Method for the Rapid Creation of Bridge Database

Systems and Practices in Developing Countries

Masatoshi Watanabe 1; Takashi Goso 2; and Ko Ibayashi 3

Abstract: In recent years, Japan has assisted in technique and capacity development for bridge maintenance and management in developing
countries worldwide. Such projects are aimed at formulating maintenance and management plans, which include bridge inspection and repair
techniques. However, because the current conditions of the bridges to be managed are not well understood, most developing countries have no
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effective data available for formulating bridge maintenance and management plans. To this end, the authors introduce a bridge database system that
uses smartphones to collect bridge inventory data and implements a brief bridge inspection to help formulate bridge maintenance and management
plans as a part of technical-assistance projects supported by the Japan International Cooperation Agency in Kenya, Madagascar, and Tajikistan.
Furthermore, a bridge database system that includes bridge inventory and inspection records can be established automatically during data col-
lection and inspection work without any additional effort. This system is expected to contribute toward establishing a bridge database system in
countries that have no inventory data or inspection records. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)SC.1943-5576.0000754. This work is made available under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Author keywords: Bridge maintenance and management; Bridge inspection; Bridge inventory; Database system.

Introduction International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Asia Development

Bridges are an integral part of modern highway infrastructure. In
Japan, there are approximately 700,000 road bridges, and a consid-
erable proportion of this road infrastructure was constructed during
the high economic growth period of the 1970s and 1980s (Ministry
of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism of Japan 2014).
The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism of
Japan (MLIT) has estimated that over 40% of bridges in Japan will
be over 50 years old in 2023 (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport, and Tourism of Japan 2014). To respond to this situation,
MLIT, research institutes (such as the Public Works Research In-
stitute), local governments, educational institutions (such as univer-
sities and national institutes of technology), and private companies
have thoroughly investigated technological developments related
to bridge maintenance and management works (Cabinet Office of
Japan 2021). In addition, public concern regarding the maintenance
and management of road infrastructures such as bridges and tunnels
has continued to increase in the wake of the Sasago tunnel collapse
in 2012.
Many technical cooperation projects concerning the maintenance
and management of roads and bridges have been implemented in Asia
and Africa with the support of aid agencies such as the Japan
1
Assistant General Manager of CTI Engineering International Co., Ltd.,
Nihonbashi Hama-Cho Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-8430, Japan; Graduate School
of Integrative Science and Engineering, Architecture and Civil Engineering,
Tokyo City Univ., Tokyo 158-8557, Japan (corresponding author). ORCID:
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9377-7262. Email: masatoshi.wt@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Design, Tokyo
City Univ., Tokyo 158-8557, Japan. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001
-9882-8946. Email: tgoso@tcu.ac.jp
3
Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Nagaoka College, Niigata 940-0817, Japan. Email: ibayashi@nagaoka-ct.ac.jp
Note. This manuscript was submitted on January 31, 2022; approved on
August 27, 2022; published online on November 9, 2022. Discussion per-
iod open until April 9, 2023; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Practice Periodical on Struc-
tural Design and Construction, © ASCE, ISSN 1084-0680.
Bank (ADB). Projects for the capacity development of bridge main-
tenance and management supported by JICA after 2015 are listed in
Table 1. Because these technical cooperation projects have been
implemented based on requests from each country, it is clear that tech-
nology for the maintenance and management of roads and bridges has
attracted attention in both developed and developing countries.
As a member of the JICA expert team, Watanabe has partici-
pated in several projects on the maintenance and management of
roads and bridges in Kyrgyzstan, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Kenya
that focus on bridge inspection, bridge soundness diagnosis, and
database development. The author is presently studying bridge in-
spection and inspection record management methods that consider
the actual conditions in developing countries.
This paper describes the challenges for bridge maintenance and
management in developing countries and introduces a system for
bridge data collection developed by the authors and implemented in
several actual projects. Then, an improved bridge data collection
system widely applicable in developing countries is proposed
alongside a utilization method for the data obtained by the devel-
oped system.
Literature Review and Bridge Maintenance Cycle
The JICA conducted a Study on Technical Cooperation Projects
for Bridge Maintenance and Management to Developing Countries
(hereafter, the JICA Project Study) in 2019 (JICA 2019). The re-
sulting report reviewed technical cooperation projects on bridge
maintenance and management that Japan has participated in dur-
ing 2007–2018 (covering 12 countries: the Philippines, Thailand,
Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Pakistan,
Ethiopia, Egypt, Zambia, and Bolivia), identified the issues observed
in each project, and summarized the points to be considered in future
technical cooperation projects.
According to the JICA Project Study, the general issues faced by
developing countries regarding the maintenance and management
of bridges can be summarized as follows:

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 Table 1. List of the works under the Project for Maintenance and Management of Bridges Supported by JICA since 2015
Country Duration (months) Project title
Asia region
Sri Lanka 2015–2017 (36 months) Project for Capacity Development on Bridge Management
Bangladesh 2015–2018 (32 months) Bridge Management Capacity Development Project
Cambodia 2015–2018 (37 months) Project for Strengthening Capacity for Maintenance of Roads and Bridges
Pakistan 2016–2018 (34 months) Project for Technical Assistance on Implementation of Bridge Management System in National
Highway Authority
Philippines 2016–2019 (39 months) Improvement of Quality Management for Highway and Bridge Construction and Maintenance Phase 3
Bhutan 2016–2020 (45 months) Technical Cooperation Project for Capacity Development in Construction and Maintenance of Bridges
Laos 2020–2023 (36 months) Project for Capacity Development on Bridge Maintenance and Management
Myanmar 2020–2022 (30 months) Project for Capacity Development of Road and Bridge Operation and Maintenance
Tajikistan 2021–2024 (44 months) Project for Capacity Development for Bridge Management
Africa region
Zambia 2015–2023 (72 months) Project for Improvement of Bridge Maintenance Capability Building (Phase 1 and Phase 2)
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Ghana 2019–2023 (48 months) Project on Capacity Building for Road and Bridge Management
Kenya 2020–2025 (60 months) Project for Strengthening of Capacity Development on Bridge Management System
Madagascar 2021–2024 (45 months) Project for Capacity Development for Road and Bridge Maintenance
Mozambique 2021–2024 (42 months) Project for Improvement of Bridge Maintenance and Management Capability

• lack of staff in the governing organization,

• shortage of budget for maintenance and management work on
bridges,
• lack of specialized knowledge about bridges,
• lack of previous bridge inspections, and
• lack of official and collective bridge inventory data.
Watanabe et al. (2021) listed specific challenges for bridge
maintenance and management in developing countries based on
the JICA Project Study and personal experience while working
on JICA-supported technical cooperation projects as follows:
• lack of data/records that help to understand the status of the
bridge (location, bridge length, bridge type, construction year,
current condition, and so on),
• lack of daily and/or periodic bridge inspections,
• nonuniform bridge inventory and inspection data records and
format, if data/records exist,
• no bridge maintenance plans formulated based on bridge
data, and
• very little repair of bridges has been conducted.
The preparation of bridge maintenance and management plans,
which includes budgeting, is one of the objectives of JICA’s assis-
tance projects. However, as pointed out by Henry et al. (2018),
existing bridge information and unified records describing basic
information and inspection results, which form the basis of bridge
maintenance and management plans, are almost nonexistent in de-
veloping countries. Furthermore, it has been reported that even
when bridge databases are established with the support of aid agen-
cies, input into such databases is typically considered the respon-
sibility of counterparts in the developing countries after the project
is completed; in many cases, the data are not entered and the data-
base does not function. Indeed, Henry et al. (2018) reported that
data for 720 bridges in Myanmar were supposed to be entered after
a JICA technical cooperation project; however, when the author
checked in 2020 during a subsequent project supported by JICA,
they were still not entered.
The bridge maintenance workflow follows a cycle that involves
inspection, diagnosis, and development/implementation of a main-
tenance management plan. Inventory data and condition assessment
through bridge inspection are prerequisites for bridge maintenance
management. Fig. 1 shows a bridge maintenance cycle proposed by
Watanabe et al. (2021). Anwar (2010) proposed that inventory and
condition assessment are essential components in bridge mainte-
nance work. Furthermore, Mohammed et al. (2020) cited Anwar
Fig. 1. Bridge maintenance cycle. (Reproduced from Watanabe et al.
2021.)
(2010) maintenance cycle in their paper on measures to enhance
bridge maintenance in Nigeria. Both cycles, namely Watanabe et al.
(2021) and Anwar (2010) to be cited by Mohammed et al. (2020),
start with inventory and inspection or condition assessment, as in-
dicated. Therefore, it can be said that the bridge maintenance cycles
presented in these papers have become standard conceptual dia-
grams for bridge maintenance businesses.
Thus, as indicated in the preceding paragraphs, bridge asset
management and maintenance have received unprecedented atten-
tion in recent years, not only in developed countries but also in
developing countries (Road Infrastructure Department, Ministry
of Public Works, and Transport in Cambodia 2017). Road networks
are among the most important infrastructures for a healthy econ-
omy and the development of a country/region because they typi-
cally facilitate the highest proportions of passenger travel and
logistics; thus, road hazard events are critical in terms of evaluation,
response, and recovery. However, in many developing countries,
there are no/limited existing bridge inventory and inspection data,
nor is there a bridge database. Thus, bridge data must be collected
from scratch to serve as fundamental information for the prepara-
tion of a bridge maintenance and management plan.
Although previous studies have focused on the functional aspects
of bridge databases and sophisticated data use (deterioration predic-
tion, life cycle cost calculation, and so on), most have assumed that
bridge data are accurately input or have used pre-existing bridge
databases. Because bridge inventory data are essential for efficient
bridge maintenance and management, the first step in developing
countries is the collection of such data. As a result, discussions and
methods are required to design approaches to quickly collect and
input bridge data into a database system to build an initial database.

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 One representative example of readily available bridge inven-
tory data is the US road bridge data provided on the internet by
the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA, n.d.) as the Na-
tional Bridge Inventory. Researchers belonging to universities and
research institutes can use such databases along with bridge owners
to actively pursue technological developments related to bridge
maintenance. For example, Alogdianakis et al. (2020) performed
a data analysis to extract structural deterioration information from
a bridge inventory database containing more than 500,000 bridges
maintained by the FHWA. Morcous et al. (2010) demonstrated two
approaches to predict the deterioration of concrete bridge decks at
two management levels of an integrated system using condition as-
sessment data obtained from the database of the Quebec Ministry of
Transportation and a condition assessment of the Dixon Bridge in
Montreal, Canada. In Japan, Kobayashi et al. (2022) created salt
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damage, frost damage, and alkali-silica reaction damage distribu-
tions based on bridge inspection data collected by fiscal year 2019
from concrete bridges administrated by the MLIT to clarify how the
environment affects concrete bridge durability.
However, these studies relied upon extant bridge inventory and
inspection data; they did not need to collect it. In developing coun-
tries where there is no comprehensive bridge data, it is necessary to
first compile a database of inventory and initial inspection data;
however, few studies have investigated bridge data collection on
a global scale. In addition, bridge data have not been collected from
several thousand bridges on a national scale to the best of the
authors’ knowledge; there is clearly a lack of practical studies
focusing on this issue.
Therefore, the authors developed a simple, quick, accurate, and
efficient method to collect bridge inventory and inspection data for
the future development of a bridge database system. This system
was then trialed in developing countries. In the proposed system,
the information obtained at the site—e.g., bridge inventory data
(such as the bridge length, type, and location) and bridge inspection
results—is recorded using smartphones and integrated on a server
to automatically develop a bridge database.
Bridge Database System
System Development Considerations
Conventionally, bridge inspection work is conducted using simple
field tools. The inspector manually writes the inspection record in a
sketch book, drawing, inspection sheet, and so on at the site. After
returning to the office, the field information is re-entered into dig-
ital inspection forms, which are normally Microsoft Excel files
stored locally on a computer and printed out to serve as the inspec-
tion report; however, this approach is inefficient because it involves
double recording.
Table 1 indicates that JICA typically assists in projects related to
bridge maintenance and management capacity development for
periods of 3–4 years. During these periods, data such as bridge in-
ventory and inspection results must be collected, the bridge con-
ditions must be assessed, and the bridge maintenance plan must
be formulated. Because the latter half of the project must focus
on developing a bridge maintenance plan and calculating the bridge
maintenance budget, the collection of bridge data must be com-
pleted within the first year of the project.
Therefore, it would be difficult to collect all inventory and
inspection data for bridges in an entire country and build a bridge
database during the project period using the conventional bridge in-
spection and data recording method. To address this issue, the author
referred to a bridge inspection method using tablet computers
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developed by Ibayashi et al. (2013) and applied in Cambodia by
Watanabe et al. (2021) to propose a system that can collect bridge
data and build a database using smartphones, making it globally
applicable.
During their practical study in Cambodia, Watanabe et al.
(2021) reported that tablet computers used in a high-temperature
environment frequently crashed because of high internal tempera-
tures. To address this and other issues, the following points were
considered to enable the easy, rapid, accurate, and efficient collec-
tion of bridge data:
• Information that can be obtained using built-in smartphone
functions [e.g., bridge location can be obtained using the Global
Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) function] should be ob-
tained automatically to reduce input errors and time.
• The spelling of information can differ between English-speaking
and non-English-speaking countries because words are often con-
verted from the sound of the official national language to alpha-
betic notation. Therefore, for predetermined items such as region
names, road names, and materials, a pull-down list and/or check-
box style should be used to provide quick input and to ensure
searchability in the future.
• Empty cells should be highlighted in red to prevent omissions.
• Items to be entered numerically such as bridge length and width
should be input using the numeric keypad; only decimal points
(as opposed to commas) should be used to prevent interpretation
errors owing to the different meanings of commas and decimal
points in different countries.
• Bridge inspections require visual inspection while moving from
one end of the bridge to the other and from the bridge surface to
the ground around the substructures; therefore, the system con-
figuration should not require multiple trips back and forth.
The system introduced in this paper is essentially an updated
version of the Watanabe et al. (2021) system applied in Cambodia.
Further, considering the reality of developing countries, where con-
nectivity can be weak in rural areas, the following points were
considered:
• Maps.me, which is an offline map application that can be used
even in areas with a weak network connection, was adopted to
identify the bridge locations on a map on the smartphone.
• The information recorded at the site is temporarily stored in the
smartphone without requiring any data communication; it can
then be transmitted to the data server when a strong network
connection is available.
Structure of the System
The proposed system operates via smartphone as the client device.
A smartphone has built-in capabilities such as a camera, GNSS,
text input, data storage, sound recorder, and data communication.
This enables the simultaneous development of a bridge database
system while conducting and recording the results of bridge inspec-
tions onsite. Data recorded at the bridge site can then be sent to the
data server from the smartphone.
The system is based on the FileMaker series version 13 software
for database development; the iPhone device series serves as the
client device operated by the inspector recording the data at the
site. The iPhone was adopted because it has common specifications
worldwide as well as many language settings. Furthermore, a com-
puter with MacOS running a FileMaker server was used as the data-
base server. If the server is installed in a location with an unreliable
power supply, it is preferable to adopt a laptop computer that does
not turn off immediately in the event of a power outage to prevent
data loss. A schematic of the system configuration is illustrated
in Fig. 2.
Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr.
 Fig. 2. Schematic of system.
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Fig. 3. Structure of bridge database system.
The system file consists of two features: (1) an inventory sys-
tem, and (2) a brief inspection system; the data in both systems are
linked by the bridge ID allocated by the inventory system, as in-
dicated in Fig. 3. The basic operation flow of the system involves
preparing the inventory data using the inventory system, after
which the inspector inputs data (general data, superstructure, pave-
ment, slab, substructure, and so on) by performing measurement
work and taking photos at the site. Next, the brief inspection system
is launched to conduct the bridge inspection. There are five preset
inspection categories: road surface, superstructure (including the
deck slab), abutment, pier, and around bearing. The operational
flow of the system is summarized schematically in Fig. 4.
Data describing the bridge inventory and inspection recorded at
the site can be communicated from the iPhone client device to the
database server using the mobile data connection. However, it is
assumed that a large quantity of data will be generated owing to
the many photos included, making it difficult to send the data from
the site using the mobile data connection, especially in rural regions
in developing countries where high-speed data communication net-
works may not be established. Therefore, another version of the
system, called the offline version, was prepared for such scenarios.
In the offline version, the data recorded onsite are temporarily
stored on the iPhone. When it becomes possible to connect to the
internet through a high-speed data communication network, the
data stored in the iPhone are transmitted to the server. This system
is designed for use with the iPhone but can also be used with an
iPad if a larger screen is desired.
Inventory Data System
The inventory data system requires information fundamental to
the preparation of a bridge maintenance and management plan.
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Fig. 4. Operation flow of the system.
For example, it requires bridge dimensions (bridge length, width
of carriage way, and width of sidewalk), location (coordinates auto-
matically acquired by GNSS), material, structure type, existence of
bridge accessories (bearings, expansion joints, and so on), and pho-
tos. The items recorded in the inventory data system are listed in
Table 2, and the data input procedure is illustrated in Fig. 5.
The inventory data input method comprises five screens on the
client device, as shown in Fig. 5. The first screen [Fig. 5(a)] indi-
cates that three photos of the bridge should be taken: a general view,
the road surface on the bridge, and the bridge nameplate. The lo-
cation information (longitude and latitude) can be passed to the ex-
ternal Maps.me application by pressing the Map button in the upper
right corner to check whether the latitude and longitude are approx-
imately correct. The second screen [Fig. 5(b)] is used to input gen-
eral information such as the bridge name, road category/class, and
road administrator; the latitude and longitude are entered automati-
cally. Even if the inspector forgets to check the bridge location
on the map on the first screen, the Map button is placed in the same
position on the second screen so that location can still be con-
firmed. The third screen [Fig. 5(c)] is used to input additional gen-
eral information such as bridge length, width, number of spans,
and year of construction. The fourth screen [Fig. 5(d)] is used to
enter information describing the superstructure such as pavement
type, superstructure material, structural type, slab material, bearing
and telescopic device information, and presence or absence of
attachments.
The fifth and final screen [Fig. 5(e)] is used to input information
describing the substructure; the inspector takes a photo from under-
neath the bridge and enters several items regarding piers and abut-
ments. After these inputs are completed, the bridge inventory sheet
shown in Fig. 6 is automatically generated, and the data are stored
on the client device. This inventory sheet can also be emailed
directly from the client device as a PDF file.
The four pull-down items in Table 2 (Area 1, Area 2, Road
category, and Administrator) can be replaced according to the spec-
ifications of each country, making this system globally applicable.
Brief Inspection System
After preparing the inventory data, the bridge inspection commen-
ces using the brief inspection system to record information describ-
ing the structural soundness of the bridge. The smartphone-based
input method is used to guide the inspector to check for existing
damage in accordance with the inspection items displayed on the
screen (Table 3). If damage is found, a situational photo is captured
Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr.
 Table 2. Fundamental items in inventory data system these inspection data, including damage situation photos and sound
Inventory data item Input method data, can be managed on the same platform.
Watanabe et al. (2021) established a bridge database for the
General
Ministry of Public Works and Transport in Cambodia under the
Bridge name Keyboard
Area 1 (state/county/province, Pulldowna
Project for Strengthening Capacity for Maintenance of Roads
and so on) and Bridges supported by JICA using a similar system (Japan
Area 2 (city/town) Pulldowna International Cooperation Agency 2019); however, the system
Road category Pulldowna checked for the existence of damage for each inspection item in
KP (kilometer + meter) Numpad a predetermined order: road surface, superstructure, deck slab,
Administrator Pulldowna bearing area, and then substructure. This inspection approach had
Location 1-latitude Automatic notable usability issues. For example, the bridge inspection always
Location 2-longitude Automatic had to start from the road surface, and if damage was found in the
Bridge length Numpad
deck slab during the substructure inspection, it was necessary to
Number of spans Numpad
Maximum span length Numpad
return to the relevant damage item in sequence. Thus, the authors
improved the system to enable the inspector to begin the bridge
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Bridge width (including curb) Numpad

Carriageway width Numpad inspection from the easiest point after preparing the inventory data,
Sidewalk width in left Numpad regardless of their location. In addition, the system was upgraded to
Sidewalk width in right Numpad cover masonry bridges in reference to the inspection guidelines for
Number of lanes Numpad masonry bridges in Oita Prefecture, Japan (Oita Prefecture 2021).
Constructed year (if unknown, blank) Numpad Bridge components were categorized into the five elements
Pavement shown in the Element column of Table 3, and inspections and re-
Material Pulldown cords are completed based on these elements. This allows for the
inspector to navigate among elements as they are observed, for ex-
Superstructure ample starting from the substructure at the completion of the inven-
Material Pulldown
tory preparation, eliminating the need to first return to the road
Structure type Pulldown
Number of girder per one span Numpad surface, as was necessary in the system described by Watanabe et al.
Continuous Pulldown (2021). Eliminating unnecessary movements of the inspector not
only saves inspection time but also improves safety because bridge
Deck slab inspection sites are fraught with hazards.
Material Pulldown
The brief inspection system comprises the 10-screen sequence
Abutment shown in Fig. 7. The inspector proceeds with the inspection in
Material Pulldown accordance with the inspection items displayed on the screen.
Structure type Pulldown The screen in Fig. 7(a) shows a list of bridges recorded in the sys-
Foundation type Pulldown tem, from which the inspector chooses the bridge to be inspected.
Height of A1 Numpad The list is displayed in order of proximity to the current location of
Height of A2 Numpad
the client device, reducing the need to scroll through a long list
Pier to find the appropriate bridge; the top bridge shown in the list is
Material Pulldown usually selected. The screen in Fig. 7(b) shows the previous inspec-
Structure type Pulldown tion record for the selected bridge. After tapping the New Inspec-
Number of columns per pier Numpad tion button shown in Fig. 7(b), the inspector may start the bridge
(if multiple columns) inspection. If the previous inspection record needs to be checked/
Dimensions (rectangular) Numpad
reviewed before starting a new inspection, the Show Inspection
Dimensions (circle) Numpad
Sheet button can be tapped. The screen in Fig. 7(c) is used to pro-
Accessories (with or without) vide a safety check before starting the bridge inspection. The in-
Bearing Checkbox spector should accordingly check their gear, then tap Yes, and the
Expansion joint Checkbox button Start Inspection will be automatically on.
Bridge railing/guard fence Checkbox
The screen in Fig. 7(d) is used to select the bridge element being
Appurtenances (electric cable, Checkbox
communication cable, and so on)
inspected. The bridge elements are categorized into the five ele-
ments summarized in Table 3; the inspector may start the inspection
Photos from any element as convenient. The screens in Figs. 7(e–g) are
Road surface Photography used to input the inspection data. If no damage is found for the
Overview Photography chosen element, No damage is tapped on the screen in Fig. 7(e);
Underside Photography
the inspection of that bridge element is now completed. However, if
Name plate Photography
damage is found, Damaged is tapped and the various types of dam-
Date age to the identified bridge element are shown on the screen in
Data preparation date Automatic Fig. 7(f), as listed under the Inspection Item column in Table 3.
a
Items to be replaced according to each country’s specifications. Next, the screen for taking photos is displayed. On the screen
shown in Fig. 7(g), six photos can be recorded for each element.
The option Not Visible is provided for elements other than the road
using the camera built into the iPad/iPhone. If an anomaly that can- surface. If inspection of the superstructure, abutment, pier, and
not be reported with a photo is found, such as an abnormal sound at around bearings is not possible due to topography or other access
an expansion joint, this sound can be recorded using the built-in difficulties, Not Visible can be selected. Furthermore, this option
microphone. Thus, it is possible to report damage that could not provides useful information that helps future inspectors consider
be previously recorded using paper documentation. Furthermore, their access and inspection methods by referencing photos in the

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Fig. 5. Screen layout for inventory data input: (a) first screen; (b) second screen; (c) third screen; (d) fourth screen; and (e) fifth screen.

inventory data, satellite photos on the internet, and so on in
advance. This sequence of screen transitions, i.e., (1) identifying
the existence of damage, (2) checking the damage type, and (3) tak-
ing photos of the damage, remains the same regardless of which
element the inspector selects on the screen in Fig. 7(d). After taking
the photos, the user is returned to the screen to select another bridge
element, as shown in Fig. 7(h).
After the completion of each element inspection, the color of
the button showing that bridge element is changed to light blue. The
inspector can then continue to inspect other elements of the bridge.
When the inspection is completed for all elements, the button
Comment by Inspector is made available [Fig. 7(i)], and the inspec-
tor can then add their comments, signature, and name [Fig. 7(j)].
The inspection result is subsequently stored on the iPhone, and the
results for each bridge can be output as an inspection report, as
shown in Fig. 8. The aforementioned bridge inspection procedural
flow uses the brief inspection system developed by the authors.
Evaluation of Damage Degree
The bridge inspection method applied in the proposed system in-
volves checking for the existence of the damage items listed in

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Fig. 6. Bridge inventory sheet form.

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 Table 3. Inspection items, damage points, evaluation score, and weights of members in brief inspection system
Member Weight of
Damage level Score in member,
Element Material Position Inspection item Points (DL) I to III member, A B (%)
Road surface Road surface Road Rutting on pavement 1 1–2 points: DL I, DL I: 1, 10
surface Cracks on pavement 1 3–5 points: DL II, DL II: 3, and
Lack of curb 1 and 6 points and DL III: 5
Rebar exposure on curb 2 over: DL III
Damage on railing/side barrier 3
Collapse of railing/side barrier 6
Damage on expansion joint 3
Clogging drainage 3
Superstructure Superstructure Concrete Cracks 2 1–3 points: DL I, DL I: 1, 30
Free lime 1 4–7 points: DL II, DL II: 3, and
Rust fluid 3 and 8 points and DL III: 5
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Honeycomb 2 over: DL III

Delamination 5
Rebar exposure 5
Steel Paint peeling 2 1–4 points: DL I,
Corrosion 4 5–9 points: DL II,
Rust 2 and 10 points and
Cracks 5 over: DL III
Deformation 3
Section loss 3
Fracture 5
Missing bolts 3
Wooden Rots 3 1–2 points: DL I,
Cracks 2 3–4 points: DL II,
Falling off of member 5 and 5 points and
over: DL III
Masonry Cracks 2 1–3 points: DL I,
Section loss 2 4–6 points: DL II,
Misalignment 2 and 7 points and
Falling off 2 over: DL III
Deformation 3
Deck slab Concrete Cracks 2 1–4 points: DL I, DL I: 1, 10
Free lime 1 5–9 points: DL II, DL II: 3, and
Rust fluid 3 and 10 points and DL III: 5
Honeycomb 2 over: DL III
Delamination 5
Rebar exposure 5
Falling off 5
Steel Corrosion 3 1–4 points: DL I,
Rust 2 5–9 points: DL II,
Cracks 5 and 10 points and
Deformation 3 over: DL III
Section loss 4
Fracture 5
Wooden Rots 3 1–2 points: DL I,
Cracks 2 3–4 points: DL II,
Falling off of member, hole 5 and 5 points and
over: DL III
Abutment Abutment Concrete Cracks 2 1–4 points: DL I, DL I: 1, 20 (but 40
Free lime 1 5–9 points: DL II, DL II: 3, and if single span)
Rust fluid 3 and 10 points and DL III: 5
Honeycomb 2 over: DL III
Delamination 5
Rebar exposure 5
Settlement/scouring 10
Masonry Cracks 2 1–4 points: DL I,
Big gap 2 5–9 points: DL II,
Falling off of stone 3 and 10 points and
Deformation 3 over: DL III
Settlement/scouring 10
Wooden Rots 3 1–2 points: DL I,
Cracks 2 3–4 points: DL II,
Settlement/scouring 5 and 5 points and
over: DL III

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 Table 3. (Continued.)
Member Weight of
Damage level Score in member,
Element Material Position Inspection item Points (DL) I to III member, A B (%)
Pier Pier Concrete Cracks 2 1–4 points: DL I, DL I: 1, 20
Free lime 1 5–9 points: DL II, DL II: 3, and
Rust fluid 3 and 10 points and DL III: 5
Honeycomb 2 over: DL III
Delamination 5
Rebar exposure 5
Settlement/scouring 10
Steel Corrosion 3 1–4 points: DL I,
Rust 2 5–9 points: DL II,
Cracks 5 and 10 points and
Deformation 3 over: DL III
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Section loss 4
Fracture 5
Settlement/scouring 10
Concrete Cracks on concrete member 2 1–4 points: DL I,
and steel Free lime 1 5–9 points: DL II,
Rust fluid 2 and 10 points and
Honeycomb 1 over: DL III
Delamination of concrete 3
Rebar exposure 3
Corrosion 3
Rust 2
Cracks 4
Deformation 2
Section loss 3
Fracture 4
Settlement/scouring 10
Wooden Rots 3 1–2 points: DL I,
Cracks 2 3–4 points: DL II,
Settlement/scouring 5 and 5 points and
over: DL III
Masonry Cracks 2 1–2 points: DL I,
Big gap 2 3–6 points: DL II,
Falling off of stone 2 and 7 points and
Deformation 2 over: DL III
Settlement/scouring 7
Around bearing Around bearing Bearing and Sedimentation 2 1–4 points: DL I, DL I: 1, 10
joint gap Rust 3 5–9 points: DL II, DL II: 3, and
Puddle of water 2 and 10 points and DL III: 5
Functional impairment 5 over: DL III
Slipping out 5
Abnormality at joint gap 4

Table 3; if any damage is found, a photo of the damage scenario is
captured and recorded. Each damage item is then assigned a score
between 1 and 10, as indicated in Table 3. Minor damage is as-
signed a low score, whereas major damage (such as the settlement
of the substructure) is assigned a high score. These assigned points
are set as an initial value based on author experience as a profes-
sional engineer specializing in structural and material. The points
for the damage items are then summed to obtain the total score for
each corresponding member. These scores are then evaluated in
terms of three damage levels (DLs) based on the judgment criteria
determined for each member type (DLs I–III in Table 3); for each
member, one point is given for DL I, three points for DL II, and five
points for DL III. Weights of 10%, 30%, 10%, 20%, 20%, and 10%
are then allocated to the road surface, superstructure, deck slab,
abutment, pier, and around bearing member types, respectively. In
the case of single span, the abutment accounts for 40% as the sole
substructure. The sum of the values obtained by multiplying the
score for each member (A) by the weight for the corresponding
member type (B) is then used as the damage score for the entire
bridge (T), as follows:
T ¼ ΣA × B ð1Þ
The damage degree of the entire bridge is divided into four lev-
els according to the value of T, as indicated in Table 4. Thus, the
system can evaluate bridge damage at multiple levels, such as the
existence of damage to a member, level of damage to a member,
and level of damage to an entire bridge. This makes it possible to
search for the following in a database:
• bridges with cracks in concrete girders,
• bridges with severe damage to the superstructure and/or
substructure, and
• bridges that require urgent countermeasures.
Moreover, the score allocated to each damage item, classifica-
tion criteria of damage levels, score per member, and/or weight for
each member type summarized in Table 3, as well as the classifi-
cation criteria presented in Table 4, can be adjusted based on the

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Fig. 7. Procedure of brief inspection system: (a) bridge list; (b) inspection record; (c) safety check; (d) selecting the element; (e) input damage
existence; (f) check damage type; (g) taking photos; (h) complete the element; (i) complete all elements; and (j) comment and signature.

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Fig. 8. Form of inspection report.

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 Table 4. Division of damage degree for a whole bridge system and devices used and the fact that the inspectors were oper-
Damage degree Value of T ating the system for the first time were identical; therefore, a partial
comparison is possible to determine the effects of the system im-
SD (serious damage) Above 1.5
provements applied in the Madagascar bridge survey. In the Tajiki-
D (damage) 1.0 to 1.5
O (observation required) 0.6 to 0.9 stan bridge survey, data from a total of 431 bridges were collected
N (no damage) Under 0.6 over a total of 55 days using a maximum of two teams/day; thus, an
average data collection rate of 5.7 bridges/day/team was achieved.
The bridge inspection system implemented by Watanabe et al.
(2021) in Cambodia required inspections to be conducted in a pre-
Table 5. Number of bridge data collected per day determined order [road surface, superstructure (main girders and
Date Bridges
deck slab), around bearing, and substructure (abutments and piers)].
Therefore, if damage to the deck slab was found during the inspec-
23 June 7 tion of the bridge pier, it was necessary to return all the way to the
24 June 14 screen for inspecting the deck slab; this required additional recording
25 June 10
time. The system introduced in this paper overcame this limitation by
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26 June No survey
27 June 4 allowing the user to return to the relevant part of the bridge with just
28 June 7 a few taps, thus making it possible to efficiently record inspections.
29 June 12
30 June 8 bridge survey using the proposed system was approximately 1.7
1 July 12
2 July 6 formed by Iwamasa et al. (2022), suggesting that the new method
3 July 11
4 July 10
5 July 16
6 July 8
Total 125
Average 9.6
collected data and photos in accordance with the administrator’s
policy for bridge maintenance; for example, more emphasis could
be placed on damage to the superstructure and/or deck slab.
Practical Results of the Proposed System
The authors introduced the proposed system for the baseline survey
in the Project for Capacity Development for Road and Bridge
Maintenance in Madagascar from the end of June to the beginning
of July 2021, which gathered data describing 125 bridges (Table 5).
To conduct the survey, the system operation was explained on-
line and the data from several bridges were gathered on a trial basis
because the authors could not directly visit Madagascar owing to
the global COVID-19 pandemic. After the authors confirmed that
the trial data were satisfactory, the survey was conducted by local
staff (a consulting company) in Madagascar starting June 23, 2021.
Although the quantity of bridges inspected varied in the range of
4–16 per survey day, this was probably due to the distance between
bridges and the road conditions during travel. The average data col-
lection rate was 9.6 bridges=day, which is close to that at the begin-
ning of the study conducted by Watanabe et al. (2021) in Cambodia
(10.0 bridges=day). However, unlike the survey conducted in Cam-
bodia, instructions for using the system were provided online and the
bridge data were gathered by remotely managing local staff from
Japan; yet the fact that the same data collection rate was obtained
suggests that the system was easy to operate and simple to handle,
even for first-time users.
Iwamasa et al. (2022) conducted a bridge survey in Tajikistan
around the same time using the same method employed by Watanabe
et al. (2021) in Cambodia under the same remote instruction condi-
tions as the Madagascar bridge survey owing to the COVID-19 pan-
demic. Unfortunately, a direct comparison cannot be made under
completely identical conditions because of the different topographic
and climatic conditions in Madagascar and Tajikistan. However, the
As a result, the average data collection rate during the Madagascar
times higher than that in during the Tajikistan bridge survey per-
of selecting the bridge element to be inspected, shown in Fig. 7(f),
was effective.
In terms of damage evaluation, which is the most important as-
pect of the bridge inspection system, examples of damage photo-
graphs of bridges assessed to have serious damage (SD) based on
the criteria in Tables 3 and 4 are shown in Fig. 9. Clearly, bridge
administrators can use this system to quickly identify bridges clas-
sified as SD in the database and consider countermeasures.
Although some of the photos shown in Fig. 9 for bridges deter-
mined to exhibit SD only depict minor damage, the points assigned
for each DL in Table 3 are initial values; the points for each inspec-
tion item and criteria defining the DLs can be reviewed based on the
obtained inspection results, and the accuracy can be improved.
These tasks are part of the bridge maintenance and management
cycle, which can be completed with the support of the proposed
system.
Conclusions
The authors developed a system to collect bridge data using smart-
phones and implemented it in Madagascar to address the lack of
bridge data for formulating bridge maintenance plans in developing
countries where bridge maintenance management will be tackled in
the future. The following points were considered to ensure that the
system can be operated easily in developing countries by those
working on bridge maintenance management:
• A selective input method (pull-down system) was used for items
with limited inputs such as region name and material type to
prevent incorrect input and differences in notation among
inspectors.
• Unentered items were highlighted with a red background to
prevent omissions.
• On the input screen, the keyboard was displayed for text input
and the numeric keypad was displayed for numeric input to
ensure smooth input.
• A link to another map application (Maps.me) was provided
to check the accuracy of the automatically acquired location
information in the field.
The proposed system was able to collect data on approximately
10 bridges per day during a project in Madagascar. For bridges that
were classified as having serious damage (SD) according to the
scores allocated to each inspection item in Tables 3 and 4, the

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 Crack on pavement Collapse of bridge railing Crack on concrete girder
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Exposure rebar of concrete girder Honeycomb on concrete girder Deformation of steel member

Functional impairment of bearing Scouring in front of abutment Scouring around pier

Fig. 9. Serious damage to each bridge element.

damage level judgment criteria were extracted, and damage photos
were confirmed as shown in Fig. 9. Most of this damage was clas-
sified as SD, indicating that the system is useful for identifying
bridges that require countermeasures based on inspection records.
However, some bridges were classified as SD but did not require
immediate countermeasures because the points assigned to each
DL in Table 3 are based on safety criteria. In a second round of
inspections, the proposed system can be made more efficient
and effective by reviewing the score distribution based on the re-
sults of the first inspection, and the operation of the system can be
improved.
The authors could not travel to Madagascar owing to the
COVID-19 pandemic; therefore, the operation of the system was
explained online, verifying that the proposed system can be used
by local engineers who lack sufficient experience in bridge inspec-
tion. In terms of accuracy, the inspection results are based on the
observed existence of damage. Although the DL of each bridge
element was not evaluated to determine the accuracy of these obser-
vations, the use of standardized damage items and scores was gen-
erally sufficient to identify which bridges require countermeasures.
In developed countries such as the US and Japan, many studies
have been conducted that utilize existing bridge data such as bridge
inventories and inspection records at a high level to realize efficient
bridge maintenance and management; however, many developing
countries do not have such data. The proposed bridge database
system was therefore developed to facilitate the recording of bridge
inventory and inspection data considering the actual conditions
and issues common in developing countries such as poor connec-
tivity, inconsistent data, a lack of experience in bridge inspections
and other maintenance and management work, a shortage of
bridge engineers, and so on. The authors believe this system can
accordingly serve as a cornerstone for the development of future
bridge maintenance and management technology in developing
countries.
Because the proposed system is intended to facilitate the effi-
cient collection of basic bridge data, it is not currently capable
of predicting deterioration or any other advanced functionalities
currently being studied in developed countries. However, because
the system includes bridge condition assessments and damage pho-
tographs that allow complete bridge inspection data to be recorded
in chronological order, we believe that it establishes a foundation
for the future development of a bridge database system capable of
predicting deterioration.
Prospects
Technology related to the maintenance and management of road
structures, which includes bridges and tunnels, will be further in-
vestigated in the future. The authors understand that there are many
countries that want to prepare maintenance management plans for
road structures but do not have the necessary basic inventory data
required for planning. The developed system will be very useful in
such countries. The authors would therefore like to globally deploy
the system to countries without bridge databases. Therefore, the
system desires to be compatible with iOS and other operating sys-
tems (OS) such as Android and Windows, which will be one of the
future challenges.

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 Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this
study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request. The item list contains (1) bridge inventory data; and
(2) bridge inspection data. However, some or all data, models,
or code generated or used during the study are proprietary or con-
fidential in nature and may only be provided with restrictions. The
item list contains (1) bridge location data; and (2) application
program.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Editage for English language editing.
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