J.M.J.

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MILITANTE, John Michael J. May 8, 2023
GARCIA, Ricardo G. Jr. GW
IMBAT, Renz Aldrin A. GROUP F
LAPAR, Jylou P.
CE – 2 BES220A
Bro. Cristino M. Sta. Ana, FMS

6. Explain the origin of natural stream leeves.

 Natural levees, which are low ridges of flood-deposited sediment that form
on either side of a stream channel and thin away from the channel, can be
created by a series of floods. Sand and silt make up the majority of the
sediment found closest to rivers, whereas finer clay is transported farther
away onto low-lying, flat terrain (the backswamp).

plu96103_fm_i-xx.indd (archive.org)
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7. Explain some of the steps that we can take to limit the damage from flooding.

 Block floodwaters by placing sandbags. By this we can reduce the

possibility of floodwaters to enter in your places.
 Place gadgets and valuables higher up on a counter or on a higher
floor. Placing our material things or devices away from flood water
and keep it in high spaces in order to prevent it from destruction
caused by flood.
 Shut down your electricity. Shut down your electricity can prevents
it from any accidents happen during and after floods because it can
cause serious injuries or even death.
 Secure any large, potentially damaging equipment or pieces of
furniture. Floods can move any heavy equipment or materials due
to high amount of pressure in water, so, in order to avoid losing of
properties we must secure any large or heavy equipments.

6 Tips to Minimize Your Risk of Flood Damage | Kin Insurance

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8. Explain the concepts of porosity and permeability and the importance of these
to ground water storage and movement. Describe the relative porosities and
permeabilities of some common geological materials.

o Porosity is the amount of pore space that is between particles in soil or rocks.
Permeability takes this pore space and connects the voids together so that water
can pass through. Porosity is more associated with storage of water, while
permeability is more associated with groundwater movement and flow.
o The relative porosities and permeabilities of some common geological materials
is that the porosity itself was measured the voids of the rocks or soil and the
permeability is dealing with the flowing of groundwater through that voids.

plu96103_fm_i- xx.indd
(archive.org)
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9. What controls the velocity of groundwater flow? What happens to the water
table near a pumped well? What conditions are necessary for an artesian well?

 The permeability of the

sediment or rock and the
hydraulic gradient both affect
how quickly groundwater
flows.

 A cone of depression, also

known as a cone of
depression, is a depression
that forms when water is
pumped from a well and the water table is normally pulled down around
the well. The result is a decrease in the water table near the well.

plu96103_fm_i-xx.indd (archive.org)

Conditions for an artesian well:

 To store water, the aquifer needs to be situated between impermeable

rocks.
 The aquifer must outcrop in a region which is a source of water like a rain
area beneath a lake to have sufficient water.
 The aquifer must dip from a region of water intake and form a broad
syncline to exert enough pressure.
 To ensure that water exits the well on its own, the well's mouth must be
lower than the area used for intake.
 10 ONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR THE FORMATION OF ARTESIAN WELL
(geographypoint.com)

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10. Define aquifers, aquitards, containing layers, and the diffences between
confined and unconfined aquifers.

 A body of saturated rock or silt known as an aquifer allows water to flow freely
through it. Aquifers contain a lot of water and are quite porous.
 A low-permeability unit known as an aquitard, or confining unit, can store
groundwater and transfer it slowly from one aquifer to another.
 The distinction between an unconfined aquifer, which is only partially filled with
water and has a water table, and a confined aquifer, which is fully filled with
water under pressure and is typically isolated from the surface by a relatively
impermeable confining bed, or aquitard, such as shale. The water table in an
unconfined aquifer rises and falls throughout dry and wet seasons because it is
refilled by precipitation, and relatively rapid groundwater flow all throughout. A
limited aquifer slowly replenishes itself through shale bed confinement. With very
slow movement of groundwater, a confined aquifer may have no response at all
to wet and dry seasons.
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11. Explain the concepts of hydraulic head, the water table, potentiometric
surface and hydraulic gradient.

 Concept of hydraulic head

 “Hydraulic head,” or simply “head,” is the mechanical energy per unit
weight of groundwater. Groundwater flows from positions of high hydraulic
head to positions of lower head. The rate of flow is proportional to the rate
at which head decreases with distance along the path from high head to
low.

https://www.usbr.gov/lc/yuma/programs/YAWMS/GROUNDWATER_head.html#:~:text=
%E2%80%9CHydraulic%20head%2C%E2%80%9D%20or%20simply,from%20high
%20head%20to%20low.

 Concept of water table

The water table is an underground boundary between the soil surface and
the area where groundwater saturates spaces between sediments and
cracks in rock. Water pressure and atmospheric pressure are equal at this
boundary.

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/water .

 Concept of potentiometric surface

The potentiometric surface is the level to which water will rise in tightly
cased wells. A water table map shows the spatial distribution of water
levels in wells in an unconfined aquifer, and is a type of potentiometric
 surface map. The Potentiometric Surface of an aquifer is defined by the
level to which water will rise in a groundwater monitoring well

https://dnr.wi.gov/education/documents/groundwater/SandTankExercise.pdf

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 Concept of hydraulic gradient

The hydraulic gradient is the driving force that causes groundwater to

move in the direction of maximum decreasing total head. It is generally
expressed in consistent units, such as feet per foot.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydraulic-gradient#:~:text=The
%20hydraulic%20gradient%20is%20the,%2F1000%20or%200.002%20(Fig.
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12. Describe the flow of groundwater from recharge areas to discharge areas.
- Ground water moves along flow paths from areas of recharge to areas of discharge at
springs or along streams, lakes, and wetlands. Discharge also occurs as seepage to
bays or the ocean in coastal areas, and as transpiration by plants whose roots extend to
near the water table. Discharge also occurs as seepage to bays or the ocean in coastal
areas, and as transpiration by plants whose roots extend to near the water table.
Recharge areas are at higher elevations, where the water has high gravitational energy.
It was energy from the sun that evaporated the water into the atmosphere and lifted it
up to the recharge area. The water loses this gravitational energy as it flows from the
recharge area to the discharge area.
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13. What is Karst Topography? Describe the nature of groundwater flow in karst
system.

- Karst is an area of land made up of limestone. Limestone, also known as chalk

or calcium carbonate, is a soft rock that dissolves in water. As rainwater seeps into the
rock, it slowly erodes. Karst landscapes can be worn away from the top or dissolved
from a weak point inside the rock. Karst landscapes feature caves, underground
streams and sinkholes on the surface. Where erosion has worn away the land above
ground, steep rocky cliffs are visible.
https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/karst/

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14. Explain how wells are used to extract ground water implications of over-
pumping a well.

- Groundwater is accessed by either pumping from wells drilled into the aquifer or
by developing natural springs where the potentiometric surface intersects the land
surface (Big Spring in Bellefonte, PA is one example of a relatively large spring that is
used for municipal supply). Although springs are relatively inexpensive to develop, they
are not always present, nor are the flow rates always sufficient to support demand. As a
result, most groundwater extraction occurs by pumping wells, or in many cases “fields”
of wells concentrated in a small area.

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/earth111/node/929

15. Describe how observation wells are used to monitor groundwater levels and
the importance of protecting groundwater resources.

- These are dedicated monitoring stations, sited and designed to detect potential
changes in groundwater flow and quality— design parameters include selection of depth
for the intake screen, frequency of measurement (if not continuous) and selection of
quality parameters. The primary goal of aquifer management is to control the impacts of
groundwater abstraction and contaminant loads, and monitoring aquifer response and
quality trends provide key inputs for this goal.

https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/334871468143053052/pdf/
301070BriefingNote9.
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16. Distinguish between natural and anthropogenic contamination of groundwater

Groundwater contamination can occur naturally or as a result of human activities.

Natural contamination can result from geological processes, while anthropogenic
contamination arises from human activities such as industrial operations, agriculture,
mining, and disposal of waste.

Natural contamination can occur due to leaching of minerals from rocks and
soils, or due to the infiltration of surface water containing natural contaminants such as
dissolved minerals or metals. For example, groundwater in regions with high levels of
arsenic in the soil may contain elevated levels of arsenic, which can pose a risk to
human health.

Anthropogenic contamination of groundwater can result from various activities

such as the use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture, discharge of wastewater from
sewage treatment plants, and accidental spills from industrial operations. These
contaminants can include chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, heavy metals, and
organic compounds like benzene and toluene.

The distinction between natural and anthropogenic contamination can sometimes

be difficult to make, as human activities can exacerbate naturally occurring
contaminants. For example, the use of fertilizers and other chemicals in agriculture can
increase the levels of naturally occurring contaminants like nitrates and phosphates in
groundwater.

https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/groundwater-contamination-
understanding-threats-and-taking-action
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17.Describe conditions that groundwater can become contaminated, and how

contamination can be minimized.

Groundwater can become contaminated when pollutants enter the subsurface

environment and infiltrate the groundwater. This can occur through a variety of
mechanisms, including:

1. Surface contamination: Pollutants can enter the soil and infiltrate the
groundwater through spills, leaks, or improper disposal of hazardous waste.

2. Agricultural practices: The use of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides in

agriculture can lead to groundwater contamination when these chemicals
infiltrate the soil and leach into the groundwater.

3. Industrial activities: Industrial operations can release a variety of chemicals into

the environment, including solvents, heavy metals, and other hazardous
chemicals, which can contaminate groundwater.

4. Septic systems: Improperly maintained or malfunctioning septic systems can

release harmful bacteria and other contaminants into the groundwater.

To minimize contamination of groundwater, it is important to take preventive

measures such as:

1. Proper disposal of hazardous waste and chemicals

2. Proper storage and handling of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides

3. Regular maintenance and inspection of septic systems

4. Monitoring and testing of groundwater quality

 5. Containment and cleanup of spills and leaks.

https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/groundwater-contamination-
understanding-threats-and-taking-action

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18. Explain how a livestock operation can lead to contamination of groundwater.

What is the most likely contaminant?

A livestock operation can lead to groundwater contamination through the release

of animal waste and other byproducts. Livestock produce large amounts of manure and
urine that contain high levels of nutrients, including nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as
bacteria, viruses, and parasites. When animal waste is not properly managed, it can
infiltrate the soil and contaminate the groundwater.

The most likely contaminant from a livestock operation is nitrate, which is a

byproduct of animal waste. Nitrate is a common pollutant in groundwater in agricultural
areas, particularly those with high livestock densities. Nitrate can cause serious health
problems if ingested in high levels, particularly for infants and pregnant women.

https://academic.oup.com/af/article/2/2/17/4638607

There are several ways that animal waste can enter the groundwater system
from a livestock operation:

Runoff: Animal waste can be carried off the land by rainwater or irrigation and enter
nearby streams, rivers, or lakes that ultimately recharge groundwater.

Leaching: When animal waste is applied to land as fertilizer, excess nutrients can leach
through the soil and contaminate groundwater.

Seepage: Animal waste can seep directly into groundwater through cracks and
fractures in the ground or through improperly constructed waste storage facilities.
 To prevent contamination from livestock operations, it is important to properly
manage and dispose of animal waste, minimize the use of antibiotics and other drugs,
and maintain proper sanitation practices. Additionally, using best management practices
such as monitoring and testing of groundwater quality and implementing containment
measures can help minimize the risk of contamination.