial activity associated with higher soil temperature and moisture (Parton
and Risser 1980);
4. Decreases in root biomass which limits carbon availability to decomposers causing decreased
microbial biomass and increased net mineralization (Holland and Detling 1990).
5. Elevated levels of root exudation resulting from defoliation. Leakage of high quality organic
compounds from roots stimulates microbial activity and speeds nutrient cycling (Ingham et
al. 1985; Klein et al. 1988).
N-requirement for photosynthesis
• Plants require substantial amounts of nitrogen (N) for photosynthesis.

• When adequate water is available, nitrogen is typically the resource that most limits plant
production in arid and semiarid systems.
• As a result, factors affecting its availability and retention in forms used by plants are important
determinants of ecosystem processes.
• Cattle may return 80-85% of the N ingested with plant tissue to the soil system via urine and
feces.
• Urine generally contains 50-80% of the N excreted by cattle, and vegetation on urine spots
may have foliar concentrations of nitrogen 2-3% greater than that of plants on non-urine spots
over a 40-60 day period (Stillwell andWoodmansee 1981,Thomas et al. 1988, Day and Detling
1990).
• Inorganic N levels in soils of urine spots may remain elevated for up to 90 days and above-
ground standing crop increased 3-to 7-fold.
Removal of nutrients from pastures
• Nutrients ingested by grazing animals not returned via excreta and mortality
may be lost from the system via harvesting of animal products, animal
emigration,and transformation to labile or volatile forms.
• At stocking rates typical of tallgrass prairie, removal of N in animal biomass is
small, amounting to about 0.08 g N/m2/y [assuming 60 kg weight gain per
animal (Parton and Risser 1980, Svejcar 1989) and an N concentration in
gained tissue of 0.014 g N/g wet body mass (Berg and Butterfield 1976)].
Fate of nutrients consumed in forage
• Loss of nutrients consumed in foliage is significant, but the magnitude
is difficult to quantify.
• Approximately 12% of the N consumed by ruminants escape as
gaseous products of digestion (Church 1969).
• Of the N excreted by ungulates, 50% may be lost via ammonia
volatilization (Woodmansee 1978).
• However, subsequent analyses by Schimel et al. (1986) suggest such
losses may be much lower and spatially variable.
• In addition, volatilization of N from urine and dung may not represent a
net loss, because volatilization from unconsumed vegetation may
exceed losses from animal excreta (Detling 1988).
Long term effects
• Over the long term, excessive levels of grazing can potentially reduce nitrogen
fixation; increase ammonia volatilization, leaching and erosional losses; and
cause a net directional transport of nutrients to localized portions of the
landscape.
• The result can be a decrease in overall site fertility and increased heterogeneity
of primary production.
• Reductions in site fertility constitute a positive feedback accentuating
defoliation stresses, augmenting shifts in species composition, and determining
the rate and direction of succession following relaxation of grazing.
Range Animal Nutrition
J. E. Huston and W. E. Pinchak
Introduction
Forage production, defined in as the integrated end-product of
conversion of solar energy into plant biomass, is the foundation of
range animal production systems.
Because plant biomass is of limited caloric value to man as a primary

consumer, the value of this renewable resource is in the production
of secondary and tertiary products through grazing animals.
Temporal distribution of forage production sets boundaries on the

opportunities for directly or indirectly utilizing rangeland resources.
Our purpose in this chapter is to depict the role of grazing animals in

converting chemicals fixed in plants into animal products (food and
fiber).
Forage
Forage includes browse and herbage which can be consumed by or
harvested and fed to animals (Soc. Range Manage. 1989).
The structural characteristics of forage are described in various ways

and with nomenclature appropriate to the context in which it is
considered.
Botanists and agronomists approach plant cellular structure from the

standpoint of biosynthesis.
At what sites or in what organelles do certain chemical reactions

occur that result in processes such as photosynthesis, protein
synthesis and nutrient translocation?
Cont….
By contrast, animal nutritionists emphasize attributes of cells and

tissues that enhance bio-degradation (Van Soest 1982) and liberation
of nutrients.
The nutritionist asks what cellular configuration affects the

digestibility of protein in the plant leaf
Plants perspective and animal perspective to plant cells
Cells of young, plant tissue are biochemically active, capturing and

storing energy, synthesizing proteins and fats, etc. (a). These are
cytoplasmic activities.
Cells of older tissue are comparatively low in biochemical activity.

Much of the photosynthate and other synthesized compounds have
been translocated to the seeds and roots or deposited in other
forms in the cell wall. This leaves the cytoplasm comparatively
inactive.
Similarly, leaves are biochemically more active compared with

stems that contribute structure and resilience in the overall plant
function
Cont….
The animal measures plant chemicals in terms of availability and
nutritional worth, irrespective of their phytochemical functions.
Which are easily accessible? Which are difficultly accessible or
inaccessible?
The two perspectives relate, in that cell structure and function in

plant metabolism closely align with nutrient availability and worth
to the consuming animal.
Cont…
Forage contains fixed energy largely in the form of complex
carbohydrates, waxes, terpenes (essential oils, saponins, etc.) and
phenylpropanoids (lignins, tannins, etc.).
Plant biomass is a virtually infinite number of combinations of these

biochemicals determined by plant species and phenological stages.
The structure and form of these biochemicals, to a large extent,

determine a plant species' capacity to survive (resilience) which is
related to the general inverse relationship between nutritional value
to grazing animals and plant resilience.
Cont…
The complex carbohydrates, etc. are generally impervious to
mammalian gastric and intestinal digestive enzymes.
Readily digested proteins and soluble carbohydrates, including

simple sugars and starches on the other hand, usually exist either in
lesser proportions (< 40% of dry matter) or are complexed
(rendered insoluble and poorly available) with insoluble compounds
such as lignins and tannins
Cont….
Cellulose is of nutritive value only to herbivores that have incorporated
anaerobic microbial fermentation in the digestive process (Hungate
1966).
In the presence of cellulolytic microorganisms, exposed cellulose is

broken down with relative ease.
However, in many plant species, especially the warm-season perennial

grasses, the cellulose is complexed or "encapsulated" by lignin as plants
mature (lignification).
Cont….
Therefore, diet selection, is nutritionally the important element of
grazing animal behavior.
This is true for plant species as well as plant structural part (leaf,
stem, mast) and physiologic age of the plant tissue (new or old
growth) consumed
Range animal nutrition
Range animals rely on vegetation for the nutrients needed to
support bodily processes.
The term "quality" is often used to ascribe worth to the

components of diet; worth in turn is defined by the chemical
composition (e.g., protein content) of the plants selected for
consumption.
Range Herbivores
Foraging animals possessing microbial fermentation capabilities,
whether pre-gastric (foregut) or post-gastric (hindgut), are the
principal producers of food and fiber from rangelands
Most pre-gastric fermenters belong to the order Ruminantia
(Bovidae, Cervidae, etc.) and Tylopoda (Camelidae).
Most range livestock and big-game species belong to Ruminantia.
Grazing animals relying upon symbiotic pre-gastric fermentation

and "ruminants" are considered synonymous in this chapter.
In terms of economic importance, these foregut fermenters,
including cattle, sheep, goats, and big game animals, are the most
common.
Foraging Strategies of Ruminants
Range herbivores have been variously classified into as many as six
classes based upon the types of foods eaten
Bulk/roughage grazers (cattle, bison, cape buffalo, etc.) graze

comparatively indiscriminately on the herbaceous fraction of
vegetation by wrapping their tongue around individual clumps of
plant growth and, with a short jerking motion of the head, break
the clump loose then draw it into their mouths.
Once in the mouth, the material is wetted with salivary secretions,

chewed slightly, formed into a cylindrical "bolus" with the teeth
and tongue, then swallowed . Later, when the animal is at rest,
swallowed material is regurgitated, chewed extensively, then
reswallowed (rumination).
Cont…
Concentrate selectors (white-tail deer, mule deer, dik-dik,
etc.) characteristically have pliable and often split lips, soft
muzzles and agile tongues .
These animals can select plants or plant parts high in cell contents
(protein and other soluble fractions; NDS) and low in cell wall
(cellulose and fibrous fractions; NDF).
Bite sizes are smaller and more discrete, even consisting of single
leaves, leaf tips, fruits, seeds or fallen mast.
Cont…
Intermediate feeders are a diverse group characterized by dietary
plasticity not found in either bulk/roughage feeders or concentrate
selectors.
Diet is characterized by variety and frequent compositional changes.
The domestic sheep is classified as an intermediate feeder, but its diet
often approximates the bulk/roughage group.
The goat is a true intermediate feeder, and its diet selections clearly
overlap the entire array of forages.
Cont…
Such a classification of the feeding behavior of grazing animals is useful
to better understand species adaptability to specific forage conditions
But this doed not mean there is a rigid relationships because
"crossover" in feeding habits regularly occurs.
Especially within sympatric ruminant populations, all species select
diets from an array of available plant materials which vary in space and
time.
Availability is the first and most important determinant of what a
grazing animal consumes.
When the opportunity is presented for selection among types, species
and morphological parts of plants, ruminant populations regularly
exhibit "preferences" in the materials selected
Nutritional Requirements of Grazing Animals
The nutrients required by animals are energy, protein, vitamins and
minerals.
The concept of requirements is generally seen as the amounts

necessary to support "normal" metabolic activity.
That is, the animal's requirements are thought to be met when it

gives evidence of normal health and vigor, normal rate of growth,
normal reproduction and/or normal lactation levels.
Obviously, "normal" is not identical in all members of the same

species at all times so these requirements should be seen as a set of
ranges.
Cont….
Nutrients as limiting factors, while an important concept, should not
be thought of as a rigid one-to-one relationship.
Generally, nutrients are utilized in the hierarchical order of
maintenance, reproduction, lactation and storage .
However, across a population of animals, reproduction and lactation
can occur when the diet does not provide the "required" levels for
these functions.
Within that same population, a certain proportion of animals can even
reproduce or lactate at nutrient levels well below maintenance
"requirements."
Despite the absence of rigor, the concepts of nutrient requirements and
priority of use are fundamental to an understanding of animal nutrition
and management.
Energy Requirements
Energy is required primarily in making (anabolism), but
sometimes in breaking (catabolism) chemical bonds during animal
metabolism.
Metabolic processes requiring energy include muscle contraction,
nerve impulses and tissue synthesis.
Grazing ruminants derive energy primarily from plant
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, but not all consumed energy is
captured in a form usable to the animal.
Cont….
Total or gross energy (GE) is partitioned into digestible energy

which is
DE = GE - fecal energy;
metabolizable energy which is ME = DE - Urinary and methane
energy;
and finally net energy which is NE = ME - heat increment.
Net energy is the amount of energy available for maintenance
(energy required to maintain normal health and vigor) and
production (energy required for growth, reproduction, lactation,
etc.).
Protein Requirements
Ruminant animals require protein in the diet to supply nitrogen
(ammonia) and amino acids for intraruminal microbial activity and
amino acids for cellular-level tissue metabolism.
Suboptimal protein supply to the microbial population in the
rumen results in a lowered fermentation rate, decreased
digestibility of food consumed and decreased voluntary intake
(Kempton and Leng 1979).
Protein requirements in ruminants include protein and/or nitrogen
requirements of the ruminal microbial population.
Generally, microbial requirements are met at 6-8% crude protein
in the diet.
Cont….
Animal requirements range from 7-20% in the diet
depending upon species, sex and physiologic state.
Normally animal protein requirements are satisfied by a
combination of microbial and dietary escape protein.
As animal protein requirements increase, the animal becomes
more dependent on dietary escape protein.
Vitamin Requirements
Vitamins are organic compounds that must be present at the
cellular level to act as catalysts in metabolic processes.
As noted earlier, many of the vitamins are synthesized by the
ruminal bacteria and subsequently absorbed from the intestinal
tract.
With few exceptions, vitamin A is the only vitamin that is likely to
limit the productivity of grazing ruminants.
Vitamin A does not occur in plant tissue, but is synthesized by the
animal from chemical precursors in plants, mainly beta carotene,
but other plant pigments as well.
Vitamin A deficiency is most likely to develop during an extended
period of low temperature and/or drought when green plants are
unavailable to the animal.
Cont…
The second most likely deficient vitamin in grazing
ruminants is vitamin E. This condition can become especially
severe when combined with low selenium in the diet.
Mineral Requirements
Minerals required by animals are classified as either macro-
minerals or micro-minerals according to the amounts required.
Those required in relatively large amounts, the macro- or major
elements, are sodium, chlorine, calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, potassium and sulfur.
In each case these elements are either a constituent of animal tissue
or are required in large amounts to carry on metabolic functions.
Mineral elements required in small amounts, micro- or trace
elements, include iodine, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, cobalt,
molybdenum and selenium.
These generally have special functions as either low level
components of certain tissues, or as cofactors for certain metabolic
reactions.
Livestock-Wildlife Interactions
Much has been written about livestock-large herbivorous wildlife
interactions in grazed systems
The central objective multiple use of range resources is to identify
the magnitude of competitive overlap between two or more species
relative to their ability to garner adequate resources to maintain
desired population levels.
Magnitude of competitive overlap varies among species depending
upon a number of factors.
Cont….
Broad array of studies throughout the world, serve to emphasize
that competition for food between livestock and herbivorous
wildlife varies over time and space as a function of demand relative
to the quantity and quality of forage available.
In other words, the grazing pressure concepts as presented
in are as functionally sound in terms of wildlife
management as they are in terms of livestock management.
A similar argument may be made for water, cover, and space in that
demand for each resource varies depending upon each species'
requirements and resource availability.
Multi-Species Grazing Tactics
It incorporates the concept that grazing management involves "the
manipulation of grazing and browsing animals..." (Soc. Range
Manage.
It focuses on the direct, interaction effects of temporal and spatial
distribution of various kinds and numbers of animals on habitat
attributes as they relate to the resource needs of the target
herbivores.
Ecologically sound management plan in pursuit of established goals.
Cont…
Number of Animals.
Number of animals is the principal factor affecting livestock-
wildlife interactions just as it is the principal factor affecting
livestock production
This is so because of the direct impact number of animals has on
total food, water, cover, and space demands and their subsequent
availability.
The magnitude of this impact varies depending upon degree of
competitive overlap among the targeted herbivores and their
associated behavioral traits.
Cont…
Spatial Distribution.
Spatial distribution of livestock is an important factor
affecting herbivorous wildlife populations.
This has been demonstrated several times from studies showing
white-tailed deer (Hood and Inglis 1974; Schladwieler 1974)
tend to vacate localized areas following introduction of livestock.
Such behavior by these wild ungulates is interpreted generally to
reflect an innate social intolerance to livestock since most species
tend to return to the vacated areas shortly after the livestock are
removed.
Temporal Distribution.
Temporal distribution of livestock also affects herbivorous
wildlife populations.
For example, research has shown livestock grazing at moderate
intensities can, in some instances, enhance the quality and/or
architectural structure of the forage available for subsequent
grazing by wild herbivores such as elk and mule deer in North
America (Anderson and Scherzinger 1975; Umess 1982) and
Thompson's gazelle in Kenya (Blankenship and Overton 1974).
Similar relationships have been shown between sympatric wildlife
species such as black-tailed prairie dogs and bison (Coppock et al.
1983) and blue wildebeest, zebra, and Thompson's gazelle
(McNaughton 1988), to name a few.
Conclusion
Wildlife are important consumers in grazed systems.
Their perceived role and subsequent value varies among societies
depending upon societal goals.
Wildlife and livestock share the same basic needs (food, water,
cover, and space).
Food habits vary among large herbivorous wildlife species in the
same manner as livestock depending on morphological and
physiological adaptations , behavioral attributes, and quantity and
quality of food available.
Cont…
Similarly, because water is an essential compound for the sustenance
of all organisms, all wildlife species require water, amount of which
varies among species as a function of habitat of occupancy, activity,
and evolved behavioral, morphological and physiological adaptations.
Cover requirements vary among wildlife species depending upon
desired use.
However, cover requirements of large herbivorous wildlife species
are functionally similar to livestock as evidenced by the manner in
which feral livestock use cover.
Knowledge of the basic needs of targeted wildlife and livestock
species in concert with knowledge of habitat attributes provides a
basic foundation for implementing sound livestock-wildlife grazing
management tactics.
Cont…
Constraints to integration are;
Diseases
HWC
Competition
Revision
Ol Pajeta ranch has 200 yearling heifers of (0.75 A.U.E.) that are
to be sustained for one month in the ranch. Assume: 1.O AU
requires 9.0 Kg of forage per day. How much total forage (in kg)
do they require for the heifers during that month? (15 Marks)
Total AU=(200*0.75)
=150 AU
Forage required per day by the total 150 AU=
=(150*9)=
=1350kgs
For a 30 days month
=forage required
=(1350*30)
=40,500kgs
OR
AU require 9.0kg
0.75 AUE for yearling heifers
Yearling heifers will require= (0.75*9)/1

=6.75kg of forage per day
For one month, will be (30*6.75) =202.5kg per animal

For 200 yearlings total forage will be (202.5*200) =
=40,500Kgs
Calculate the number of 450 Kg cows that can be sustained on a
1200 hectare rangeland, whose annual forage production is
estimated at 1400 kg/ha. Assume daily forage intake is 2.5% of
the animal's live body weight and the allowable (grazeable) forage
is 50% of current year's production. (15 marks)
Total forage production= (1200*1400) =1,680,000kg

Available forage for utilization= (0.5*1,680,000 =840,000kg
Forage demand per animal/cow= (0.025*450) =11.25kg per day
For one year, the animal will require (365*11.25) =4106.25kg
Total years production available for use is 840,000kg
Total number of animals that can be sustained for one year=
840,000/4106.25
=204.5 cows
=205 animals.
Challenges to RM in Africa
Cc
Inadequate resources-forage, water
Population increase
Succession/retrogression/ invasion/vegetion changes
Lack of knowledge by local communities
Unequal distribution of resources
Poor government policies
Diseases/plant and animal
Limited vet support services
Poor soil management/erosion
Inadequate technological advancements
Cont…
Overexploitations of resources/extinctions
Inappropriate LU/cultivation
Encroachment by humans/ settlements
Land tenure/not streamlined
Globalization/prices/markets
Animal numbers/balance with resources
Calamities/wild fires
Inadequate research programmes
Poaching/unsustainable harvest
Low investment in RM/funds
Lack scientific knowledge
Cont…
Topography/landscape
Infrastructure
Insecurity
Use of chemical/
Inhabitants attitude/ig
Corruption/
Uncoordinated devpt interventions
Class Presentation
HOLISTIC
GRAZING
MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Holistic management is a framework for decision-
making and a planning tool applied primarily to
grazing systems to achieve sustainable
environmental, economic and social benefits
These benefits can be achieved by maximizing the
management of current resources.
Holistic grazing builds on the concept of
rotational grazing
Principles of holistic management
1. Nature functions in whole
Acknowledge the Interrelationship between people, animals and
land
If one keystone is removed from the ecosystem e.g. large
grazing herds, negative impacts on environment can be realized.
2. Understand the environment you manage
Environments are different and the conditions changes from
time to time, therefore be flexible to adapt to nature’s
complexity
3. Livestock can improve land health
Livestock can be a beneficial tool for land health if timing is
managed and controlled well
4. Time is more important than numbers
How long you graze you animals and how long you rest
the land is crucial, know when to use and rest.
5. Define what you are managing
Have a plan and consider the available resources.
6. State what you want now and for the future
Establish your goals, objectives and actions.
7. Bare ground is public enemy number one
Watch the earliest indicators of ecosystem health, bare
ground indicates whether or not your land management
practices are improving the health of the land.
8. Play with full deck
Use all the tools available to solve problems and
enhance their operations e.g technology, rest, fire
9. Test your decision
Are your decisions economically, environmentally, or
socially sound?
10. Monitor for results
Monitor proactively before your managed system
becomes more imbalanced, monitor for the earliest
signs of failure, adjust and re-plan
Benefits
Enhanced profits and livelihoods
More productive rangeland or cropland
More biologically active soils
Removal of existing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere
Less new carbon dioxide production
Reduced costs
Increased carrying capacity
Maximum benefit from rainfall
Reversal of desertification
Protection from drought
Improved wildlife habitat
Better food security
Improved economic viability for organics
production
Clean water
Healthier environment
Stronger family relationships
IMPACTS
• Grazing is a complex process that involves

harvesting of the vegetative parts of the plants,
trampling, excretion of dung, urination, hoof
action of the animals
• All these have positive impact on the pasture
and soil (if practiced at the right time)
• HGM combines short duration, high
intensity grazing with ample recovery
time to produce healthy range, improved
ground water recharge, and healthy
plants/pasture
POSITIVE
Reduce quantity of dead material on the soil surface
Dung is a source of fertilizer
Enhance nutrient cycling
Enhance pasture seed germination through scarification
Hoof action breaks soil crust enhancing water infiltration
Opens up pasture -this harbors fewer pests
Help in seed dispersal thus maintaining pasture diversity
Negative
It needs some training. This has to involve initial training and some
form of continuity training for field diagnosis, control and
monitoring.
It requires management. It is a disadvantage for those who have
been able to enjoy releasing cattle into a vast area of land and
going back six months later to gather them.
It may (and often does) lead to a reduced individual animal
performance on high performance herds during the initial learning
period.
Application
Holistic management can be applied in other
sectors such as;
Integrated water resources management
Mine reclamation
Conservation agriculture
Critique of HGM
The majority of range scientists have not been able to
experimentally confirm that intensive grazing systems similar
to those at the center of holistic management show a benefit,
and claim that managers' reports of success are subjective.
Many of the ideas currently associated with Savory were
neither new nor original when they were launched. These
ideas had been proposed already in the 1920s only that Savory
packaged them in a new way and launched the concept of
‘holistic management’, also called ‘holistic resource
management’.
There is definitely not enough evidence to support
broad generalizations concerning the performance of
holistic grazing in different conditions.
It is not clear what causes the positive outcomes in
holistic grazing; nutrient input to depleted soils, high
stocking densities over short periods of time, the
adaptive management, the commitment and
expectations of ranchers, or other factors.
Case study: Forest Armke and sons Ranch
Practices holistic grazing, shifted from the conventional grazing
which they had lots of challenges.
Have had a lot of benefits;
Calves weight increased from 350 to 700 pounds.
Range land healthier.
New plants growth that was ;last seen in 1930s
Water stocks not full since more moisture held in soil close to roots;
hence no run off
Able to withstand shocks of drought; when neighboring farmers
sold every herd they had, supplemented heavily with hay or moved
the entire herd out, Forest ranch was able to produce enough forage
to keep half the herd on the ranch.
Tremendous growth in wildlife on the ranch.
The hoof action and manure from the cattle help to restore the land
for wildlife.
When the cattle are rotated out, they leave nesting grounds and
habitat for doves, quail, and white tail deer, among other species.
Holistic grazing has increased beneficial bugs; with dung beetles
making quick work of cow patties – driving the nutrients into the
soil
CONCLUSION
HGM requires a large piece of pasture
land to allow ample rest periods for
grazed pastures.
It also requires distinct wet and dry
season hence not practicable in humid
areas.
Despite the few short comings of HGM it
is still a worth while practice.

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ARM 301 - PRINCIPLES OF RANGE

DR. Koech Oscar

• students must be punctual to class. Interruptions after lecture has started

all students who used the above text books knew

“the practical application of a science dealing with the vegetation that is

“manipulation of rangeland components to obtain the optimum combination

The following aspects are notable:

1. The concept of optimization of mixtures of goods/services rather

2. Multi-disciplinary approach to management of rangelands has also

3. Multiple use -- the use of rangelands to produce several

• As has been shown, RLs have been described in many ways

I. uncultivated lands dominated by native plants - grasses, herbaceous broad –l eaved

Like animals or human beings, plant growth requirements

If ‘mother nature’ is allowed to exert ‘her’ influence freely, optimum

Fire is a natural force in nearly all rangeland ecosystems.

Smith (1899) provided a description of the problems that unrestricted grazing

34 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

Hotspots for biodiversity, and are important carbon sinks.

They are critical to supporting human economies, livelihoods

35 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

Support 70% of the national livestock herd and 90% of the

Approximately 80–90% of red meat consumed in Kenya is

36 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

37 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

Calls presently for Declaration of droughts as national disaster by the

At least 2.1 million people are severely food insecure in 2021/2022

38 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

• What is the Value of Dry Rangelands and Livestock

• Everybody benefits from animals, including vegetarians!

40 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

41 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

42 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

43 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

45 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

46 Dr. Oscar Koech: Email: oscarkip@uonbi.ac.ke

•Substantial portions of all major continents

Europe & Asia 27 7 34

• A provincial jurisdiction, administration and policy regarding

• Like many Commonwealth countries, public tenures on crown

• Reconciling the economic needs of ranchers and the need for

• 53 of Australia's 85 bioregions have rangelands.

• Australian Rangelands support most of their economy.

Many scientists consider rapid increase in human population as the most

“Doubling time” is calculated by dividing the number 70 by the growth rate .

Germany's zero growth rate includes a natural increase of -0.2%, without

1. Birth rates remain high in under/developing countries -South America, Central

5. The above trends in pop.growth will have considerable influence on how

6. And,although emphasis may shift among RL products,the rapid

In parts ofWestern USA,TX in particular, income generated from sale of hunting

Game ranching Is picking up in all ASAL.

• However, at high elevations, water may be the principal contribution of

Outdoor recreational pursuits are becoming increasingly

• Curiosity is one of the permanent and certain

• No one can make you feel inferior without your

The prairie (especially the shortgrass and mixed prairie) is an example of a

It may be semi-desert, or covered with grass or shrubs or both, depending

In theThornthwaite climate classification system, deserts would be classified

IT IS FOCUSING THE FULL POWER OF ALL

ARM 301: 2012/2013

The plants respond to the environment and treatments conferred

ARM 301: 2012/2013

ARM 301: 2012/2013

ARM 301: 2012/2013