ECOLOGY

• Ecology is the study of the interactions of living organisms with their

environment. One core goal of ecology is to understand the distribution and
abundance of living things in the physical environment. Attainment of this goal
requires the integration of scientific disciplines inside and outside of biology,
such as biochemistry, physiology, evolution, biodiversity, molecular biology,
geology, and climatology. Some ecological research also applies aspects of
chemistry and physics, and it frequently uses mathematical models.
• Ecosystem Ecology
• Ecosystem ecology is an extension of organismal, population, and community
ecology. The ecosystem is composed of all the biotic components (living things)
in an area along with the abiotic components (non-living things) of that area.
Some of the abiotic components include air, water, and soil. Ecosystem biologists
ask questions about how nutrients and energy are stored and how they move
among organisms and the surrounding atmosphere, soil, and water.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a group or community composed of living and non-
living things and their interactions with each other. They can be natural
as well as artificial. Every ecosystem has two components, namely,
biotic components and abiotic components.
Biotic components refer to all living organisms in an ecology while
abiotically refers to the non-living things. These biotic and abiotic
interactions maintain the equilibrium in the environment.
• What is the ecosystem?
• The ecosystem is the community of living organisms in conjunction with non-
living components of their environment, interacting as a system.
• What are the different types of ecosystems?
• The different types of the ecosystem include:
1. Terrestrial ecosystem- a land-based community of organisms and the
interactions of biotic and abiotic components in a given area. Examples of
terrestrial ecosystems include the tundra, taigas, temperate deciduous
forests, tropical rainforests, grasslands, and deserts.
2. Forest ecosystem
3.Grassland ecosystem
4.Desert ecosystem
5.Tundra ecosystem
6.Freshwater ecosystem
7. Marine ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
An ecosystem refers to a functional unit of nature in which living organisms interact among themselves as well as with the surrounding
physical environment. Ecologists look at the entire biosphere as a global ecosystem. Besides, the forest ecosystem is a part of the terrestrial
ecosystem.
It, however, may vary largely in size i.e. from a small pond to a sea or a large forest. Usually, these are self-sustaining. We can divide the
ecosystems into two broad categories, namely, terrestrial ecosystem and aquatic ecosystem.
The terrestrial ecosystem includes desert, grassland and forest ecosystem, whereas pond, lake, wetland and river ecosystem are parts of the
aquatic ecosystem.

What is Forest Ecosystem?

A forest ecosystem is a functional unit or a system which comprises of soil, trees, insects, animals, birds, and man as its interacting units. A
forest is a large and complex ecosystem and hence has greater species diversity.
Also, it is much more stable and resistant to the detrimental changes as compared to the small ecosystems such as wetlands and grasslands.
A forest ecosystem, similar to any other ecosystem, also comprises of abiotic and biotic components. Abiotic components refer to inorganic
materials like air, water, and soil. Biotic components include producers, consumers, and decomposers.
These components interact with each other in an ecosystem and thus, this interaction among them makes it self-sustainable.
Structural Features of the Forest Ecosystem
The two main structural features of a forest ecosystem are:
1.Species composition: It refers to the identification and enumeration of the plant and animal species of a forest ecosystem.
2.Stratification: It refers to the vertical distribution of different species which occupy different levels in the forest ecosystem. Every
organism occupies a place in an ecosystem on the basis of source of nutrition. For example, in a forest ecosystem, trees occupy the top level,
shrubs occupy the second and the herbs and grasses occupy the bottom level.
gaseous and sedimentary.
For Gaseous cycle (i.e. nitrogen, carbon), atmosphere or hydrosphere is the reservoir whereas for the sedimentary cycle (i.e. phosphorus)
Earth’s crust is the reservoir.
2. Grassland Ecosystem is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other
herbaceous (non-woody) plants. It is also called transitional landscape because grassland
ecosystems are dominated by the grass with few or no trees in the area where there is not
enough for a forest and too much of a forest.
• Grassland Ecosystem: Grasslands are the areas that are dominated by a nearly continuous
cover of grasses. It is one of the most widespread of all major vegetation in the world. They
occupy about 20% of the land on the surface of the earth. Grasslands are found in both
tropical and temperate regions where rainfall is not enough to support the growth of trees.
They are also found in areas consisting of well-defined hot, dry, warm, and rainy seasons. 
• These are known by different names in different regions of the world like steppes in Europe
and Asia, pampas in South America, Veldt in South Africa, and Downs in Australia.
Grassland is found where rainfall is about 15-75 cm per year not enough to support a
forest, but more than that of a true desert. Typical grasslands are vegetation formations
that are generally found in temperate climates.
• What is Grassland Ecosystem?
• Grassland Ecosystem is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and
other herbaceous (non-woody) plants. It is also called transitional landscape
because grassland ecosystems are dominated by the grass with few or no trees in
the area where there is not enough for a forest and too much of a forest.
• Components of Grassland Ecosystem
• The components of the Grassland Ecosystem are discussed below:
• 1. Abiotic Components: These are non-living thing components consist of carbon,
hydrogen, sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorous etc.
• 2. Biotic Components: These are living components and their sub-components
are discussed below
I) Producers: The primary producers of food are the grasses such as Aristida, Cynodon, Digitaria,
Desmodium, Setaria etc. If herbs and shrubs are present, they also contribute to the primary
production of food.
II) Consumers: The consumers in a grassland ecosystem are of three levels.
(a) Primary consumers: These feed directly from the grasses (grazing) and include herbivores such as Cows,
Buffaloes, Goats, Rabbits, Mouse etc. and also insects, termites, centipede, millipedes etc.
(b) Secondary consumers: These consumers are the carnivorous animals such as snakes, lizard, jackal, foxes, frogs
etc. which feed on the primary consumers.
(c) Tertiary consumers: Hawk, Eagles and vultures constitute the tertiary consumer in the grassland ecosystem
which preys upon the secondary and primary consumer.
(III) Decomposers: The organic matter of the grassland is decomposed by the microbes like actinomycetes, fungi
(Mucor, Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Penicillium, and Cladosporium), aerobic and anaerobic soil bacteria etc. They release
the minerals back into the soil thus making the soil fertile.
• DESERT ECOSYSTEM
• Deserts are barren areas of land characterised by extremely high or low temperatures, with low rainfall and scarce or no vegetation.
• Deserts are examples of terrestrial ecosystems, which are found throughout the world. Neither all deserts are flat, nor do all deserts have cacti or
oases. These are regions with a short rainy season. It is scorching in the daytime, and very cold at night in the desert.
• Types of deserts
• Deserts are arid regions with especially low or high temperatures and limited vegetation. Based on the climate condition, deserts are classified into
two types – hot deserts or cold deserts.
• 1. The hot and dry desert – Sahara
• The Sahara is known as the world’s largest desert, covering over 8.54 million square kilometres. It is the largest, and the hottest desert in the world.
• Sahara desert is located in the tropical regions, which is 1,000 m above sea level. It covers a huge part of North Africa, and eleven other countries –
Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Mali, Chad, Niger, Western Sahara, Sudan, Mauritania, Libya and Morocco.
• The total area actually measures about 8,600,000 square kilometres, which is 4,800 km approximately from east to west, and between 800 and
1,200 km from north to south.
• The climate in this region is extremely hot, sizzling, dry, and often receives small quantities of precipitation throughout the year.
• In this hot desert, the days are scorching. During the day, temperatures will rise as high as 45° C to 50° C, heating the bare rocks and the sand. The
nights can be extremely cold, with temperatures going below 0° C, sometimes.
• 2. The cold and dry desert – Ladakh
• Ladakh is famously known as the cold desert of India. It is found in the high altitudes of the temperate regions, which lie in the Great Himalayas
within the eastern parts of Jammu and Kashmir and located in the western Himalayas region, within Himachal Pradesh in North India.
• The altitude in Ladakh ranges from about 3,000 m in Kargil to 8,000 m in the Karakoram. Due to its high altitude, the climate remains extremely
cold and dry. The day temperatures in summer are just above 0° C and the night temperatures go below –30° C.
• The Gangri glacier along with several other glaciers are found here, along with different rivers flowing through Ladakh. Among the rivers, Indus is
the most important river that flows through Ladakh.
• In Ladakh, there are very few, tiny patches of grasses and shrubs for animals to graze on. Many poplars, groves of willows and shrubs of the genus
Salix are seen in the valleys.
• Because of the extreme dryness and freezing cold in Ladakh, the
vegetation is sparse. During the summer season, beans, turnips,
potatoes, peas are sometimes cultivated. Fruit trees such as apricots,
apples, and walnuts bloom in cold deserts.
• Camels, foxes, jackals, owls, hyenas, wild goats and sheep, vultures,
scorpions, ostriches, yaks, hawks, and desert reptiles including
varieties of snakes and lizards, are the prominent animal species
(fauna) of this terrestrial ecosystem.
• Components of Ecosystem
• Biotic components are the living things that have a direct or indirect influence
on other organisms in an environment. For example plants, animals, and
microorganisms and their waste materials.
• Abiotic components of an ecosystem include all chemical and physical elements
i.e. non-living components. Abiotic components can vary from region to region,
from one ecosystem to another. They mainly take up the role of life supporter.
They determine and restrict the population growth, number, and diversity of
biotic factors in an ecosystem. Hence, they are called limiting factors.
• A terrestrial ecosystem consists of abiotic factors like climate, type of soil or
rock, altitude, temperature, nutrients, and minerals, whereas abiotic
components in an aquatic ecosystem include dissolved gases, depth of water,
salinity, pH of water, light intensity etc.
• The significance of Biotic and Abiotic Components
• Biotic components can be classified into three categories:
• Producers: These include all the autotrophs. They use light energy and synthesize food on their own,
e.g. plants, green algae, etc.
• Consumers: These include all the heterotrophs that directly or indirectly depend on producers for their
food. Consumers are further categorized as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and parasites.
• Decomposers: These include saprophytes which act on dead matter and decay them for their nutrition.
• The relevance of biotic and abiotic components in an environment appears when they start interacting
with each other. For example, biotic elements like plants provide food for other organisms. The soil is
the abiotic element which supports the growth of the plants by providing nutrients and other essential
elements. Biotic components depend on abiotic components for their survival and help in the formation
of abiotic factors like soil, nutrients, etc.
• Food Chains and Webs
• A food chain is a chain which shows how organisms are linked to each other through food. A food web
shows how two food chains are connected. A single food web consists of many food chains. Every food
chain begins with producers and ends with top carnivores.
 Food Chains and Webs
A food chain is a chain which shows how organisms are linked to each other through food. A food web shows how two food chains are connected. A single food web
consists of many food chains. Every food chain begins with producers and ends with top carnivores.

The energy flow from one level to another level in a food chain gives the trophic level of an ecosystem. The
producers come at first trophic level followed by herbivores (primary consumers), then small carnivores
(secondary consumers) and large carnivores (tertiary consumers) occupy the fourth trophic level.
• Ecology is the study of the interactions of living things with their
environment. Ecologists ask questions across four levels of biological
organization—organismal, population, community, and ecosystem. At
the organismal level, ecologists study individual organisms and how
they interact with their environments. At the population and
community levels, ecologists explore, respectively, how a population
of organisms changes over time and the ways in which that
population interacts with other species in the community. Ecologists
studying an ecosystem examine the living species (the biotic
components) of the ecosystem as well as the nonliving portions (the
abiotic components), such as air, water, and soil, of the environment.
 Ecological Communities: Networks of Interacting
Species
• We wish to learn:
• What is an ecological community and what kinds of interactions take place within it?
• How important are the various categories of species interactions, including mutualisms, commensalisms, competition and predation?
• What kinds of interactions among species become important when many species affect one another?
• What consequences do these interactions have for biodiversity
• Species Interactions, Food Webs, and Ecological Communities
• An ecological community is defined as a group of actually or potentially interacting species living in the same place. A community is bound
together by the network of influences that species have on one another. Inherent in this view is the notion that whatever affects one
species also affects many others -- the "balance of nature". We build an understanding of communities by examining the two-way,
and then the multi-way, interactions involving pairs of species or many species. 

type of interaction sign effects

both species benefit from
mutualism +/+   interaction
one species benefits, one
commensalism +/0
unaffected
each species affected
competition  -/-
negatively
predation, parasitism, one species benefits, one is
+/-
herbivory disadvantaged
Generalized food web. A food web is an assemblage of organisms,
including producers, consumers and decomposers, through which energy
and materials may move in a community
• We can look at this food web in two ways. It can be a diagram of the flow of energy (carbon)
from plants to herbivores to carnivores, and so on. We will take this approach when we
examine energy flow in ecosystems. In addition, members of a food web may interact with
one another via any of the four interaction types named above. An interaction between two
species in one part of the web can affect species some distance away, depending on the
strength and sign of the inter-connections. Often, adding a species (as when an exotic species
invades a new area) or removing a species (as in a local extinction) has surprisingly far-
reaching effects on many other species. This is due to the complex inter-connections of
species in ecological webs.
• Ecologists use the following terms to describe various categories of the effects of a change (in
abundance, or presence vs absence) of one species on another. 
• Direct effects refer to the impact of the presence (or change in abundance) of species A on
species B in a two-species interaction.
• Indirect effects refer to the impact of the presence (or change in abundance) of species A on
species C via an intermediary species (A --> B --> C).
• Cascading effects are those which extend across three or more trophic levels, and can be top-
down (predator --> herbivore --> plant) or bottom-up (plant --> herbivore --> predator).
• Keystone species are those which produce strong indirect effects.
• Food webs are graphical depictions of the interconnections among
species based on energy flow . Energy enters this biological web of life
at the bottom of the diagram, through the 
photosynthetic fixation of carbon by green plants.  Many food webs
also gain energy inputs through the decomposition of organic matter,
such as decomposing leaves on the forest floor, aided by microbes.  
River food webs in forested headwater streams are good examples of
this. 
• Energy moves from lower to higher trophic (feeding) levels by
consumption:  herbivores consumes plants, predators consume
herbivores, and may in turn be eaten by top predators.  Some species
feed at more than one tropic level, hence are termed omnivores. 
Figure 1 provides a simplified model of such a food web.
 
1.How many components of ecosystem are present?
A. One B. two C. Three D. Four
2. What depicts the connection of two food chains?
B. Food Chain B. Food Web C. Ecosystem B. Tropic levels
3. What is the initial component of every food chain?
C. Consumers B. Producers C. Abiotic Components D. Biotic Components
4. Which type of consumers are called producers?
D. Primary B. Secondary C. Tertiary D. Quartenary
5. Who are called autotrophs?
E. Producers B. Consumers C. Decomposers D. Tropic levels
6-10 Draw a Food Chain and Web