UNIT 12 DEVELOPING-

STUDY SKILLS
Structure

12.0 0 bjectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 What are Study Skills?
12.3 Gathering Skills
12.3,l Reference Sltills
12.3,2 Skimming and Scanning
12.4 StosageSkills
12.4.1 Note taking
12.4.2 Note making
12.5 Retrieval Skills- Summarizing
12.6 Let Us Sum U p
12.7 Key Words
12.8 Suggested Readings
Answers

12.0 OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this unit are:

(i) to understand what we mean by study skills

(ii) to stress the i~npoitanceof including study skills in the cusriculum
(iii) to enable learners to take charge of their learning experience
(iv) to learn how to gather, store and retrieve infor~nationthrough a variety of
tasks.

12.1 INTRODUCTION

As teachers we teach our st~~dents English, l-iistory, Geogl-apliy and a ~ i u ~ n bof

e rother
subjects. We also believe in making them self-reliant, we want them to fix goals for
themselves, we also want them to achieve the targets they set for tl~emselves.But
so~neliowwe never -or Iiardly ever- try to give tlie~ntlie tecliniques that will make it
easy for thetn to study more efficiently in order to perform better. It is not enough to
tell our students tliat they should work l~arderand sti~dymore. It is imperative tliat we
develop study skills in our learners so that they can retlect on their sti~dyhabits, their
study attitudes, study techniques and train in various ways which will facilitate their
learning process and enhance their efficiency i n preparing for short-term goals such
as locating information, writing an assignment, reading a difficult book or cliapter, as
well as long tenn goals such as handling their academic or professional life
efficiently.

Study skills are, as the name suggests, tile skills, which we need for studying
successfi~lly.Tliey are the ways of thinking and behaving that you need in order to
learn any academic subject effectively (Waters and Waters: 1995). Just as we
understand the need to practise lahguage sl<ills of listening, speaking,. reading and
writing in tlie Englisli curric~~lum,the same way we need to emphasise the need for
our learners to be trained in study skills in English which are not only ilsef~rlin doing
better in English but also being better equipped for studying other subjects.
To tilake our sti~dentsaware of study skills. it may be a good idea to give them an Dcvclaping S t ~ ~ i Slrills
ly
inventory of itenis to check out for themselves. As they go thro~iglithe list, they will
understand better about their own study habits.

Task 1
(Meant for your students)
Consider each statement below and indicate liow it applies to you:

1. 1 don't know how to locate a book in the library.

2. I don't know how to find relevant material in a book.
3. I rarely change my speed in reading different types of texts.
4. 1 o.ften get lost in the details and can't identify the main ideas in a text.
5. 1 often have probletns finding the right words while writing.
6. 1 am not always sure whether I clioose the right preposition after a word.
7. I usually get the wrong material in my class notes.
8. I have problems in organizing my notes.
9. I don't revise my class notes.
10. 1 need to improve my writing skills, especially the sirm~narizingskill.

once the learners have gone through this exercise, we can tell them that all these
problems can be sorted out with some training in s t ~ ~ skills.
dy

Check Your Progress 1 -

1. The statements in Task 1 refer to a nu~nberof study sl(il1s. Can you tell which
skills are implied and in which statements?

2. What other skills can you tliink of?

3, Do you think language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing are
adequate ,forstudy purposes?

12.2 WHAT ARE STUDY SKILLS?

As we have said in 12.1, study skills help the learners to 'study'; and the process of
study involves four operations: perception, comprehension, retention and retrieval
(Saraswati: 1997). By perception we mean the ability of the learners to see what is
relevant for their needs and selection of those areas, which are relevant. Perception
and selection of relevant material has to be followed by comprehension.
Comprehension, as we know, involves listeninglreading and understanding. What we
do not understand, we do not learn. Yet comprehension alone is not adequate if we do
not know how to retain the infonnation/knowledge in our mind. Hence it is important
to be able to store information for future use. There are different ways in which we do
this. Our learners can be trained in developing ways of retention, After retention
comes retrieval of information. The information that has been stored sliould be
Tcuc/ling Rending accessible to the learner on demand. We need these retrieval sltills for eve~ydaytasks
Contprrlrrrrsioi~. of production and in tlie examination sitilation in an even more rigorous sense.

In the literature on study sltills, we refer to tliree major types of study skills
corresponding to the four operations in the process of sti~dy(Saraswati: 1997). These
are:

(a) Gathering sltills, ~fhicl?

incIude perception and compreliension
(b) Storing skills, which incl~~deretention in memory
(c) Retrieval skills, which incli~derecall for use.

- -

12.3 GATHERING SKILLS

These skills enable learners to identify and locate relevant inforinarion. These skills
include reference sltills and sub-sliills of reading, viz. scanning and skimming.
Together they equip the learner with Clle tools to find sources of information.
Reference skills can be further subdivided according to tlie material to be consulted
into tlie following:
(i) use of dictionary, thesauri~s,etc
(ii) use of library

Use of dictionary, thesaurus, etc

As we Itnow, a very important source of information in the ESL (English as a second

language) tcacI~ing/learningsituation is tlte dictionary. Most of our learners use a
bilingual dictionary and consult the dictioniry when they encounter a problem with
the meaning of a word. The use of a dictionary just to check the meaning is a valid
use but also only one of the many uses a dictionary can be put: to. A good
~nonolingi~al dictionary of English for lea~.nersis the most invali~ablesource of
information regarding the knowledge of a word, which involves pronnnciation,
spelling, meaning (core meaning and extended meanings), grammar, collocations,
idiomatic expressions, associations, etc. (Refer to the u~iit on 'Developing
Vocab~~lary Skills').

It is colnlnon experience that in our tehcliing situation, the tliclionary remains an

under-utilized source of information, if it is used at all. Every dictionary colnes with a
section at the beginning telling us how to use it wit11 detailed annotated examples.
However, these introductory sections often remain i~nread. Yet it is alrnost
peremptory tliat learners know that an entry for a word is made up of several parts.
Different sy~nbolsand typefaces indicate key features of the word-its pronunciation,
for example and how to spell its various forms-as well as its definitions and
gl-a~n~naticalinformation. Here is an ently from the Lo~ig~nanActive Stttdy
Dictio~iaryof English for accessihle:

accessible / L7k'scs;bOllaq'j easy to get or get into, to, or at: The isl~mdi s ~ccessiblu
only by boat. -opposite ~~,nccessible-nccessrb~l~ty/ tlnDli'sc'sdbi:l/ n [U]

The headword is accessible, the space within the two slanting lines tells 11sabout the
pronunciation, for which phonetic symbols are used. (As teachers we lnust acquaint
our learners with the syrnbols and the sounds they stand for.) After tlie pronunciation
colnes the information about the word class (i.e. the part of speech) it belongs to. 'The
abbreviation a 4 tells us that accessible is an adjective. This is followed by the
meaning after which is given an exarnple illustrating the use of the word in a
particular context. Then we get the opposite of the word. Last of all another word
accessibilily is mentioned, which is a derivative from accessible. We are given
information about its word class, i.e. 11 (ow) and are tolcl that it is an ~~ncountable Developing Study Sitills
noun, indicated by U in square brackets. The meaning is not repeated. The font size
for inaccessible and ucuessibililj~is smaller than the one used for the headword
accessible.

We give below a few tasks through which learners can be taught how to exploit rlle
fill! potential of a dictionary. (We are i~singtlie Longlnan Active Sti~dyDictionary of
Engl is11 for tile tasks.)

Task 1 Alphabetical ordering

The words are given in tlie dictionary in simple alphabetical order. You should be
able to decide which word comes after or before another word.

Find the word in each column, which is not in alpliabetical order. P L Iit~ in its correct
place.

behalf sector
bellyful secondly
believe ~ secret
behave second nature
belly button Santa Claus

Task 2 Spelling and Pronunciation

The dictionary gives the spelling and pronunciation of the words. The pronunciation
is given in phonetic script. You sliould make yourself familiar with the phonetic
sylnbols and tlie soul~dsthey represent.

(i) In two of the following wo~*cls

ie Ins been wrongly used in place of ci. Use a
dictionary to find them:

believe recieve retrieve percieve grieve

(ii) Use a dictionary to find the silent letters in tlie words given below, i.e. the
letters whicll are not pronounced. For example, the letter b is not pronounced
in 'climb'.

coin b island kn i fe palm psycl~ology

Task 3 Word class labels

The dictionary mentions tlie word class for every ent~y,wl~ichtells us wlietlier a word
is an adjective, a verb or a preposition.

Consi~lta dictionary lo see which word class the following words belong to (some of
the words !nay belong to more than one word class):

mind chair please in vegetable ga Ine

Task 4 Grammars

The dictionary gives LIS the infor~i~ation whether a particular noun is countable or
uncountable. It tells 11swhether a verb is used with or without an object, or whether
an adjective is or is not followed by a noun and many other kinds of information
about the grammar of a word.
 (i) Use a dictionary to find out which of the following wol-ds are used in
or both (if in plural, then also l'ind the spellings and the
singular, in pl~~ral
pronunciation):

11 house ~nillc news progress in-laws

(ii) Look up the following verbs in a dictionary and say whether they are used
with an object, without an object or in either \Yay:

bring cross fill keep rernai n

Task 5 Meaning

The dictionary tnay give more that1 one meaning for an entry. Wlien consulting a
dictionary, you sliould be able to find tlie right meaning for the word used in a text.

Look at the entry for tl~eword 'flee' taken fi-om tlie Longman Active Stirdy
Dictionary of English, which has three different meanings. Below are also given three
citations in wliich 'free' is used in different senses. Matcli the senses wit11 the
citations.

Free / fri: / adj 1 able to act as you wish, and riot limited or controlled
2 not a prisoner
3 costing nothing

Citations: I all political prisoners will be set free next week.

2 I've got a couple of free tickets for toniglit's concert.
3 People are demanding the right to free speech and a free
press.

Task 6 Collocations and itlioms

The dictionary gives us information about the way certain words collocate with
certain other words; the dictionary also rnakes available to us idiorns (i.e.
co~nbinationsof words with a fixed meaning in \vllich tlie meaning is not deducible
froin the cotiibination of tlie given words).

(i) Matcli the words or phrases in Coluti~nA with a word or phrase from
Column B.

1 . a series a purpose
2. to exert pain
3. a pr9actical irnprovelnent
4. a slight of events
5. to inflict pressitre
6. to serve suggestion

(ii) Read the following sentences and spot tlie idioms nsed in them. Make a yiless
at tlie key word and look LIPthe idiorn in a dictiona~y.

I. 'The islancl has been a bone of contention between the two countries for many
years.
2. Tlie little girl is the apple o f lier father's eye.
3. The Inan woi~ldIiit tlie roof at the slightest provocation.
4. Tlie boy keeps ~rirbbingthe teacher the wrong way.
5. You've had a hectic time, now it's time to let your hair down.
Using a thesaurus

The word thesaurus means 'a treasure-Iioi~se'in Latin. And it is indeed a treasure
house of words for a writer. But it needs careful handling.

The basic point to keep in mind is that a thesai~~*us is not a si~bstiti~te

for a dictionary.
It is a word-finder. It is a handy tool to lielp recall a word that has slipped the n~indor
it gives us inany alternative ways of writing when we want to express ourselves Inore
elegantly and effectively. But we have to remember that a tliesaurus does not tell us
how to use a particular word or expression. For that we need a dictionary.

So far the best-known and ~ ~ s etliesa~~rus

d is Roget's T h e s a ~ ~ r i which
~s, is not
organized in an alphabetical order; rather tlie entries have been organized i~singa
scheme of universal concepts. Slippose a user was trying to recall a word sucli as
'inarticulate'. They would have to go to tlie section headed. 'intellect', then tlle
subsection 'Means of Comn~unicatingIdeas'. and so on down until they reacllecl the
group of words containing the word.

The Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English is another attempt in this tradition.

The organization is based on foul-teen semantic fields covering topics of everyday
nature, for example, 'Life and Living Things', 'People and Family Life' and so on
and so forth. It is a better reference tool for the learner of English for it provides
detailed definitions and citations in tlie entries. In this way the Longma11 Lexicon also
combines some of the features of a learner's dictionary. However, it is not
exhaustive, containing only about 15000 entries.

Use of library

When using a library, learners slioirld know how to use the catalogue to locate tlle
book they are looking for. In modern times, catalogues are computetized - I~ence
some knowledge of co~npi~ters is essential. After they Itnow how to locate tlie
material, they should learn how to refer to the ~naterial.Every book that they think is
relevant may not be really usef~11.Many times they have to make clioices; they have
to select not only relevant books but also relevant chapters of books and relevant
articles for purposes of study. It is not possible to go througll every book, every
chapter, and every article in depth before they decide whether it contains irsef~il
information or not. So the learners 1iave to know the techniques to make a quick
survey and try to make a guess if the material is relevant to their specific need. 'l'his
requires training in s~1rveyi11g
skills. Some of the ql~estionswe can make our students
ask tliemselves are:

Is the material relevant to the subject I am interested in?

Which parts are relevant?
Is it a recent publication or an old one?
If an old one, is it a reprint?
e Is it by a known author?
What is the level at which it is pitched?
What are tlie comments about it?

Parts of the book that may help you answer your questions are (as given in Wallace:
1988):

I the publisher's blt~rb(i.e. the publisher's description of what the book is

about- L L S L I ~ I I to
~ be found on the book-jacket).
2 reviewer's com~nents(often also found quoted on the book-jacket : but
remember only the good reviews will be quoted!)
3 Theforeword or preface.
4 The contents page.
5 The index.
Tenclrii~gRending 6 The pri~ltinghistoly (i.e. when the book was first published, reprinted, new
Conlpreherrsio~r edition issued- usually printed on one of the early pages).

Other parts wor-tli looking at while surveying a book are the title and the sub-title, if
any, which help us anticipate the main theme of tlie text, the first cliapter, wliiclz
contains the introduction, and the last chapter in which tlie author generally
s~~~nrnarizes
Iiislher arguments and presents his/lier conclusion.

When reading a chapter or an article or a large passage, we lnust survey it by looking

at the title which often hints at the main idea either directly or indirectly, and by
reading tlie first sentence in each paragraph, which often contains the main idea to be
developed in greater detail in subsequent sentences. Sometimes the first and tlie last
paragraph of a chapter may also help you get at the main drift of the chapter.

12.3.2 Skimming and Sca~ining

The reference skills Iiave to be complemented by training in skimming and scanning-
the bvo sub-skills of reading, which require a different reading style and speed,
dictated by one's purpose in reading, Let us again understand what we mean by
skirnrningand scanning.

Sltimming involves searching for the main ideas of a text by reading the first and last
paragraphs or by looking for the topic sentences in each paragraph, noting other
organizational clues such as semantic markers or summaries used by the autlio~.
Skimming does not require reading each and every word of the text, because the
purpose of the reading is looking for the main drift of the text.

Scanning involves rapidly glancing down the page looking for specific facts or key
plirases and phrases.

Every text has an organizational framework and it is important to see how different
parts of a text hang together. We can say that every text is based on a ground plan,
which looks rougl~lylike this:

Introduction- a general statement

The main idea- a hypothesis or a thesis statement
Elaboration and develop~nent- details, definitions, illustrations, comparisons,
and contrasts
Conclusion- restating the thesis, finalizing discussion

All the parts are linked together through linking devices, through repetition of key
words and phrases, through semantic signals.

When reading a text, untrained learners are apt to get bogged down in detail and not
be able to get to tlie main ideas. They are not able to follow the organizational clues
and tend to plod through the text word for word, trying to cram it all in. For this
reason, training in the skimming and scanning techniques is very crucial. Learners
must understand tl~oroughlythe main concepts of the text and then once they are
farniliar with the concept~~alframework, they will be in a better position to master the
details. Thus, a preliminary skimming builds tlie foundation of more intensive
reading and ~naxirnu~n understanding. It gives the learner a logical framework to fit
the details in.

Similarly, scanning skills are valuable as an aid to locating new terms, definitions,
dates, or formulas as in a science textbook. The learner also needs to scan charts and
figures for they present the facts in a graphic form. The use of these skills will help
not only in reducing the time for intensive reading but also in retaining the details of
the text.
Task 1
Developing Study Skills
This exercise helps you trace the organization of a text and get to t l ~ emain ideas.
(This exercise is partly based on tlie exercise in Stlldy Skills in EiigZislz. Micliael J .
Wallace, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980.)

1. Using the tille. Tlle passage given below is entitled ' The Surface of the
Earth'. Does tlie title tell you something?
2, Sz/rvey. Survey tlie passage by reading the first sentence of every paragrap11
and the last paragraph. Very often the first sentence may contain tlie main
idea- tlio~~gli
so~neti~nes the niain idea may collie in tlie middle or at the end.
3. Anlic@ution. Now you slioi~ldbe able to ask yourself anticipation questions,
i.e. questions, wIiicI1 YOLIthink, shoulcl be answered by tlie text.
4. Rend. Read tlirougli the passage quicltly. Note your reading time.
5. Try to answer your anticipation questions. Refer back to tlie text to check
your answers.
6. Organisalio~i.Make an outline or draw a diagram to capture the main icleas.
(We sliall take this LIPin the next section when we tall<ofstorage skills.)
7. Szmznzuly. Using your outline or diagram, write a sumn~al~y of tlie passage.
(We shall talk about the summarizing skill in the section on Retrieval skills.)

The following passage is taken fsom Working Wth Englisl7, Workbook for Class XI
(Core Course), p88.

The Surface of the Earth

T o most of 11stlie face of tlie earth - with its mountains, rivers, plains, and seas -
does not seem to cliange at all. But if we happen to live in certain places, perhaps
near an active volcano, or a powerfill, swift-flowing river, or on tlie coast, we niay be
able to see some change taking place - tlie river changing its course, or the sea
wearing down parts of tlie cliffs. In fact, tliese clianges are going on all tlie time, but
usi~allyso slowly tliat there is hardly anything that can' be measured in a man's
lifetime. But a man's lifetime is so short tliat it hardly counts in tlie history of the
eartli. If a valley becomes deeper by only one inch each 100 years, and even that is
only a co~nparativelysliol-t time in the whole life of the earth.

Running water, glaciers, the wind and currents of the seas, lieat and cold, and plants
have all been working together for nill lions of years changing tlie face of the earth.
Changes begin with the breaking LIP of rock into pieces that can be moved. Rock
becoliies broken up either by force of one kind or another, or by being rotted by
chemicals dissolved in rainwater, or in streams and rivers. When rock lias been
cracked or broken by force it is more easily rotted by chemical action, and rock that
lias been rotted is more easily broken by force.

All rocks chnnot be broken equally easily by force since they are made of different
materials and in different ways. Some began to break up deep underground: they
were cracked and splintered as they cooled or as they were twisted and puslied by tlie
forces which sliaped tlie mountains. Those that were .made in layers break niost easily
between the layers where tliey are weakest. Natural forces Iliat break LIProck masses
use s u c l ~cracks and lines of weakness.

Tiny plants may root the~nselvesin tlie cracks of rocks, and as they grow, their roots
grow too and pus11 and pi~sh,opening tlie cracks and in time even splitting tlie rock.
Water and frost are powerfill rock splitters. Water lnay freeze in a crack and, as water
expands when it t i ~ r into
~ ~ sice, tlie ice presses on the cracli and makes it bigger. Most
swift-flowing strealns carry downstrea~nrocks and boulders, and as these are rolled
and swung along by the water, tliey strike tlie rock in tlie stream banks and bed and
break off pieces. Forest fires often weaken and crack rocks, and rocks can also be
shattered by lightning.
These many ways of breaking ilp rock go on everywhere in the world. They work
1i10stqi~icI(Iyin places where the rocks have cracks and weaknesses, where there are
Illany trees and plants with strong, pi~sllingroots, and in cold clinlates where there is
frequent freezing and tl~awing.

Check Your Progress 2 -

1. H O W will yo11find out whether the word botlgh is pronounced as rough or as
dough or as ne itller?

2. Given below is a part of the Content page and a part of the lndex from the
book, Study Sltills. Look at both to answer the questions that follow.

Contents

Acknowledgement viii
For the Learner ix

Part A Basic Skills

Unit 1 How do l learn'?

1 Getting to know Study Skil1.r

2 How do you learn best?
3 PI-e'parationand pacing your work
4 Study tasks
5 Unit assessment and application

Unit 2 Thinking it Througli

1 How well do you think things through?

2 All that I need to know
3 What do the words mean?
4 Reducing devices
5 Unit assessment

Index

self-evaluation 3-5,8-10, l I ,
69-70,74,90-3, 138, 139, 145,
146, L 84-7, 190, 192, 194-200
sequencing ideas 96-1 02
short-answer tests 136-7.139
slcimming 74-6
stress 141-2,191
study preparation 5-8

term papers 137-8

timetables 6-8, 1 85, 188-9
title page 42-3
tone 1 1 1,l 13
topic sentences 108

validity 121 -5
Venn diagrams 33-44
wordbook 2 Developing Study Sitills
writing units 8,9
writing source cards 48-9

a. What different kinds of information do you get fi-om the Contents and tile
Index?

b. Which pages give you irifor~nationabout ski~nrning?

c. Which topic is dealt with in greater length- self-evaluation or tertn papers?

How do you infer?

3. This is to be done in 45 seconds. Look at tlie index given in Check Your

Progress 2, and check up references for the following: ,
.

term papers
stress
tone
short-answer tests
validity

In this section we shall consider tlie ways in which we can store the
information/knowledge we have gatliered for later use, The ways in which we do this
are

a. note taking (in class), and

b. note making (at Iiorne or in tlie library).

These skills are important as

e an aid to understanding arid concentration

a record of facts and processes
an aid to jog one's memory later on
a a record of different points of view
an aid for further study
• a summary of arguments and ideas,
a check that one does not fall asleep!

Both note taking and note making subsilme the following sub-skills:

a) identifLing the main ideas

b) distinguishing major points from subsidiary points
c) identifying connections between various points
d) organizing points into an outline, a diagram or a table, etc
Whereas note taking mainly refers to a class lecture, note niaking is a more leisurely
activity done at Iiome. For note making we can first get an overview of tlie text
whereas for note taking active attentive.listening is required.

12.4.1 Note Taking

The nost important skill in taking notes in class is that of listening actively, listening
wit11 a purpose, writing relevant points and not falling behind. As teachers we tell our
learllers to pay attention to what we are saying in class but we often do not train them
to'listen purposefi~llyand take notes in a meaningful way. As spoken communication
differs fro111writing, it is important tliat when listening to a lecture tliey sliould

a Listen for wliat is ernpliasized by considering the way of speaking, and by

being sensitive to both verbal and non-verbal cues such as gestures and facial
expression
• Look for words like " the main point is.. ." "to summarize.. .", "now, lets
move on to the next point...", " to repeat the point ..." and so on, which give
the listener cues as to itnpottant points, transition from one point to the next,
repetition of points for emphasis
c write clown if something is written on the blaclcboard
be alert for all important infomation
* be able to see tlie tnain points and ignore unrelated points.

We can ask our learners to reflect on their practice by giving them a set of statements
to tick as they apply to them.

Here is a possible set of statements:

1 try to write down every word tliat I hear. .

.I.. I do not use abbreviations.
11.
iii. I write all my points without any blank spaces in between so that I often find
it difficult to read my notes myself!
iv. 1 write in an outline form.
v. I review my notes the very same day.
vi. 1 use the standard abbreviations and I also make my own abbreviations while
taking notes.
vii. I write only tlie important points and, when unable to decide, even what
seems not so important.
The learners, who say yes to statements (i), (ii), and (iii), are obviously the ones who
need tlie note taking skills most! Those who say yes to stateliients (iv)-(vii) seem to
be into note taking already.
We can also make our learners aware that just as a text has a basic structu~;eto it, a
lecture can also be roughly divided into three parts:
1. Introduction: The speakers 'set the scene' for the talk by recapitulating what
tliey have said earlier and by probably giving the gist of what they are going
to say.
2. Main part: Here tlie speakers elaborate on the theme giving examples, etc.,
3. Conclusion: The speakers inay close the talk by going over the main points
again.
Being aware of the structure, helps them orient themselves to the key areas when
listening to the lecture.

After the learners have taken notes using their own symbols, abbreviations, etc. They
must review their notes the very same day and reconstruct them neatly and legibly.
They can also add some points to the ones noted and reorganize them.
While taking notes we do not write full sentences but in reconstrrlcting notes we Developing Study Sttilts
should use the style of for~ualwriting, providing connections and linkages.

12.4.2 Note Making

The passage below deals with different modes of transport and their role in
commerce. Read it carefully and take down notes as you read.

The Role of Transport in Commerce

Tlle econolnic system of any country is largely dependent upon the efficiency of its
transport system. Witllout the help of a good transport system, the expansion in
national and international trade would never take place.

Broadly, the means of transport both for purposes of trade and social activity can be
classified into three main divisions, land, water and air. We are, here, concerned with
transport for trade. Of all the forms of transport, road transpost has sliown tlie
greatest growth in recent years. Road transpoll is also used as a cotnplelnentary
means of transport for other types of transport. Roads are indispensable links for
carrying goods and people to and from laailwaystations, ports and airports.

Transport by road may be both vehicillar and non-vel>icular. Non-vehicular

transportation inclirdes both anilnal and inan. Aniinals such as horses, mules and
yaks are fieq~lentlyused for carrying goods and passengers in hilly areas. Camel is
the only nieans of transpoll in desest areas. Man is also sometiines ~ ~ s etod carry
goods. In hilly areas, potters and coolies carry goocls on their backs and heads, Tliis
type of transport is generally used when animals, calfs or vehicles cannot be used.
Vehicular transpo~tin developing countries includes the ancient bullock carts, as well
as the modern automobiles. The invention of tlle automobiles has been of great
significance to modern industry and commerce because of their high speed and low
cost per kilometer.

The introduction of the railways has been vital in the growtli of industrialization.
Railways are useful in carrying heavy and bulky goods over lotig distances. They are
especially favorred because, unlike other modes of transport, they are unaffected by
weather condition.

Water transport is one of the oldest forms of cargo transport. Though it is slow, it is
the cheapest for111of transpott. Water transport includes inland transport and ocean
transpost. lnland waterways are rivers and canals. W11ile rivers are "nat~ually"
created, canals are artificial waterways. Inland waterways are not always reliable.
So~netilnesrivers change tlieir course abruptly, whiclt may cause dislocation of
traffic. In times of drought they may run dry.

Ocean or sea transport is very important for the growth of foreign trade of any
country, especially as it is cheaper than air transport. It is partici~larlyuseful for
carrying bulky goods over long distances, especially when time is not tile essential
factor.

The greatest advantage of air transport is that it has reduced the time and distance
barrier to a great extent. However, air transport is the costliest means of transport
because of the high cost of planes, their operation and maintenance. It is generally
used rather sparingly for carrying light freight.

I . Fill in the gaps below:

 3. Notes can be organized into a tree diagram. Fill tlie gaps to co~npletethe tree
diagram.

Means of Transport

,
land

iii

iv
I

non-
v

v railways animals vi
h
7
vii
i

\\
viii
ocean

ix
ii

--

12.5 RETRIEVAL SKILLS - SUMMARIZING

In sectionl.4, we Izave discussed solne ways in whicli our learners make and take
notes to store information. To retrieve this stored information, we need the productive
skill of w~.itingsummaries. Actually, summarizing is the logical next step that collies
after note making and note taking. In addition to identifying the main ideas of the text
and disting~lisbingthern from the minor points of importance, it is cri~cialto write a
coherent and well-organised piece of writing which reads as a compact well knit text.

We shall look at tlie l'ollowing passage. which is taken from Wor.king With English,
Workbook for Class XI (Core Co~irse),pp 93-4.

Dried Food

Cent~lriesago, Inan discovered that removing moistul-e fro~nfood helps to preserve it,
and that the easiest way to do this is to expose tlie food to sun and wind. In Ihis way
North American lndians produce pemmican (dried lneslt ground into powder and
nzade into cakes), the Scandinavians make stockiish and the Arabs dried dates and
'apricot leather'.

All foods contain water-cabbage and other leafy vegetables contain as much as 93
per cent water, potatocs and other root vegetables 80 per cent, lean meat 75 per cent
and fish anything from 60 per cent to 80 percent epending on how fatty it is. If this
water is removed, tlie activity of the bacteria, which cause food to go bad, is checked.

Fruit is sun-dried in Asia Minor, Greece, Spain and other Mediterranean countries,
and also in California, Soutli Africa ancl Australia. The methods ~ ~ s evary,
d but in
general, the fruit is spread out on trays in drying yards in the hot sun. In order to
prevent darkening, pears, peaclies and apricots are exposed to the fi~mcsof burning
sulphur before drying. P~LIIIIS, for making raisins and currants,, are dipped in an
alkaline sol~~tionin order to crack the skins for drying.

Nowadays most foods are dried mechanically. Tlie conventional method of such
dehydration is to put food in clzanibers through wliicli hot air is blown at ternperati~res
of about 10O0C at entry to about 43" C at exit. This is the usual method for drying
such things as vegetables, minced meat, and fish.
68
Liquids such as milk, coffee, tea, soup and eggs lnay be dried by pollring them over a
heated llorizontal steel cylinder or by spraying tlietn into a charnber through which a
 current of hot air passes. 111the first case, the dried material is scraped off the roller as Developing study SItiifs
a thin film, wliicli is then broken up into small, though still relatively coarse flakes. In
the second process it falls to the bottom of the climnber as a fine powder. Wlien
recognizable pieces of meat and vegetables are required, as in soup, the ingredients
are dried separately and the11mixed.

Dried foods take LIPless room and weigli less than the same food packed in cans or
frozen, and tliey do not need to be stored in special conditions. For these reasons tliey
are invaluable to climbers, explorers and soldiers in battle, who Iiave little storage
space. They are also popular wit11 lio~~sewives because it takes so little time to coolc
them. Usually it is just a case of replacing tlie dried out moisture wit17 boiling water.

We can ~iiakenotes of tlie above passage and then rework the notes in the summary
form. Or, we can also take one paragrapli at a time and see how we can conde~iseit
removing details, paraphrases and examples. For the salce of convenience and easy
reference we repeat below the first parag~apli.

Centuries ago, lnan discovered tliat removing moisture from food lielps to preserve it,
and that the easiest way to do tliis is to expose the food to sun and wind. In this way
North American Indians produce penimican (dried meat g~+oundinto powder and
made into cakes), the Scandinavians make stockfisli and the Arabs dried dates and
'apricot leatl~er.'

If we look at tlie first sentence we find tliat it contains the ~nainidea of the paragrapli,
wliicli is 'removing moisture preserves food' and the clause beginning with 'and
that ...' introduces a supplementary idea to tlie main idea, namely 'exposure to tlie
sun and the wind is the easiest way of doing tliis'. Ttie second sentence gives tliree
exa~nples.Wlien sum~narizing,we aim to keep tlie m i 1 1iclea and dispense with minor
details. Cestainly, there is some loss of infonilation but then we have to select only
the key ideas and ornit examples. Now we select tlie first sentence keeping tlie main
and the supplernentary idea. We can later try to replirase the sentence and see if we
can condense it like this:
Long ago, man discovered that food could be preserved by re~novi~ig
~noisti~re
throi~gliexposure to tlie sun and the wind.
Now let us look at the second paragrapli reproduced below:
All foods contain water--cabbage and otlier leafy vegetables contain as ~nuchas 93
per cent water, potatoes and otlier root vegetables 80 per cent, lean meat 75 per cent
and fish anything from 60 per cent to 80 percent-to 60 per cent depending on how
fatty it is. If this water is removed, the activity of the bacteria, which cause food to go
bad, is checked.
We can see that the second paragrapli extends the ideas of the first paragraph by
making it explicit that 'all foods contail1 water' and by providing tlie cause and effect
relation between water content and the growth of bacteria and tlieconsequent Iiarm to
the food. It is the bacteria growing in water that spoils the food. Tlie obvious
I corollary is that if water is removed, the activity of the bacteria is checked. The first
sentence is a long sentence mentioning some of the foods with tlie percentage of
water content. When making a silInrnary we ornit tlie cletails that come after --, +

signaling that the information is secondary in impot-tance. Let us try to link the ideas
of the second paragraph in this way:
All food contains water in different quantities and tlie growth of bacteria in water
causes food to go bad.

Let us now attempt condensation of tlie third paragrapli reproduced below:

Fruit is sun-dried in Asia Minor, Greece, Spain and otlier Mediterranean countries,
and also in California, South Africa and Australia. The methods used vary, but in
general, the fruit is spread out on trays in drying yards in tlie hot sun. In order to
prevent darltening, pears, peaches and apricots are exposed to tlie f i ~ ~ n of
e s burlling
~ ~ l l p l l before
~ l r drying. Plu~ns,for making raisins ancl currants, are dipped in an
alltaline solcltion in order to crack the skins for drying.

NOW after going through tlie third paragraph we find tliat the entire paragraph talks
about drying of one lcind of food, i.e. fruit. The first sentence contains the main
idea orthis i.e. ' fruit is sun-dried', tlie second sentence mentions ways of
drying and the third and foutvthsentences convey details about partici~lar,fruits. So,
perl~aps,we can omit the last two sentences, when s1101Teningthe paragraph. Let LIS
rep]~rasethe first two sentences ~ ~ L I S :

Fruit is sun-dried in some Mediterranean countries, California, Soutli Africa and

ALlstralia.Different methods are used but generally the fruit is spread out on trays in
drying yards in tlie sun.

Let us consider the fo111Thparagrap11 now, wtiicli is given below:

Nowadays [nost foods are dried ~necl~anically. The conventional ~netliodof sucll
dellydration is to put food in chambers tllrougl~which hot air is blown at temperatures
of about 100' C at entry to about 43' C at exit. This is the i ~ s ~ method
~ a l for drying
such things as vegetables, minced meat, and fish.

The first and the last sentences convey information about nod ern metliod of drying
foods such as vegetables, minced meat, and fish. The ~niddlesentence adds an
ilnpolTant detail about tlie ~neclianicalprocess. Hence in this paragraph we sl~allkeep
all the inlbr~nationbut try to combine tlie tirst and tlie last sentences into orie. The
rephrased paragraph may read li ke this:

Nowadays, no st foods such as vegetables, rilinced meat, and fish are dried
mecIianicalIy. Food is put in chambers tl~roughwlticli hot air is blown at 100'' C at
entry to about 43OC at exit.

We shall now look at the fiflll paragraph, give11below:

Liquids:such as milk, coffee, tea, soup and eggs may be dried by pollring them over a
Iieated horizontal steel cylinder or by spraying them into a chamber tlirough which a
current of hot air passes. In the first case, tlie dried material is scraped off the roller as
a thin film, which is then broken LIPinto s~nall,tho~~gll still relatively coarse flakes. In
the second process it falls to, tlie bottom of the clla~nberas a fine powder. When
recognizable pieces of meat and vegetables are reqt~ired,as in soup, the ingredients
are dried separately and tlien mixed.

This paragraph mentions two methods of drying of liquids and gives specific details
about tlie two processes. Depending upon the purpose of making a summary (e.g. for
1
our own records for later use or for an exatn without a stated purpose) we may
include all tlie details or omit the specific details regarding tlie two methods. Here we
shall attempt a general kind of summary:
p eggs may be dried in two ways: I ) by
Liquids si1c11as milk, coffee, tea, s o ~ ~atid
pouring them over a heated horizontal steel cylinder and 2) by spraying them into a
chamber tlirough which hot air passes.
Now we come to the fifth and the last paragraph, reproduced below:
Dried food takes up less room and weighs less than the same food packed in cans or
frozen, and they do not need to be stored in special conditions. For these reasons they
are invaluable to climbers, explorers and soldiers in battle, wlio liave little storage
space. Tliey are also popi~larwith housewives becairse it takes so little time to cook
them. Usually it is jrut a case of replacing the dried out moisture with boiling water.
Tlie first sentence talks about tlie advantages of dried food and the second sentence Developing Study Skills
abo~dtheir usefi~lnessto climbers, explorers and soldiers for reasons of taking LIP
little storage space. The third and the fonrtli sentences mention their popularity with
the housewives as they are easily cooked with just replacing the dried ~iioisturewitli
boiling water. All the ideas are important so we shall not omit any ideas but we can
shorten the length by removing unnecessary phrases or phrase that convey similar
ideas. The paragrap11 lnay loolc like this:

Dried food is very usefill for climbers, explorers, and soldiers for reasons of taking LIP
little space, weighing less and not needing any special conditions for storage. They
are also popular with lio~~sewives as tliey can cook these easily by just replacing the
dried rnoistt~rewit11 boiling water.

Now you could gilt togetlier all the rephrased paragraphs together and see if rhey read
like a coherent piece of discourse. At times you Inlay need to reorganize them a bit.

Task 1

Refer to the passage entitled 'Tlie Surface of the Eat.t.11' in sectio~l1.3.2.

Make a sulnlnary of the passage using the steps we have followed for tlie passage on
'Dried Food'.

12.6 LET US SUM UP

Study skills ase distinct from language skills.

Study skills enable st~~denls to be self-reliant and in control of tlieir studies.
The process of study involves the operations oj' perception, comprehension,
retention and retrieval.
Corresponding to the above mentioned operations are three study skills:
gatliering skills, storage skills and retsieval skills.
Gathering skills Iielp learners to locate arid comprehend sources of
information, e.g, use of dictionaries, use of library and tlie skills of skimn~ing
and scanning.
Storage skills provide learners with the techniqi~esof storing information,
e.g. note making and note taking.
Retrieval skills enable learners to retrieve the stored information when
needed, e.g. silmrnarizing.
Students must be trained in developing study skills througli a variety of tasks.

12.7 KEY WORDS

Gathering skills: skills usefill for gathering infomalion, for identifying

sources of information and con~prehensionof material

Retrieval skills: skill used for retrieving stored information, e.g, su~ninarizing

Storage skills: skills used for retaining information in note form

-
12.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Wallace J. Michael (1980) Stz~dy Skills in Englisl?. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press,

Waters M, and Waters A. (1995) Study Tasks in Englislz. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

~ l s consulted
o FEG-02 and CTE-05, Indira Gandlii National Open University.

ANSWERS

Checl<Your Progress 1 -
I. Statements 1 and 2 -- reference skills of use i n library,
Statements 3 and 4 -- skirnniing skills,
Statement!: 5 and 6 - lee of dictionary
Statements 7-9 - note taking and note making
Statement 10 - summarizing
2. Other skills can be skills of asking questions, discussion strategies, thinking
things througl1, drafting, revising, preparing for and coping with exams, time
management, self evaluation, etc.
3. No, they are not. We need sti~dyskills over and above the language skills.

Check Your Pragress - 2

I. We should look up a dictionary for tlie pront~nciation.

2 a. The Contents give us a general idea about the topics dealt with in tlie book
whereas the lndes tells 11sabout specific items, or i111itsdealt with along with
their page nu~nbers.

b. Pages 74 to 76.

c. of pages devoted to a certain topic.

If we look at tlie lnclex we see the tii~~nber
This tells us tliat there is a more extensive treatment given to self-evaluatjon
as compared to term papers

3, term papers .- pp 137-8

Stress-141-2,191
Tone-1 1 I,] 13
S1101-tanswer tests - 136-7,139
Validity - 121-5