Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 906 (2022) 115999

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jelechem

CoTe nanorods based electrochemical sensor for quantitative detection of

albumin from chronic kidney disease patients
Ummama Saeed a, Batool Fatima a,⇑, Dilshad Hussain b, Rabia Ashiq a, Muhammad Naeem Ashiq c,
Muhammad Najam-ul-Haq c,⇑
a
Department of Biochemistry, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan
b
HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
c
Institute of Chemical Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60800, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Electrochemical sensing monitors the levels of biomolecules and is specific, rapid, low cost, and automated. An
CoTe nanorods electrical stimulus given to biological system helps in detecting electrical response through oxidation–reduc-
Chronic Kidney Disease tion peaks in a cyclic voltammogram (CV). Herein, an electrochemical sensor based on CoTe nanorods is devel-
Albuminuria oped for albumin sensing. Sensing parameters such as scan rate, pH, concentration, and effect of interferences
Cyclic Voltammetry
are optimized. Linearity, detection and quantification limits for CoTe modified glassy carbon electrode (CoTe-
Electrochemical Sensing
GCE) are 0.961 nM, 0.09 nM and 0.003 nM respectively. The stability of designed sensor is measured by run-
ning 100 cycles of CV. CoTe-GCE quantifies albumin from urine samples of chronic kidney disease (CKD)
patients. Normal distribution of data (albumin, albumin to creatinine ratio (ACR), and creatinine) is found
out by Shapiro-Wilk test. The correlation of urine albumin by Pearson’s correlation analysis reveals positive
relation with ACR (P = 0.000, r = 0.043*) and negative with urine creatinine (p = 0.003, r = -0.141*).
Using CoTe-GCE electrochemical sensor, albumin and creatinine levels in urine can be used as prognostic fac-
tors in CKD patients before disease progresses to end-stage renal disease (ESRD).

1. Introduction Various methods are available for determining albumin concentra-

Albumin is a globular protein synthesized in liver by hepatocytes. It
is the most abundant of circulating proteins in blood plasma (60%)
with a concentration of 3.4–5.4 g/dL [1,2]. Albumin concentration
above or below 3.4–5.4 g/dL can cause malnutrition, inflammation,
heart failure, kidney damage, and liver disease. Albumin binds and
transports waste to the liver for excretion e.g. bilirubin [3]. It is a bio-
marker of diseases such as cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, kidney, and
cardiovascular [4,5]. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is associated with
life-threatening conditions like CVD development [6]. Albuminuria is
a biomarker in CKD and is classified into microalbuminuria and
macroalbuminuria [7]. In CKD, an impairment in kidney function
occurs due to decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) losing albu-
min via urine as kidneys fail to retain because of tissue damage [8].
Albumin to creatinine ratio (ACR) shows that albuminuria has no role
in the progression of kidney disease or decrease in eGFR, however, it
reveals the extent of kidney damage thus predicting end-stage renal
disease (ESRD).
tion in human samples. Techniques like light scattering, chemilumi-
nescence, high-performance liquid chromatography, capillary
electrophoresis, dye-binding methods, immunochemical assay, near-
infrared spectroscopy, and electrochemical methods determine albu-
min in different diseases [9,10]. These methods have limitations such
as high cost, long analysis time, low sensitivity, and laborious pre-
treatment methods. Therefore, electrochemical methods for biomole-
cules analysis are preferred due to their sensitivity, stability, low
detection limit, linearity, and cost-effectiveness [11-15]. Reported
electrochemical sensors for albumin determination include molecu-
larly imprinted polymer (MIP) using semi-covalent imprinting on gold
electrode [16], 3D porous electrocatalytic framework of Au/NH2-MIL-
125(Ti) on graphene-modified GCE [17], epitope imprinted polymers
[18], chitosan/ionic liquid graphene-modified GCE [19], CuInZnS
quantum dots (QDs) as turn off–on sensor [20], epitope MIP-coated
CdTe QDs [21], tin oxide tin sulfide QDs [22], MoS2 QDs and polyani-
line [23].

⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: batoolfatima@bzu.edu.pk (B. Fatima), najamulhaq@bzu.edu.pk (M. Najam-ul-Haq).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115999
Received 22 October 2021; Received in revised form 20 December 2021; Accepted 29 December 2021
Available online 3 January 2022
1572-6657/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
U. Saeed et al.
Herein, an electrochemical sensor based on CoTe nanorods is devel-
oped for albumin determination in CKD patients. Cobalt has semicon-
ducting properties and its combination with tellurium (CoTe) produces
magnetic properties with effective electron transfer characteristics.
Electrode has been modified with CoTe to improve conductivity [24]
and increase electrochemical surface area. CoTe modified GCE is
developed for sensing albumin via cyclic voltammetry (CV) and elec-
trochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Quantitative analysis
proves that CKD patients have high levels of albumin secreted in their
urine and high levels of ACR with lower creatinine.
2. Experimental
2.1. Chemicals and reagents
CoSO4·7H2O and Na2TeO3 were purchased from Sigma Aldrich,
hydrazine hydrate (N2H4·H2O) 80% from Merck, and Bovine Serum
Albumin (BSA) from Bio-world. KH2PO4 and K2HPO4 were purchased
from Riedel-de Haen. Deionized water was obtained from a local water
deionizing system. Analytical grade reagents were used in this work.
2.2. Synthesis of cobalt telluride (CoTe) nanorods
CoTe nanorods were hydrothermally synthesized [24]. 1.4 g
CoSO4·7H2O was dissolved in 50 mL deionized water and placed in
a 100 mL reaction vessel. 1.11 g Na2TeO3 was added to the solution
to form a precipitate. The precipitated mixture was gently stirred for
10 min and 20 mL hydrazine hydrate was added resulting in the disso-
lution of precipitate. The reactor was sealed and heated for 5 h at 140 °
C. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature, filtered,
washed with water and ethanol several time, and dried overnight in
drying oven at 60 °C.
2CoSO4 þ 2Na2 TeO3 þ 3N 2 H 4 ! 140C2Co þ 2Te þ N 2 SO4 þ 6H 2 OCo
þ Te
! 140CoTe
2.3. Electrochemical sensing of albumin by CoTe-GCE
Glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was modified with synthesized CoTe
nanorods. The electrode was cleaned, polished with alumina slurry,
washed with Milli Q water, ultrasonivated for 10 min in ethanol,
and dried in oven. CoTe slurry was prepared and 5 µL deposited on
GCE and air-dried.
Electrochemical measurements were performed on (AUT50296,
Autolab Potentiostat) in electrochemical cell of three-electrodes sys-
tem. Ag/AgCl (BAS MF 2052), platinum wire (BAS MW1034) and
CoTe modified GCE were used as reference, counter and working elec-
trodes respectively.
Conductivity of CoTe nanorods was checked in standard solutions
of potassium ferrocyanide and KCl. Electrochemical measurements
were made in solutions of varying albumin concentrations and varying
pH in 1 M PBS buffer.
2.4. Urine samples collection and processing
Urine samples of CKD patients were collected in the morning in
urine collection tubes with the prior consent of volunteers and stored
at −20 ℃. Ethical consent was obtained from the Ethical Committee of
Sahiwal Medical College and Hospital Sahiwal Pakistan. Albumin,
ACR, and creatinine analysis were made on the automated analyzer
Beckman colter D × C 700 AU. The relations between albumin,
ACR, and creatinine were assessed in CKD patients. Shapiro-Wilk anal-
ysis showed normal data distribution and the results were calculated
by Pearson’s Correlation analysis. The significance level was p < 0.05.
2
Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 906 (2022) 115999
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Characterization of cobalt telluride (CoTe) nanorods
The formation of CoTe nanorods, morphology, thermal stability,
and surface area were determined by FTIR, SEM, STEM, AFM, TGA,
UV, and BET. The morphology by SEM shows clusters of nanorods
(Fig. 1a and 1b). Average diameter of CoTe nanorods is 180 nm. Bar
graph (Fig. 1d) shows variable diameters of nanorods from 100 nm
to 300 nm. Maximum number of nanorods has diameters of 150 nm
to 200 nm. STEM image (Figure S1) reveals that prepared samples
have nanorods shaped morphology. AFM analysis is also done to
access the surface topology of synthesized nanorods. AFM images (Fig-
ures S2a and S2b) show smooth morphology of nanorods.
FTIR spectrum (Fig. 2A) shows stretching bands of CoTe at
530 cm−1 and 823 cm−1 [25]. Band at 1723 cm−1 represents sulphate
ions and C@O [26]. CAO and OAH have bands at 1261 cm−1 [27] and
2929 cm−1 [28], respectively. UV–Vis spectrum (Fig. 2B) shows peak
at 230 nm as metallic peak of CoTe. There is a shift in absorption of
CoTe as compared to the reported absorption (270 nm) [25] which
may be attributed to the synthetic method used for CoTe nanorods.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of CoTe nanorods by thermo-
gravimetric analyzer (TGA) is shown in Fig. 2C. Weight loss from
100 °C to 350 °C is the type II TGA curve due to drying weight loss
and desorption. From 350 °C to 600 °C, the curve is type V and weight
increment is because of oxidation [29]. BET surface area of CoTe
nanorods is determined as 161.215 m2/g with adsorption and desorp-
tion pore volumes from 2.47 to 300 nm and 2.46 to 300 nm, respec-
tively (Fig. 2D) [30].
X-Ray diffraction analysis of CoTe nanorods in shown in Fig. 2E.
Hexagonal crystalline structure of CoTe nanorods shows characteristic
peaks at 25.9°, 30.8°, 34.8°, 47.52°, 58.90° and 69.28° with corre-
sponding planes at 100, 101, 002, 110, 112 and 004, respectively.
No other impurity peaks are detected which confirm the high purity
of the CoTe nanorods. The d-spacing or inter-planar spacing of CoTe
nano-rods is 1.86 Å which was calculated from Bragg’s equation.
Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analysis of CoTe nanorods
is shown in Fig. 2F. All three corresponding elements of the nanorods
including cobalt, tellurium and oxygen are present at their respective
positions. The weight percentages and of cobalt, tellurium and oxygen
are 20.72, 55.99 and 16.79 while atomic percentages are 15.09, 18.83
and 45.05, respectively.
3.2. Electrochemical characterization of CoTe-GCE
Electrochemical characterization of CoTe modified GCE is done by
CV in standard solution of 0.1 M potassium ferrocyanide with KCl elec-
trolyte. Voltammogram (Figure S3) shows the conductivity curves of
bare and CoTe modified GCE at scan rate 30 mVs−1. Potential window
is set between −1.0 to 0.2 V. Bare GCE has no redox peaks whereas
CoTe modified GCE shows oxidation and reduction peaks at 0.08 V
and −0.64 V, respectively with current 2.34 mA and −1.17 mA.
3.3. Optimization of sensing parameters
The redox properties of CoTe modified GCE are optimized with
varying albumin concentrations in 1 M PBS buffer of pH 7.4. Voltam-
mogram (Fig. 3A) shows redox peaks of albumin from 1 nM to 0.2 nM.
Increasing albumin concentration increases oxidation–reduction peak
current (1.87 mA and −7.80 mA at potential 0.127 V and
−0.79 V), respectively. 0.2 nM albumin shows the lowest peak current
with oxidation and reduction peak currents 0.90 mA and −3.46 mA
respectively. Current increases with increase in albumin concentra-
tion. Fig. 3B shows direct relation of current with albumin concentra-
tion having R2 0.961.
U. Saeed et al. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 906 (2022) 115999

Fig. 1. SEM images of cobalt telluride nanorods (a, b, c and d) and bar graph for diameter distribution of CoTe.

pH affects electrochemical conductance of modified electrodes. 30 mVs−1 (Figure S5). Anodic and cathodic peaks appear at potential
Voltammogram in Fig. 3C shows redox peak current of 1 nM albumin 0.26 V and −0.60 V respectively.
at scan rate 30 mVs−1 at pH range of 6.6. 7.0, 7.4, 7.8, and 8.2. Redox
peak current is minimum at pH 6.6 and maximum at pH 8.2 as albu-
3.6. ECSA calculations for CoTe-GCE
min better works in alkaline conditions [31]. Further, the redox peak
current decreases at higher pH beyond 7.4, i.e. pH 7.8 and 8.2. Fig. 3D
ECSA of CoTe Nanorods is calculated by using 0.1 potassium ferro-
shows relation of current and varying pH in 1 M PBS with linearity of
cyanide solution and 0.1 M KCl solutions in 1:1 ratio at scan rates from
R2 0.911.
15 mV/s to 40 mV/s. Respective line graphs are given in Fig. 4A and
Optimization of scan rate in 1 M PBS buffer of pH 7.4 is presented
4B. ECSA results of CoTe-GCE are different from bare GCE. ECSA is cal-
in Fig. 3E. Voltammogram shows redox peaks for albumin at scan rates
culated by the following formula [32];
from 15 mVs−1 to 40 mVs−1. Redox peak current increases with
increasing scan rate. The lowest peak current is at scan rate 15 Cdl
mVs−1 with current values 0.63 mA and −0.44 mA respectively. ECSA ¼
Cs
The highest peak current is observed at 40 mVs−1 with peak current
values of 1.17 mA and −0.10 mA, respectively. Fig. 3F shows the rela-
0:0343837
tion of scan rate with current. ECSA ¼
0:073

3.4. Selectivity and sensitivity of CoTe-GCE ECSA = 0.471 cm2

ECSA of CoTe-GCE is 0.471 cm2 which is greater than bare GCE

Voltammogram in Figure S4 represents redox peaks of albumin 0.073 cm2.
sensing in solution containing interfering substances including crea- Randles-Sevcik equation is used for reverse electrode system [33]
tinine, hemoglobin, histidine, lysine, and dopamine in 1 M PBS buffer for finding anodic peak current (Ipa).
of pH 7.4. The anodic and cathodic peak currents are 49.9 µA and

3 1 1
−30.5 µA at respective potentials of 0.14 V and −0.57 V showing Ipa ¼  2:69  105 n2 AD2 Cv2
no effect on albumin sensing by interferences.
Similarly, the obtained LOD and LOQ for CoTe-GCE are 0.09 nM
Ipa ¼ 0:091A
and 0.003 nM, respectively.
In above equation, n = 1 for potassium ferricyanide indicating the
3.5. Stability of CoTe-GCE number of electrons during the oxidation–reduction phenomenon. A is
the surface area of CoTe electrode (0.471 cm2), D is the diffusion coef-
The stability of CoTe-GCE in 1 M PBS buffer of pH 7.4 is manifested ficient (7.2 × 10-6 cm2/s), and C represents the concentration of potas-
through redox peaks for albumin obtained after 100 cycles at scan rate sium ferricyanide, i.e. 0.1 M.

3
U. Saeed et al. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 906 (2022) 115999

Fig. 2. (A) FTIR, (B) UV–Visible, (C) TGA, (D) BET, (E) XRD and (F) EDX of CoTe nanorods.

3.7. Roughness factor (Rf) 3.8. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) of CoTe-GCE

Roughness factor is determined via electrochemical phenomenon
that depends on number of redox cores present on surface and elec-
trode dimension (actual surface). Roughness factor is the ratio of elec-
trodes surface area [34].
Rf ¼ A2=A1
A2 is ECSA of CoTe nanorods and A1 of bare GCE. Rf is calculated as
6.45.
EIS of CoTe-GCE is measured in 1 mM potassium ferrocyanide with
1 M KCl and 1 M PBS albumin solutions (Fig. 5). Nyquist diagram
shows electron transfer properties of bare electrode which are negligi-
ble as evident from the large semi-circle diameter of bare electrode
thus, rendering it less conductive. Modification of bare electrode with
CoTe reduces ohmic resistance Ω thus improving the electron transfer
properties (red line).
EIS of varying albumin concentrations in PBS buffer of pH 7.4 is
shown in Nyquist diagram (Fig. 5B). There is a decreasing trend in

4
U. Saeed et al. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 906 (2022) 115999

Fig. 3. (A) Effect of albumin concentration, and (B) its corresponding line curve, (C) effect of pH on albumin sensing and (D) its corresponding line graph and (E)
effect of scan rates in 1 M PBS of 1 nM albumin and (F) line graph of scan rates.

electrochemical impedance of modified electrode with increasing
albumin concentrations from 0.2 nM to 1 nM. Ohmic resistance is
the highest at 0.2 nM albumin with the largest semi circle diameter
while it is the lowest for 1 nM with the smallest semi-circle diameter.
Electrochemical impedance of variable pH is shown in Nyquist plot
(Fig. 5C). Modified electrode has minimum resistance at pH 7.4 and is
thus the most conducive. The increasing diameter of impedance spec-
trum at pH lower than 7.4 indicates that electrochemical resistance
increases as pH drops below 7.4 whereas electrochemical impedance
is maximum at pH above 7.4 such as pH 7.8. and 8.2.
3.9. Heterogeneous electron transfer rate constant (K0)
EIS is used to study the charge transfer rate constant by immersing
different electrodes in same circuit. Charge transfer resistance (Rct) is
indicated by semi-circle diameter. Bare GCE shows big semi-circle hav-

5
U. Saeed et al. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 906 (2022) 115999

Fig. 4. (A) ECSA and (4B) line graph of CoTe Nanorods.

Fig. 5. (A) Nyquist diagram for the electrochemical impedance of bare and CoTe GCE, (B) varying albumin concentrations in 1 M PBS of pH 7.4 and (C) variable
pH.

ing an Rct value 13.7 kΩ while Rct of CoTe-GCE is 3.97 KΩ. Lower Rct
values indicate higher conductivity and fast electrons transfer between
the modified electrode surface and the analyte solutions. CoTe nanorods
modified electrode shows higher electrical conductivity compared to
bare GCE which can be attributed to better electron transfer kinetics
due to presence of CoTe nanorods on electrode surface, and their large
surface area. Heterogeneous rate constant (k0) is calculated from the fol-
lowing equation [35].
RT
k0 ¼
F2 Rct AC
In this equation, R represents the general gas constant (8.314 J K−1
mol−1), T is the temperature (298.15 K), F indicates the Faraday con-
stant (96,485C mol−1), Rct shows the charge transfer resistance for
bare GCE (13.7 KΩ) and CoTe-GCE (3.97 KΩ), A represent the electro-
chemical surface area of bare GCE (0.073 cm2) and CoTe-GCE
(0.471 cm2), and C is the concentration of potassium ferrocyanide
solution (0.1 M). K° for CoTe-GCE is 1.3 × 10-1 cm s−1 and for bare
GCE is 2.5 × 10-2 cm s−1. CoTe-GCE modified electrode shows higher
k° values which reveal faster electron transfer (Table S1). CoTe nanor-
ods accelerate the electron transfer process during albumin sensing
and act as a transducer and decrease charge transfer resistance of
albumin.
diluted 10 times with 1 M PBS of pH 7.4. Albumin recovery is deter-
mined by spiking albumin of different concentrations. Table 1 shows
the recovery results for CoTe-GCE ranging from 50 to 120%. This vari-
ation in recovery is attributed to different albumin concentrations in
urine samples of CKD patients. This high recovery of albumin from
urine samples indicates the promising sensing potential of CoTe-GCE
from complex biological samples.
3.11. Albumin detection in urine samples of CKD patients
CoTe-GCE is used to determine albumin levels in urine samples of
CKD patients. Five urine samples are taken from CKD patients. Albu-
min levels are found out by Art Analyzer Beckman Coulter D × C
700 AU. CV responses of urine samples (S1-S5) are recorded on
CoTe-GCE. Samples 1 to 5 show the highest albumin levels and sharp
oxidation current peak with higher current and vice versa (Fig. 6 and
Table S2).
Table 1
Albumin recoveries from human urine samples of chronic kidney disease
patients using CoTe-GCE.
Sample No. Added Conc. (nM) Found Conc. (nM) Recovery (%)

S1 1 nM 1.2 nM 120%
3.10. Recovery analysis of albumin by CoTe-GCE S2 1 nM 1.0 nM 100%
S3 1 nM 0.8 nM 80%
CoTe-GCE is then applied to urine samples and calculated recovery S4 1 nM 0.65 nM 65%
S5 1 nM 0.5 nM 50%
of spiked albumin at different concentrations. Urine samples are

6
U. Saeed et al.
Fig. 6. Cyclic voltammogram of albumin in urine samples of CKD patients.
A detailed comparison of CoTe nanorods electrochemical sensing
with other materials is given in Table S3.
3.12. Statistical analysis
Results of 40 CKD patients show positive correlation of urine albu-
min with albumin to creatinine ratio (P = 0.000, r = 0.043*) and neg-
ative correlation with urine creatinine levels (p = 0.003, r = -0.141*)
as shown in Fig. 7 and Table S4. High albumin levels (albuminuria) in
urine are key indicator of renal abnormalities [36]. Albuminuria
occurs due to reduction in estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR).
Albuminuria is a predictor of acute kidney injury, morbidity, mortal-
ity, CVD, chronic kidney disease, and progression end-stage renal dis-
ease. Albumin to creatinine ratio (ACR) is thus a measuring reference
for albuminuria [37].
Several cohort studies CKD patients indicate that ACR is a signifi-
cant predictor of CKD and has prognostic value for end-stage renal dis-
ease (ESRD) [38]. Incorporation of albuminuria into the CKD staging
system is useful regarding patient’s prognosis [39]. Changes in albu-
minuria due to changes in eGFR lead to increase in ACR which is
the baseline of ESRD [40].
ACR is a measure of albuminuria. A study in Korea reported that
ACR concentrations greater than 30 mg/g at early ages cause albumin-
uria before the prevalence of CKD [41]. Another study considering the
association between ACR and clinical complications in CKD indicates
that the value of ACR presents clinical risk factors that predict loss
of more than 25% eGFR. Clinical conditions associated with ACR val-
ues as per the aforementioned study are anemia, higher serum cystatin
C, hypoalbuminemia, hypercholesterolemia, hyperkalemia, acidosis,
and hyperphosphatemia [42]. ACR is a measure of albuminuria and
predicts the mortality risk factors among patients with creatinine iden-
tified CKD where creatinine and ACR as complementary biomarkers
predict 4.4 times higher mortality rates among CKD patients [43].
High levels of albumin and ACR are related to low levels of creatinine
in urine and vice versa and can be used as a prognostic factor in CKD
patients (Figure S6).
4. Conclusion
CoTe nanorods are synthesized by the hydrothermal process. SEM,
STEM, AFM, FTIR, TGA, UV, BET, XRD and EDX confirm the morphol-
ogy, surface area, size, structure, crystallinity and elemental composi-
tion of CoTe nanorods. Sensing parameters for CoTe modified GCE are
7
Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 906 (2022) 115999
Fig. 7. Correlation of urine albumin with ACR and creatinine levels.
optimized in 1 M PBS. The stability of CoTe-GCE is explained by cyclic
voltammetry for 100 cycles at potential window −1.0 to 0.6 V. Selec-
tive detection of albumin, in the presence of different interfering sub-
stances, is also carried out for CoTe-GCE. Material shows recovery up
to 120% for albumin in urine samples. The quantitative determination
of albumin from urine samples of CKD patients shows that high albu-
min levels in urine are correlated with high ACR and low levels of cre-
atinine in urine. CoTe nanorods based electrochemical sensor
demonstrates sensing application for albumin both for analytical and
real biological samples (i.e. urinary albumin). The proposed sensing
of albumin from 2.5 mL urine can be used as prognostic factor along
with ACR in CKD patients. In future, this sensor can be modified by
the addition of other conductive materials that can enhance the sens-
ing capability of cobalt telluride nanorods and also increase its electro-
chemical surface area for efficient redox reaction. This sensor can also
be used for point of care testing of urinary albumin i.e. for evaluating
albumin to creatinine ratio to measure albuminuria and for the estima-
tion of GFR via noticing the level of creatinine in urine.
Ethical Consent
The urine samples were obtained from volunteers. It is clarified
that the reported study in this work does not directly involve any
in vivo animal studies.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan,
Pakistan.
References
[1] E. Danese, M. Montagnana, A. Nouvenne, G. Lippi, Advantages and pitfalls of
fructosamine and glycated albumin in the diagnosis and treatment of diabetes,
Journal of diabetes science and technology 9 (2) (2015) 169–176.
[2] E. Neumann, E. Frei, D. Funk, M.D. Becker, H.-H. Schrenk, U. Müller-Ladner, C.
Fiehn, Native albumin for targeted drug delivery, Native albumin for targeted drug
delivery. 7 (8) (2010) 915–925.
[3] A.M. Merlot, D.S. Kalinowski, D.R.J.F.i.p. Richardson,, Unraveling the mysteries of
serum albumin—more than just a serum protein. 5 (2014) 299.
[4] J.S. Lees, C.E. Welsh, C.A. Celis-Morales, D. Mackay, J. Lewsey, S.R. Gray, D.M.
Lyall, J.G. Cleland, J.M.R. Gill, P.S. Jhund, J. Pell, N. Sattar, P. Welsh, P.B. Mark,
Glomerular filtration rate by differing measures, albuminuria and prediction of
cardiovascular disease, mortality and end-stage kidney disease, Glomerular
filtration rate by differing measures, albuminuria and prediction of
cardiovascular disease, mortality and end-stage kidney disease. 25 (11) (2019)
1753–1760.
U. Saeed et al.
[5] G. Fanali, A. di Masi, V. Trezza, M. Marino, M. Fasano, P. Ascenzi, Human serum
albumin: From bench to bedside, Human serum albumin: from bench to bedside.
33 (3) (2012) 209–290.
[6] M. Hasan, I. Sutradhar, R.D. Gupta, M. Sarker, Prevalence of chronic kidney
disease in South Asia: a systematic review, BMC Nephrology 19 (1) (2018),
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12882-018-1072-5.
[7] Guh, j.y.,, Proteinuria versus albuminuria in chronic kidney disease, Nephrology
15 (2010) 53–56.
[8] JINN.-YUH. Guh, Proteinuria versus albuminuria in chronic kidney disease:
Proteinuria/albuminuria in CKD, Proteinuria versus albuminuria in chronic kidney
disease. 15 (2010) 53–56.
[9] D. Kumar, D. Banerjee, Methods of albumin estimation in clinical biochemistry:
Past, present, and future, Clinica Chimica Acta 469 (2017) 150–160.
[10] R.-J. Yang, C.-C. Tseng, W.-J. Ju, H.-L. Wang, L.-M. Fu, A rapid paper-based
detection system for determination of human serum albumin concentration,
Chemical Engineering Journal 352 (2018) 241–246.
[11] H. Sana Rafiq et al, Selective electrochemical sensing of hemoglobin from blood of
β-thalassemia major patients by tellurium nanowires-graphene oxide modified
electrode, Chemical Engineering Journal 419 (2021) 129706.
[12] M. Jamil et al, Quantitative determination of creatinine from serum of prostate
cancer patients by N-doped porous carbon antimony (Sb/NPC) nanoparticles,
Bioelectrochemistry 140 (2021) 107815.
[13] B. Fatima, D. Hussain, A. Saeed, M.S. Sajid, S. Majeed, R. Nawaz, M.N. Ashiq, M.
Najam-ul-Haq, R. Mehmood, Tellurium doped zinc imidazole framework (Te@ZIF-
8) for quantitative determination of hydrogen peroxide from serum of pancreatic
cancer patients, Scientific Reports 10 (1) (2020), https://doi.org/10.1038/
s41598-020-78115-6.
[14] B. Fatima et al, Catalase immobilized antimonene quantum dots used as an
electrochemical biosensor for quantitative determination of H2O2 from CA-125
diagnosed ovarian cancer samples, Materials Science and Engineering: C 117
(2020) 111296.
[15] T.R. Naqvi, S.,, et al, Fabrication of iron modified screen printed carbon electrode
for sensing of amino acids, Polyhedron 180 (2020) 114426.
[16] M. Cieplak, K. Szwabinska, M. Sosnowska, B.K.C. Chandra, P. Borowicz, K.
Noworyta, F. D’Souza, W. Kutner, Selective electrochemical sensing of human
serum albumin by semi-covalent molecular imprinting, Biosensors and
Bioelectronics 74 (2015) 960–966.
[17] D. Duan, H. Yang, Y. Ding, D. Ye, L.i. Li, G. Ma, Three-dimensional molecularly
imprinted electrochemical sensor based on Au NPs@Ti-based metal-organic
frameworks for ultra-trace detection of bovine serum albumin, Electrochimica
Acta 261 (2018) 160–166.
[18] M.-X. Li, X.-H. Wang, L.-M. Zhang, X.-P. Wei, A high sensitive epitope imprinted
electrochemical sensor for bovine serum albumin based on enzyme amplifying,
Analytical Biochemistry 530 (2017) 68–74.
[19] J. Xia, X. Cao, Z. Wang, M. Yang, F. Zhang, B. Lu, F. Li, L. Xia, Y. Li, Y. Xia,
Molecularly imprinted electrochemical biosensor based on chitosan/ionic
liquid–graphene composites modified electrode for determination of bovine
serum albumin, Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 225 (2016) 305–311.
[20] W. Gui, X. Chen, Q. Ma, A novel detection method of human serum albumin based
on CuInZnS quantum dots-Co 2+ sensing system, Analytical and bioanalytical
chemistry 409 (15) (2017) 3871–3876.
[21] Y.-Q. Yang, X.-W. He, Y.-Z. Wang, W.-Y. Li, Y.-K. Zhang, Epitope imprinted
polymer coating CdTe quantum dots for specific recognition and direct fluorescent
quantification of the target protein bovine serum albumin, Biosensors and
Bioelectronics 54 (2014) 266–272.
[22] D. Nathiya, K. Gurunathan, J. Wilson, Size controllable, pH triggered reduction of
bovine serum albumin and its adsorption behavior with SnO2/SnS2 quantum dots
for biosensing application, Talanta 210 (2020) 120671.
[23] H. Swaminathan, K. Balasubramanian, Fӧrster resonance energy transfer between
MoS2 quantum dots and polyaniline for turn-on bovine serum albumin sensing,
Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 264 (2018) 337–343.
[24] Q. Peng, Y. Dong, Y. Li, Synthesis of Uniform CoTe and NiTe Semiconductor
Nanocluster Wires through a Novel Coreduction Method, Synthesis of uniform
CoTe and NiTe semiconductor nanocluster wires through a novel coreduction
method. 42 (7) (2003) 2174–2175.
[25] H.J.C.L. Sahuaro, Obtaining nano structures of cobalt telluride by a simplified ion
exchange reaction at aqueous solution. 16 (2) (2019) 57–61.
Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 906 (2022) 115999
[26] Coates, J.J.E.o.a.c.a., theory and instrumentation, Interpretation of infrared spectra,
a practical approach. 2006.
[27] M.A. Mohamed, J. Jaafar, A.F. Ismail, M.H.D. Othman, M.A. Rahman, Fourier
transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, in: Membrane Characterization, Elsevier,
2017, pp. 3–29, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63776-5.00001-2.
[28] M. Ramli, M.Z. Hussein, K.J.I.j.o.n. Yusoff,, Preparation and characterization of an
anti-inflammatory agent based on a zinc-layered hydroxide-salicylate nanohybrid
and its effect on viability of Vero-3 cells. 8 (2013) 297.
[29] S. Loganathan, R.B. Valapa, R.K. Mishra, G. Pugazhenthi, S. Thomas, in: Thermal
and Rheological Measurement Techniques for Nanomaterials Characterization,
Elsevier, 2017, pp. 67–108, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-46139-9.00004-
9.
[30] A. Shaji, A.K. Zachariah, in: Thermal and Rheological Measurement Techniques for
Nanomaterials Characterization, Elsevier, 2017, pp. 197–231, https://doi.org/
10.1016/B978-0-323-46139-9.00009-8.
[31] J. Reichenwallner, M.-T. Oehmichen, C. Schmelzer, T. Hauenschild, A. Kerth, D.
Hinderberger, Exploring the pH-induced functional phase space of human serum
albumin by EPR spectroscopy, Magnetochemistry 4 (4) (2018) 47, https://doi.org/
10.3390/magnetochemistry4040047.
[32] L. Yang et al, Assembled 3D MOF on 2D Nanosheets for Self-boosting Catalytic
Synthesis of N-doped Carbon Nanotube Encapsulated Metallic Co Electrocatalysts
for Overall Water Splitting, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 271 (2020)
118939.
[33] A.J. Bard, L.R. Faulkner, Fundamentals and applications, Electrochemical methods
2 (482) (2001) 580–632.
[34] P. Krzyczmonik, E. Socha, S. Skrzypek, K. Soliwoda, G. Celichowski, J. Grobelny,
Honeycomb-structured porous poly (3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene) composite
layers on a gold electrode, Thin solid films 565 (2014) 54–61.
[35] A.M. Santos, A. Wong, O. Fatibello-Filho, Simultaneous determination of
salbutamol and propranolol in biological fluid samples using an electrochemical
sensor based on functionalized-graphene, ionic liquid and silver nanoparticles,
Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 824 (2018) 1–8.
[36] H.J. Lambers Heerspink, R.T. Gansevoort, Albuminuria is an appropriate
therapeutic target in patients with CKD: the pro view, Clinical Journal of the
American Society of Nephrology 10 (6) (2015) 1079–1088.
[37] Levin, A., et al., Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work
Group. KDIGO 2012 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of
chronic kidney disease. 2013. 3(1): p. 1-150.
[38] M. van der Velde, K. Matsushita, J. Coresh, B.C. Astor, M. Woodward, A.S. Levey,
P.E. de Jong, R.T. Gansevoort, Lower estimated glomerular filtration rate and
higher albuminuria are associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, A
collaborative meta-analysis of high-risk population cohorts. 79 (12) (2011)
1341–1352.
[39] L.A. Inker, J. Coresh, A.S. Levey, M. Tonelli, P. Muntner, Estimated GFR,
albuminuria, and complications of chronic kidney disease, Journal of the
American Society of Nephrology 22 (12) (2011) 2322–2331.
[40] J.J. Carrero, M.E. Grams, Y. Sang, J. Ärnlöv, A. Gasparini, K. Matsushita, A.R.
Qureshi, M. Evans, P. Barany, B. Lindholm, S.H. Ballew, A.S. Levey, R.T.
Gansevoort, C.G. Elinder, J. Coresh, Albuminuria changes are associated with
subsequent risk of end-stage renal disease and mortality, Kidney International 91
(1) (2017) 244–251.
[41] E. Ji, Y.S. Kim, Prevalence of chronic kidney disease defined by using CKD-EPI
equation and albumin-to-creatinine ratio in the Korean adult population,
Prevalence of chronic kidney disease defined by using CKD-EPI equation and
albumin-to-creatinine ratio in the Korean adult population. 31 (6) (2016)
1120–1130.
[42] L. Huan, L. Yuezhong, W. Chao, T. HaiTao, The urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio is
a reliable indicator for evaluating complications of chronic kidney disease and
progression in IgA nephropathy in China, The urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio is
a reliable indicator for evaluating complications of chronic kidney disease and
progression in IgA nephropathy in China. 71 (5) (2016) 243–250.
[43] C.A. Peralta, Detection of Chronic Kidney Disease With Creatinine, Cystatin C, and
Urine Albumin-to-Creatinine Ratio and Association With Progression to End-Stage
Renal Disease and Mortality, Detection of chronic kidney disease with creatinine,
cystatin C, and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio and association with progression
to end-stage renal disease and mortality. 305 (15) (2011) 1545, https://doi.org/
10.1001/jama.2011.468.