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Rick Paulson
Logarithmic phi values (in base two) are calculated from particle diameter size measures in millimeters
as follows:
where:
d = diameter of particle in mm
Note: the negative sign is affixed so that commonly encountered sand sized sediments can be
described using positive values.
A grain size separation analysis can be a tedious and time consumming task. The results of grain size
distribution analyses on two samples, A and B, taken from standard sieve tests, are given below. On the
following pages you are asked to prepare histograms depicting percent frequency of particle size
occurance, plots of grain size distribution called cumulative weight percent curves, and other statistical
and hydraulic property measures for samples A and B (see requirements for Section I below).
To gain an understanding of how to proceed, look at the results of an example sieve size analysis
performed on the MN 104 sample (see Figure 1). Relate those results to the histogram, and the
cumulative distribution curves created from the analysis data (Figures 2, and 3) as an example of output
to produce. Read Fetter, Sec. 4.2.2, pg. 82, for a discussion of sediment analysis by sieve sifting into
particle size fractions. In addition, an in depth description of how grain size separations are performed is
given toward the end of this page(see Sec. III, Grain Size Analyses of Sediments).
Study the grain size distribution curves carefully. The curves are cumulative percent frequency
distribution curves, that represent the cumulative weight percent by particle size of the sample. In one of
the curves (cumulative weight percent passing), the fraction that is finer than each subsequent grain size
is shown. In the other curve (cumulative weight percent retained) the fraction that is coarser than each
subsequent grain size is shown. Essentially, for each grain size, the curve will tell you how much of the
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Figure 1
Figure 2
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Figure 3
1. Complete the missing information in the tables of the grain size distribution analyses for Sample A
and Sample B.
2. Using the grain size analysis data for Samples A and B, construct an histogram of the distribution.
You may use grain size in units or in mm for the size classes.
3. Using the same A and B sample data, construct cumulative percent frequency distribution curves
for the grain size distribution of both samples. Please use the scale on the grain size axis. Include
both weight percent retained, and weight percent passing curves on the same plot.
4. Calculate the following four descriptive parameters using the cumulative percent curve for each
sample respectively. Refer to the end of this lab handout for further discussion of the statistical
parameters. In the first three formulas below, the subscript in the phi terms (x) refers to the grain
size at which x% of the sample is coarser than that size, or also, the size at which x% of the sample
is retained on that particular sieve size and any coarser screened sieves above that particular sieve.
Please show your determination of the various x graphically on the cumulative curves.
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b. Median (graphic) = 50 i.e., the phi size corresponding to the 50% mark on the cumulative
frequency distribution curve.
d. Coefficient of uniformity:
Note: d60 and d10 in the formula above represent the grain diameter in mm, for which,
60% and 10% of the sample respectively, are finer than. It will be most convenient to
use the cumulative weight percent passing curve, and remember that you need to do
the conversion from units to millimeters. Be sure to show your work graphically on
the cumulative curve, as well as your calculation converting units to millimeters.
5. Calculate the hydraulic conductivity (K) for samples A and B using the Hazen approximation (see
Fetter, Sec. 4.4.3, pg. 98, for a discussion of the Hazen approximation). In your calculations use
the d10 particle size in millimeters that you obtained from the grain size curves in Part 4d above.
The Hazen approximation of hydraulic conductivity is applicable when the d10 effective particle
size is between 0.1 and 3.0 mm, and is calculated as follows:
where:
K = hydraulic conductivity
d10 = Hazen's effective grain size in mm, relative to which 10% of the sample is finer
C = a coefficient that factors in the sorting characteristics of the sediment. In this case, use C
= 40. For this particular form of the equation, C also embodies a dimensional conversion
factor to obtain K in units of L/T (cm/sec) when the only explicit unit on the right hand side
of the equation is L2 (mm2). See Fetter, page 99, for a table relating C value ranges for
various sediment types.
6. The Krumbein and Monk equation is used to estimate the permeability (in darcies) of a sediment
from a grain size analysis. This equation was developed empirically using very well sorted (see
Figure 4 for a depiction of a poorly sorted sediment) sediment samples ranging from 0.75 to 1.25
in mean grain size, and with standard deviations ranging from 0.04 to 0.80. Calculate the
Krumbein and Monk intrinsic permeability (k) of samples A and B.
where:
Gme = geometric mean grain diameter (in mm) (convert from Part 4a above)
= standard deviation (phi scale) (which was calculated in Part 4c above)
7. Convert the Krumbein and Monk permeabilities (k) (in darcies) calculated in Part 6 above into
hydraulic conductivities (K) (in cm/sec) using the relation:
where:
Present all your results above in the form of a single table. Remember to please include one
representative sample calculation for each procedure.
1. From a simple visual inspection of the histograms and cumulative frequency curves, which of the
samples is most poorly sorted i.e., the greatest distribution of size classes, (see Figure 4)? Justify
your answer i.e., refer to what you look for in both types of diagrams.
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2. What is the verbal classification of sorting for these samples (refer to the discussion of Inclusive
Graphic Standard Deviation in the Statistical Parameters Section at the end of the handout)?
3. According to Krumbein and Monk, permeability decreases with an increase in standard deviation.
Explain in physical terms why this should be true.
4. Standard deviation is a statistical concept which assumes that the sample for which you are
performing the calculations has a normal distribution (bellshaped curve) about a mean value. How
well do sediment samples A and B fit this model (refer to your histograms)? Evaluate the validity
of using the calculated standard deviation to estimate the Krumbein and Monk permeability of the
sediments you are dealing with in samples A and B.
5. Compare the permeabilities and hydraulic conductivities calculated using the Krumbein and Monk
equation and the Hazen method respectively on samples A and B, to the permeabilities and
hydraulic conductivities measured using the permeameter test data for samples A and B from Lab
2 (Lab 2 results will be posted on the class web site "q and a" page). Are there significant
differences? Which methods yield the highest and lowest results? Offer explanations as to why the
results may differ. With which results do you feel most comfortable?
SAMPLE A
Grain Size Percent of sample Cumulative Cumulative Grain Size
(mm) retained (by weight) % finer % coarser ()
10 0
9 2
8 2
7 6
5 5
1 15
0.75 10
0.5 10
0.3 15
0.09 25
0.05 5
0.01 3
0.009 2
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SAMPLE B
Grain Size Percent of sample Cumulative Cumulative Grain Size
(mm) retained (by weight) % finer % coarser ()
15 0
10 2
8 1.5
6 1.5
3 7
1 10
0.8 3
0.5 10
0.2 10
0.1 20
0.06 10
0.03 15
0.01 10
The St. Peter Sandstone has undergone an extensive multicyclic depositional history. It's last depositional
episode was as a beach sand along a transgressing sea. During at least one of its previous depositional
episodes the sand grains were eolian (wind transported) deposits. Consequently, the range of particle
sizes is somewhat restricted owing to the narrow range of particle sizes that can be transported by wind.
Due to its extensive depositional history the St. Peter Sandstone is texturally, and mineralogically very
mature.
The Boiling Springs sample comes from a fluvial environment of deposition. As such, the sediment tends
to be fairly well sorted. The energy of deposition in a fluvial environment can fluctuate widely.
Consequently, the range of particle sizes can also be somewhat wide spread. In this particular case, the
energy of deposition was fairly low as evidenced by the fairly fine size of the particles in the sample.
The Grantsburg Sublobe Till is a glacially deposited sediment. The till was laid down by the Grantsburg
Sublobe of the Des Moines Lobe during the Late Wisconsinin glaciation approximately 14,000 years
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ago. As is typically the case with ice transported sediments, the till is poorly sorted with a concurrent
wide range of particle sizes.
Boiling Springs
Grain Size Percent Cumulative Cumulative Grain Size
by weight % Coarser % Finer (mm)
1.00 0.18 0.18 99.82 2.000
0.50 0.13 0.32 99.68 1.410
0.00 0.34 0.65 99.35 1.000
0.50 0.78 1.43 98.57 0.707
1.00 3.12 4.55 95.45 0.500
1.50 17.88 22.43 77.57 0.354
2.00 41.68 64.11 35.89 0.250
3.00 35.63 99.74 0.26 0.125
3.51 0.22 99.96 0.04 0.088
3.99 0.02 99.98 0.02 0.063
5.64 0.02 100.00 0.00 0.020
1. Prepare histograms and cumulative percent coarser and finer plots for each of the three sediment
samples.
2. Calculate the four statistical parameters for each of the three samples as in Section I.
1. Discuss the differences you see in the grain size curves for the three sediments. Relate this to their
geologic history. Use the statistical parameters as a reference.
2. Provide the verbal classification of the sorting of these sediments (refer to the discussion of
Inclusive Graphic Standard Deviation in the Statistical Parameters Section at the end of the
handout).
3. What kind of relationship do you see between grain size distribution and the hydraulic properties?
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The purpose of this procedure is to determine the distribution of grain sizes in an unconsolidated
sediment sample. This analysis is broken down into several steps dealing first with the coarse fraction
(sand and gravel) and then with the fine fraction (silt and clay).
Procedure:
C. Dispersion
The purpose of this step is to disperse the aggregates of clay size particles so that they will be sized as
individuals, not as aggregates. This procedure consists of mixing the sediment with a peptizer solution, or
dispersing agent.
D. Wet Sieving
The purpose of this step is to separate the sediment sample into coarse and fine fractions. To do this,
select a 4 phi size sieve and place the sediment sample in it. Under the sieve place a tightly fitting funnel
with a 1000 ml beaker attached to it. Wash the sample until the stream leaving the funnel contains no
fines and is clear. The material passing into the beaker is the fine fraction which should be saved for
pipette analysis later. The material on the sieve is the coarse fraction which will be sieved.
the sampling depth. The resulting aliquot gives a weight of the material finer than the given size.
Successive aliquots give the weights in each phi size.
STATISTICAL PARAMETERS
Mode: Mode is the most frequentlyoccurring particle diameter. It is the diameter corresponding to the
steepest point (point of inflection) on the cumulative curve (only if the curve has an arithmetic frequency
scale). It also corresponds to the highest point on the distribution curve. Advantages: the mode is quite
valuable in sediment genesis transport studies, especially when two or more sources are contributing. The
mode diameter often stays fairly constant in an area while the other, more "synthetic" measures tend to
vary more erratically. It deserves more common use. The disadvantages are its lack of common usage,
and in fact that it is difficult to determine. Also it is independent of the grain size of the rest of the
sediment, therefore it is not a good measure of overall average size.
Median: Half of the particles by weight are coarser than the median, and half are finer. It is the diameter
corresponding to the 50% mark on the cumulative frequency curve and may be expressed either in phi or
in mm. The advantage is that it is by far the most commonly used measure and the easiest to determine.
The disadvantage is that it is not affected by the extremes of the curve, therefore does not reflect the
overall size of sediments (especially skewed ones) well. For bimodal sediments it is almost worthless. Its
use is not recommended.
Geometric (Graphic) Mean: The best graphic measure for determining overall size is the graphic mean. It
corresponds very closely to the mean as computed by the method of moments, yet is much easier to find.
It is much superior to the median because it is based on three points and gives a better overall picture.
Inclusive Graphic Standard Deviation: This formula includes 90% of the distribution and is the best
overall measure of sorting. Measurement of sorting values for a large number of sediments has suggested
the following verbal classification for sorting for each value of inclusive graphic standard deviation:
The best sorting attained by natural sediments is about .2025 phi, and Texas dune and beach sands run
about .25.35 phi. Texas river sediments so far measured range between .402.5 phi, and pipetted flood
plain or neritic silts and clays average about 2.03.5 phi. The poorest sorted sediments, such as glacial
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tills, mudflows, etc., have values in the neighborhood of 5 phi to 8 phi or even 10 phi.
Kurtosis: In the normal probability curve, defined by the gaussian formula; the phi diameter interval
between the 5 phi and 95 phi points should be exactly 2.44 times the phi diameter interval between the 25
phi and 75 phi points. If the sample curve plots as a straight line on probability paper (i.e., if it follows
the normal curve), this ratio will be obeyed and we say it has normal kurtosis (1.00). Departure from a
straight line will alter this ratio, and kurtosis is the quantitative measure used to describe this departure
from normality. It measures the ratio between the sorting in the "tails" of the curve and the sorting in the
central portion. If the central portion is better sorted than the tails, the curve is said to be excessively
peaked or leptokurtic; if the tails are better sorted than the central portion, the curve is deficiently or flat
peaked and platykurtic. Strongly platykurtic curves are often bimodal with subequal amounts of the two
modes; these plot out as a twopeaked frequency curve, with the sag in the middle of the two peaks
accounting for its platykurtic character. For normal curves, kurtosis equals 1.00. Leptokurtic curves have
a kurtosis over 1.00 (for example a curve with kurtosis=2.00 has exactly twice as large a spread in the
tails as it should have, hence it is less well sorted in the tails than in the central portion); and platykurtic
have kurtosis under 1.00. Kurtosis involves a ratio of spreads; hence it is a pure number and should not
be written with a phi attached. The following verbal limits are suggested for values of kurtosis:
The distribution of kurtosis values in natural sediments is itself strongly skewed, since most sediments
are around .85 to 1.4, yet some values as high as 3 or 4 are not uncommon.
Skewness: This formula simply averages the skewness obtained using the 16 phi and 84 phi points with
the skewness obtained by using the 5 phi and 95 phi points, both determined by exactly the same
principle. This is the best skewness measure to use because it determines the skewness of the "tails" of
the curve, not just the central portion, and the "tails" are just where the most critical differences between
samples lie. Furthermore, it is geometrically independent of the sorting of the sample.
Symmetrical curves have skewness=0.00; those with excess fine material (a tail to the right) have
positive skewness and those with excess coarse material (a tail to the left) have negative skewness. The
more the skewness value departs from 0.00, the greater the degree of asymmetry. The following verbal
limits on skewness are suggested: for values of skewness:
Verbal Description
Skewness
of Skewness
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from +1.00 to
strongly fine skewed
+0.30
from +0.30 to
fine skewed
+0.10
from +0.10 to
near symmetrical
0.10
from 0.10 to
coarse skewed
0.30
from 0.30 to
strongly coarse skewed
1.00
The absolute mathematical limits of the measure are +1.00 to 1.00, and few curves have skewness
values beyond +0.80 to 0.80.
Coefficient of Uniformity: This is a nonstatistical measure of the spread of the curve. It is similar to the
standard deviation, but is used for samples that don't follow a normal curve. This parameter is defined in
different ways by different people.
UddenWentworth Classification
The grade scale that has traditionally been used for sediments is the UddenWentworth (1922) size class
scale (see classification table appended to the end of this lab). This scale is a geometric series in which
each grade limit is twice as large as the next smaller grade limit. The scale starting at 1 mm and changing
by a fixed ratio of 2 was first introduced by J. A. Udden (1898), who also named the sand grades we use
today. However, Udden drew the gravel/sand boundary at 1 mm and used different terms in the gravel
and mud divisions. For more detailed work, sieves were used at intervals of 20.5 and 20.25.
The base two logarithmic (phi) scale, devised by Krumbein (1934) and based on the UddenWentworth
geometric series scale, is a much more convenient way of presenting data than if the values are expressed
in millimeters, and is used almost exclusively in recent work in sedimentology. By transforming the
millimeter scale into phi units, size class divisions of equal width are created.
A commonly used soil classification system found in engineering disciplines is the Engineering Unified
Soil Classification System or simply the Unified System. This classification system is mainly intended
for soil classification for foundations and hydraulic structures. It is based on grain size and soil saturation
to liquid limit.
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Another widely used classification system is the soil triangle of basic soil textural classes. This naming
system is commonly used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Soil Conservation Service.
In this system the relative percentages of three particle size catagories are considered. The three
catagories of particles are sand, silt, and clay. The triangular diagram is subdivided into several soil
textural classification types, with each soil type comprising a range of percentages of the three particle
types. The soil classification type is determined by plotting the percentages of each of the three soil
particle classes found within the soil sample on the triangular diagram. The point of intersection of each
of these three particle class percentages will fall within one of the soil classification types (see Soil
Classification Triangle).
As can be seen by inspection of the triangle, each of the three particle types can vary from zero to 100%
of the content of a sediment sample. For example, a 100% clay textural composition would plot at the
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apex at the top of the triangle. Lesser percentages of clay content would plot somewhere between the top
apex and the base of the triangle. The same technique holds true for sand or silt content except that the
100% sand or silt content points are located at the left and right bottom apexes of the triangle
respectively. Lesser contents of sand or silt would plot somewhere between the 100% apex and the side
of the triangle opposite that apex.
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12 1.68 0.75
Very coarse sand
14 1.41 0.5
(0 to 1)
16 1.19 0.25
18 1 0
20 0.84 0.25
25 0.71 0. 5 Coarse sand (1 to 0)
30 0.59 0.75
35 1/2 0.5 500 1
40 0.42 420 1.25
45 0.35 350 1.5 Medium sand (2 to 1)
50 0.3 300 1.75
60 1/4 0.25 250 2
70 0.21 210 2.25
80 0.177 177 2.5 Fine sand (3 to 2)
100 0.149 149 2.75
120 1/8 0.125 125 3
140 0.105 105 3.25
170 0.088 88 3.5 Very fine sand (4 to 3)
200 0.074 74 3.75
230 1/16 0.0625 62.5 4
270 0.053 53 4.25
325 0.044 44 4.5 Coarse silt (5 to 4)
Analyzed 0.037 37 4.75
1/32 0.031 31 5
by 1/64 0.0156 15.6 6 Medium silt (6 to 5)
1/128 0.0078 7.8 7 Fine silt (7 to 6)
Pipette 1/256 0.0039 3.9 8 Very fine silt (8 to 7)
0.002 2 9
or 0.00098 0.98 10 Clay
0.00049 0.49 11 (Some use 2 or 9
Hydrometer 0.00024 0.24 12 as the clay boundary)
0.00012 0.12 13
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