Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169

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Food Quality and Preference

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Cup colour influences consumers’ expectations and experience on tasting T

specialty coffee
⁎
Fabiana M. Carvalhoa, , Charles Spenceb
a
Department of Philosophy, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, Brazil
b
Crossmodal Research Laboratory, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present study was designed to investigate the effect of the colour of the cup on sensory and hedonic
Specialty coffee judgments of specialty coffee by consumers. Altogether, 457 participants took part in one of three experiments.
Cup colour Crossmodal correspondences between the colour of the cup (i.e., an extrinsic cue) and the taste profile of the
Taste coffee served (i.e., the contents) were manipulated. Congruent and incongruent colour × taste pairings were
Expectations
created by using four cup colours (white, pink, yellow, and green) and two coffee profiles (sweet Brazilian and
Crossmodal
acidic Kenyan) to assess whether these manipulations would affect pre-and/or post-tasting ratings. Participants
first rated their expectations of sweetness and acidity, and subsequently, their experience of those attributes on
tasting the coffees, as well as rating their liking. The results revealed that the colour of the cup exerted a
significant influence on both pre- and post-tasting ratings for all attributes measured. Liking ratings significantly
decreased in incongruent pairing conditions – which also increased the unexpected acidity of the Kenyan coffee
when tasted from the pink cup. Taken together, these results demonstrate for the first time that the colour of the
cup significantly impacts sensory and hedonic judgements of specialty coffee. Our results also show that the
contrast between expected and actual experience can result in a negative hedonic response and the enhancement
of the unexpected sensory attribute. Implications for the development of coffee cups that can enhance the
drinking experience are highlighted.

1. Introduction Fiszman, 2016, for reviews).

According to the International Standards Organization, flavour can
be defined as a “complex combination of the olfactory, gustatory and
trigeminal sensations perceived during tasting” which “may be influ-
enced by tactile, thermal, painful and/or kinaesthetic effects” (ISO
5492, 2008). However, in addition to the so-called consummatory or
interoceptive cues which involve the sensory systems mentioned by the
ISO definition (i.e., those stimulated once a food or drink product has
entered the mouth), anticipatory or exteroceptive cues have also been
shown to exert a profound influence over multisensory flavour experi-
ences too (Small, Veldhuizen, Felsted, Mak, & McGlone, 2008; Spence,
2015; Stevenson, 2014). Specifically, anticipatory cues are those that
help in setting expectations before the food or drink enters the mouth,
and include orthonasal smell, vision, audition, and somatosensation.
According to the literature, visual information, especially colour cues –
provide an especially important source of cues concerning taste/flavour
expectations (see Piqueras-Fiszman & Spence, 2015; Spence & Piqueras-
Studies conducted over the last three decades in a number of dif-
ferent countries have highlighted a remarkable degree of consistency
when people are asked to match colours and basic tastes (see Spence
et al., 2015, for a review). The pairings between basic tastes and colours
have been characterized as an example of a crossmodal correspondence
in which apparently unrelated sensory features, or dimensions, are
perceived or described as matching (i.e., as a feeling that the stimuli
belonging to different dimensions/sensory modalities go together; see
Spence, 2011, for a review). Amongst the strong colour-taste corre-
spondences, sour has been associated with yellow and green whereas
sweet has been associated with pink and/or red instead. Interestingly,
in addition to colour-taste pairings, the saturation of the colour also
appears to be related to tastant concentration (Saluja & Stevenson,
2018).
These crossmodal correspondences likely arise because of learnt
associations between colour and taste. Certain colour-taste associations
are probably fairly universal such as, for instance, those related to fruit

⁎
Corresponding author at: University of Sao Paulo, FFLCH, Department of Philosophy, Av. Prof. Luciano Gualberto, 315 – Cidade Universitária, CEP 05508900 São
Paulo, Brazil.
E-mail address: bibimesq@gmail.com (F.M. Carvalho).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.03.001
Received 10 December 2018; Received in revised form 8 February 2019; Accepted 4 March 2019
Available online 07 March 2019
0950-3293/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence
ripeness in humans’ natural environment (Maga, 1974; Foroni, Pergola,
& Rumiati, 2016). In this case, prior exposure to differences between
red and green nuances would bias natural colour-taste correlation,
being the red end of the spectrum associated with sweetness and the
green end of the spectrum associated with sourness. In addition to these
natural associations, other colour-taste correspondences may be more
dependent on different colours co-occurring with different types of food
in different parts of the world. Thus, these particular colour-taste as-
sociations are likely to be – at least to a certain extent – culture specific
(Shankar, Levitan, & Spence, 2010; Wan et al., 2014).
Moreover, the saliency of colour cues in taste/flavour priming goes
beyond product intrinsic sensory attributes (i.e., those that physically
belong to the product itself) and includes extrinsic sources of in-
formation – which are not physically a part of the product but are
somehow related to it. Product extrinsic colour cues refer to all product-
related colour experienced by the consumer – i.e., where the product
happens to be sold, served, or consumed, such as tableware, labelling,
and packaging (Ares & Deliza, 2010; Harrar & Spence, 2013; Piqueras-
Fiszman & Spence, 2012; Spence, 2017). In some situations, even the
colour of the environment itself (i.e., contextual cues) has been shown
to affect flavour ratings (Oberfeld, Hecht, Allendorf, & Wickelmaier,
2009; Spence, Velasco, & Knoeferle, 2014; Velasco, Jones, King, &
Spence, 2013; though see Jiang, Niimi, Ristic, & Bastian, 2017, for an
exception).
A growing body of empirical research now demonstrates that the
physical properties of the serving vessel are strongly tied to the ex-
perience of flavour of the beverages being consumed from them (see
Spence, 2018; Spence & Wan, 2015, for reviews). The colour of the
receptacle has been shown to affect judgments of warmth for coffee
(Guéguen & Jacob, 2012), the perceived level of carbonation of water
samples (Risso, Maggioni, Olivero, & Gallace, 2015), as well as the
perceived intensity of certain flavours and well as basic tastes attributes
in several beverages. For instance, early research reported that con-
sumers rated the lemon/lime flavour in 7-Up as more intense when the
beverage was tasted from a can that was 15% more yellow in colour
than normal (Cheskin, 1957). Presumably the increase in the amount of
yellow may have exogenously drawn the consumers’ attention to the
lemony flavour already present in the drink. Cheskin dubbed this
phenomenon “sensation transference”, when people automatically
translate their perception of, or feelings about, the sensory properties of
the receptacle into the experience of the contents (see Skaczkowski,
Durkin, Kashima, & Wakefield, 2016, for a recent review).
Meanwhile, Dichter (1964) carried out a pioneering study into the
influence of the colour of the packaging on taste/flavour judgments.
Participants were given four cups of coffee to compare and evaluate
(see Favre & November, 1979, p. 64, for a summary of the results). Each
cup of coffee was served from a pot having a different colour (brown,
red, blue, or yellow). 73% of those tested reported that the coffee
served from the brown container was ‘too strong’; Meanwhile, 84% of
the female participants suggested the coffee served from the red pot was
rich and full-bodied; The aroma of the coffee from the blue jar was
rated as having a milder aroma; And the coffee served from the yellow
container seemed to have come from a weaker blend. In fact, the coffee
in all of the pots was the same. Once again, therefore, these results add
to the growing literature illustrating the widespread impact of colour on
taste/flavour perception.
More recently, the participants in another study were asked to
evaluate the receptacle itself (affective and sensory pre-tasting ratings)
or the experience of consuming either hot Earl Grey tea or a chilled
lemon soft drink from these cups (post-tasting ratings; Schifferstein,
2009). All cups made from different materials and were all pinkish
except for one which was transparent glass. One of the assessed attri-
butes was sweetness, and all pink cups, when empty, were rated as
significantly sweeter than the transparent cup. Interestingly, however,
no differences in sweetness ratings were observed for the actual
drinking experiences. It is possible that the participants may have
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Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169
transferred the sensation of the pinkness of the cups (i.e., their beliefs,
and expectations, based on previous experience that pink foodstuffs
tend to be sweet – Spence et al., 2015) to their impressions of the ‘sweet
content’ of the cups themselves. However, the anticipation of sweetness
primed by the pink colour was not an indicator of the actual perception
of sweet aroma and taste of either of the beverages. One reason for this
lack of correlation between expectation and experience could be that
the chosen beverages (i.e., Earl Grey tea and lemon soft drink) are not
necessarily associated with sweetness in the first place. This study
therefore raises a flag concerning the importance of matching the
colour of the container (or rather, the taste expectation elicited by that
colour) with taste attributes that are actually present in, or have been
associated with, the beverage being served in order to search for
crossmodal effects.
Other recent experiments have assessed the effect of cup colour on
flavour attributes and hedonic judgments in hot beverages that include
hot chocolate (Piqueras-Fiszman & Spence, 2012) and café latte (Van
Doorn, Wuillemin, & Spence, 2014). For instance, in the former study, a
hot chocolate drink was served to participants in orange, white, red, or
cream-coloured plastic cups. The hot chocolate was rated as having a
more intense flavour when served in the orange cup than when served
in either white or red cups (with no significant difference from the
cream-coloured cup). It was also liked more when tasted from the or-
ange cup than from the white cup (with no significant difference from
the other two coloured cups). The choice of these four colours, ac-
cording to the authors, was based on the observation that: “those are
among the most common colours found among cups available for dispensed
(or vended) hot beverages” (Piqueras-Fiszman & Spence, 2012, p. 326).
Meanwhile, the results of the latter study revealed that the café latte
was rated as more intense in flavour – but also as less sweet – when
served in a white mug (or in a transparent mug with a white sleeve) as
compared to a blue mug (or in a transparent mug with a blue sleeve) or
to a transparent mug. Once again, the colour selection was motivated
by the mug types that “are amongst the most commonly used vessels to
serve coffee in Australian cafés and restaurants” instead of prior knowl-
edge concerning colour-taste crossmodal effects (Van Doorn et al.,
2014, p. 1).
Coffee is one of the most commonly consumed beverages world-
wide. Traditionally, coffee has been traded as a commodity and con-
sumed as industrial blends (Ponte, 2002). However, coffee trading and
consumption has changed profoundly over the last 30 years with new
trading schemes appearing as customers become more interested in
consuming better quality coffee. Thus, new patterns of coffee drinking
have emerged with the growing importance of specialty coffees
(Carvalho, Paiva, & Vieira, 2016; Ponte, 2002). Specialty coffee is a
term used to refer to those coffees distinguished on the basis of quality
and uniqueness of origin, according to the Specialty Coffee Association
(SCA) and the international Q Coffee System protocols (Lingle &
Menon, 2017). In spite of its formal definition, the concept of specialty
coffee has exceeded the narrow meaning based solely on quality. It also
refers to the out-of-home consumption market niche where the content
of the consumption experience includes, but is not limited to, high
quality coffees. The specialty coffee consumer is likely interested in
different coffee flavour profiles, brewing methods, packaging, and
ambience (de Luca & Pegan, 2014; Ponte, 2002). Therefore, it is im-
portant to understand the relevant factors that might enhance the
multisensory experience in the coffee shop. One factor that must be
considered when trying to create a truly engaging multisensory atmo-
sphere for specialty coffee consumption is the vessel in which the coffee
is served (Bury, 2014; Carvalho & Spence, 2018; de Luca & Pegan,
2014).
Many studies have already been published on colour-taste/flavour
interactions between the drinking container and its contents.
Nevertheless, none have focused on assessing whether the appro-
priateness of pairing up the colour of the vessel with its corresponding
basic taste (e.g., pink or red for sweetness, yellow or green for acidity,
F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence
black for bitterness – See Spence et al., 2015) affects pre- and/or post-
tasting ratings, as well as hedonic judgments during the drinking ex-
perience. Moreover, very little research has been published to date
specifically looking at crossmodal influences of the cup on aroma and
taste attributes in the case of filter coffee (Carvalho & Spence, 2018;
Van Doorn et al., 2017; see also Guéguen & Jacob, 2012, for crossmodal
correspondence between cup colour and the warmth of coffee), whereas
the association between the colour of the receptacle and flavour per-
ception in specialty coffee remains essentially unstudied.
The study reported here is therefore distinct from previous research
in its theoretical approach. We seek not only to examine a possible
interaction between the colour of the vessel and the perception of taste/
flavour attributes as has been done in the past. In addition, we aim at
critically manipulating (i) the colour cue that has been demonstrated to
set expectations about taste identity and (ii) the taste profile of the
coffee served (i.e., the content). For this, four colours of ceramic cups
were selected based on previously documented colour-taste crossmodal
correspondences (pink for sweetness; green and yellow for acidity;
white as a reference, being the traditional colour for coffee cups in
Brazil), and they were paired up with two very distinct coffee flavour
profiles. One coffee was high in sweetness (typical of Brazilian specialty
coffees) whereas the other was high in acidity (common in Kenyan
specialty coffees)1. Thus, the participants were exposed to both con-
gruent and incongruent colour-taste pairings in order to investigate
whether the colour of the cup would influence participants’ taste ex-
pectations, actual taste perception as well as their hedonic judgements
of the coffees served in both conditions (i.e., congruent and incon-
gruent). By following this experimental design based on colour × taste
correspondences, hypotheses concerning both sensory and hedonic as-
pects could be addressed. Drawing upon the aforementioned sensation
transference account, and also on observations that sensory expecta-
tions alter the actual perception of food products (Piqueras-Fiszman &
Spence, 2015), the hypothesis was put forward that cup colour will
increase both pre- and post-tasting ratings of its corresponding basic
taste in the congruent conditions. For the incongruent conditions, based
on both processing fluency and assimilation-contrast theories that ac-
counts for the effect of cognitive effort in processing mismatching
multisensory cues (Reber, Winkielman, & Schwartz, 1998; Reber &
Schwarz, 2001) and of disconfirmation of expectations by the actual
consumption experience (Cardello & Sawyer, 1992), one of two out-
comes might be expected. If the disparity between the expectations and
actual perception is within an acceptable range (though note that it is
currently unclear how wide the acceptable range here is), the consumer
is capable of assimilating the difference, meaning that the stimuli are
being processed more fluently or easily. By contrast, in those situations
in which the discrepancy (or prediction error – Friston, 2010; Hirsh,
Mar, & Peterson, 2012) is outside of this acceptance range, decreased
processing fluency may lead to decreased liking ratings. Indeed, the
consumer may even overreact by exaggerating the difference between
expectation and reality – observed in an evaluation shift in the direction
opposite to the original expectation (Piqueras-Fiszman & Spence, 2015;
Schifferstein, 2001). In other words, the promise of a sensory experi-
ence followed by the delivery of a mismatching one may lead to high
ratings of the unexpected taste/flavour as well as greater customer
1
The chemical composition of the raw coffee bean is highly dependent on the
post-harvest processing method used, and this composition will determine
distinct flavour characteristics. In Brazil, the dry method is often used (i.e., the
whole cherry is dried as a raising – So-called ‘natural’ coffees) whereas in Kenya
the wet method is more common (i.e., the skin and mucilage are removed from
the parchment – So-called ‘fully washed’ coffees). Natural and fully washed
coffee beans originate beverages with very distinct flavour profiles but with
similar final score. Usually, natural coffee beans have denser body and sweeter
taste compared to the fully washed coffees, which tend to have a much cleaner
and more acidic taste (Da Rosa, Oliveira, Giomo, & Isquierdo, 2015; Hameed
et al., 2018).
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Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169
disappointment (Yeomans, Chambers, Blumenthal, & Blake, 2008)2.
Given the rationale outlined above, we focus here on testing the
hypothesis that the colour of the cup alters both the expected and actual
sensory experience as well as hedonic judgments in congruent and in-
congruent set-ups.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
A total of 457 participants gave their informed consent to take part
in one of the three experiments reported in the present study. The study
was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the School of
Psychology, University of São Paulo, Brazil. After data quality control,
the data from 82 participants were included in the final analysis of
Experiment 1 (31 female; age: 36.4 ± 9.2, 22–61 years-old), 92 in the
final analysis of Experiment 2 (40 female; age: 36.8 ± 11.4,
20–60 years-old), and 272 in the final analysis of Experiment 3 (142
female; age: 35.0 ± 7.9, 19–61 years-old)3. None of the participants in
any of the three experiments were informed about the origin or flavour
profile of the coffees that they were served.
2.2. Stimulus
2.2.1. Coffee
Only single origin Arabica coffees were used in the experiments
reported here. All of the coffees were assessed by SCA-certified sensory
analysts (i.e., Q grader cuppers). In Experiments 1 and 2, the partici-
pants were served only one type of coffee. The coffee used in
Experiment 1 came from the Imperio Estate, located in Buritizeiro,
Minas Gerais, Brazil (Designation of Origin: Cerrado Mineiro; altitude
of 1000 m). The cultivar was Acaia Cerrado, and the post-harvest pro-
cessing method used was dry/natural (Schwan, Silva, & Batista, 2012).
The coffee sample received an overall score of 86.5 points on a 0–100
scale (Lingle & Menon, 2017), with high sweetness and low-to-medium
acidity4. Regarding overall aroma/flavour characteristics, the coffee
was described as having strong notes of red berries and chocolate.
The coffee used in Experiment 2 came from Porta do Ceu Estate,
located in Santana de Caldas, Minas Gerais, Brazil (Sul de Minas region;
altitude of 1250 m). The cultivar was Red Catuai and was also processed
as natural. The coffee sample was given an overall score of 86 points,
with high sweetness and low-to-medium acidity. The coffee aroma/
2
The brain constantly makes predictions about the likely taste/flavour of that
which we are about to consume (i.e., eat or drink). Generally-speaking, we tend
to like foods/drinks more if they meet our expectations than if they do not
(Woods et al., 2011; Yeomans et al., 2008). However, in addition to the ex-
pectation about the food/drink itself, the context in which they are served also
plays a not insignificant role in setting the consumer’s expectations towards the
eating/drinking experience as a whole. For instance, there is a high demand for
novelty in molecular cuisine. In this context, the diners expect the unexpected
and so they keep their minds open to surprise (i.e., what might think of as
prediction error) (Spence & Piqueras-Fiszman, 2014). On the other hand, sur-
prise is not what a client necessarily wants in a cup of coffee served in a coffee
shop. Rather, drinking coffee can be seen as an ordinary experience, i.e., a
common, frequent experience within the realm of everyday life (unless, that is,
it is part of a molecular gastronomy/modernist meal; though see Spence &
Youssef, 2018).
3
Considering medium effect size (d) of 0.75, an intended power ≥ 0.8, and
alpha value ≤ 0.05, the minimum sample size is 73 in two-way factorial designs
(Gacula & Rutenbeck, 2006).
4
The specialty coffee grading system positively scores the presence of
sweetness and ‘vibrant acidity’ – As well as the balance between these two basic
tastes, and negatively scores dominant bitterness (Traore, Wilson, & Fields,
2018). Thus, specialty coffees essentially lack dominant bitterness, but will
express varying levels of acidity and sweetness depending on several agri-
cultural and roasting factors (Hameed et al., 2018).
F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence
flavour attributes were described as having predominant notes of citrus
fruit and molasses.
In Experiments 1 and 2, a single shot of espresso coffee (30 mL) was
served to participants. The coffee was prepared by the baristas working
in the two coffee shops in which the experiments took place, according
to their own extraction recipe. The serving temperature was not as-
sessed in either study. In Experiment 3, two different coffees were
served to all participants. The first coffee was from Ambiental Fortaleza
Estate, located in Mococa, Sao Paulo, Brazil (Mogiana region; altitude
of 1300 m). The cultivar was Yellow Catuai processed as natural coffee,
with an overall score of 88 points, with high sweetness and low acidity.
The predominant coffee aroma/flavour notes were butter toffee and
prunes. The second coffee came from the Nyeri region, Kenya (altitude
of 1600–1700 m), and consisted of a blend of four cultivars (SL28, SL34,
Ruiru, and Batian). The post-harvest processing method used was the
washed process, and the coffee received an overall score of 88 points,
with low-to-medium sweetness and high acidity, and with strong floral
notes as well as tangerine and blackcurrant. The coffee beverage served
to the participants in Experiment 3 was a filter (pour-over) coffee
prepared using the Hario V60 Kit (Hario V60; Tokyo, Japan) at a
concentration of 77 g·L−1 using mineral water at 92 °C. The mean
temperature of the coffee served to the participants was 59.8 °C
(SD = 1.9).
2.2.2. Cups
In Experiments 1 and 2, the participants were divided into two
testing groups according to the colour of the cup from which the
espresso coffee was sampled. All of the cups were white on the inside in
order to keep the visual contrast between the coffee and the inside wall
constant (Hurlbert, 1996). On the outside, the cups could either be
white or light pink, and were handleless (see Fig. 1A). Colour was the
only factor varied as all of the cups had the same shape, were made of
the same material (ceramic), and had virtually the same weight [Mean
(g) ± SD for white (105.5 ± 3.1) and pink (103.7 ± 2.9)]. In Ex-
periment 3, all of the participants were exposed to the four coloured
cups. All of the cups were white on the inside. On the outside, the cups
could be white, light pink, light green, or light yellow, all handled (see
Fig. 1B). Once again, colour was the only factor that varied between the
cups – shape, material (ceramic), and weight [Mean(g) ± SD for white
(131.5 ± 2.5), pink (132.7 ± 2.3), green (131.4 ± 2.9), and yellow
(133.2 ± 2.1)] were kept constant. It is also worth noting that by
keeping the inside of the cup a constant colour, by changing the outer
surface of the cup one ends up creating a foreground-background colour
combination that may convey a specific taste even more effectively than
either of the component colours. So, for example, Woods, Marmolejo-
Ramos, Velasco, and Spence (2016) have demonstrated that people
categorize pink on white as sweet more consistently than they do the
best of the component colours, white.
2.3. Design and procedure
Experiments 1 and 2 were conducted in two different coffee shops.
The first shop was located in Sao Paulo – SP (Takko Cafe) and the
second in Pocos de Caldas – MG (Ancora Coffee House), Brazil. The
testing was carried out over four days during working hours
(11 am–5 pm) and all of the participants were customers/clients of the
shops. The potential participant (customer) was invited to take part in
the study at the moment he/she ordered the single shot of espresso
coffee at the counter, where he/she was informed the study was about
tasting and evaluating the espresso coffee that had just been ordered.
Upon acceptance, the participant was preferentially led to the same
two-seater table where the participant would take one seat and the
experimenter took the other. A short questionnaire was used to assess
each participant’s familiarity and consumption frequency. Only those
amateurs who had been consuming specialty coffee for at least a year
were included in the study. None of the participants reported having a
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Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169
cold or any other impairment of their sense of smell or taste at the time
of the study.
The testing session started by placing a sheet containing the rating
scales, a pen, and a glass of water in front of the participant, who then
received a two-minute briefing while the coffee was being prepared.
The participant received one cup – either white or pink – containing the
single shot of espresso (30 mL) that had been ordered from the hands of
the barista. At this point, the experimenter left the participant alone in
order to evaluate the requested attributes.
The participants were instructed to first rate, only by looking at the
cup of coffee, its expected sweetness and acidity using the rating scales
(with a counterbalanced order across participants). Next, they moved
on to sample the coffee and repeat the same ratings after having tasted
it, as well as judging how much they liked it. Ratings were performed
using a 10-cm visual analog scale anchored at 0 (‘not at all’) and 10
(‘very’). The participants were assigned to each testing condition (i.e.,
white or pink cup) in order to get a final sampling design that was as
balanced as possible. Each testing session lasted for around 6–7 min.
Experiment 3 was conducted in Sofa Cafe, a coffee shop and school
in Sao Paulo. Data was collected in a quiet, well-lit air-conditioned
testing room. The majority of the participants were recruited primarily
through social media websites. The online advert made clear the ex-
perimental procedure as well as the inclusion criteria (only amateur
consumers who had been drinking specialty coffee for at least a year
with no sugar added; not having a cold or any other impairment of their
sense of smell or taste at the time of the study could take part). Before
the start of the study, all of the participants were informed that they
would taste and evaluate four samples of specialty coffee. They filled in
a short questionnaire on their familiarity specialty coffee and con-
sumption frequency. The participants were led, in groups of twelve, to
the testing room and were then seated around six two-seater tables,
with at least one-metre spacing between adjacent tasters. A sheet con-
taining the rating scales, a pen, and a glass of water were placed in front
of each participant’s place prior to their arrival at the testing room.
At the start of each session, the group of participants received a
three-minute briefing in order to ensure that all groups were given the
same instructions. To avoid a possible coffee-colour bias in the re-
sponses, the tasting procedure followed a within-participant experi-
mental design, and the evaluation of the samples followed a sequential
monadic presentation scheme with the order of presentation balanced
amongst participants (see Fig. 1).
The participants were informed that they were going to evaluate a
total of four coffee samples of 50 mL each, one at a time. They were
instructed first to look at (but not taste or smell) each one of the coffee
cups and evaluate their expected sweetness and acidity using the “ex-
pectation” scales. They were then instructed to taste the coffee samples
and rate the sweetness, acidity, and how much they liked them using
the “perception” scales. The participants were also instructed to rinse
their mouths out with water between samples in order to cleanse their
palates. The order in which the sweetness and acidity scales were
presented was counterbalanced across participants.
One supervisor was present during the testing sessions in order to
provide guidance if necessary. Upon finishing the study, the partici-
pants were thanked for their participation and instructed to leave the
room. They also received a small sample of specialty coffee for taking
part in the study. Each testing session lasted for around 15–20 min.
2.4. Data analyses
Data from Experiments 1 and 2, which followed exactly the same
design and procedure, were separately analysed using the same
methods. For both expected and post-tasting espresso ratings, a multi-
variate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted on the depen-
dent variables ‘sweetness’, ‘acidity’, and ‘liking’, with the colour of the
cup as a between-participants factor. A repeated-measures MANOVA
was used to compare the expected espresso ratings to the post-tasting
F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169

Fig. 1. Cups used in Experiments 1 and 2 (A), and in Experiment 3 (B). Diagram representing the experimental procedure adopted in Experiment 3. Each participant
evaluated four samples (cup colour + coffee type) in one of the four possible sequences depicted above (1–4) (C).

ratings, with rating type (before or after tasting) as the within-partici- measures MANOVAs on the dependent variables ‘sweetness’ and
pants factor, the colour of the cup as the between-participants factor, ‘acidity’ for expected coffee ratings (pre-tasting). A two-way repeated
and sweetness, acidity, and liking as the dependent variables. measures ANOVA was performed on the post tasting data in order to
The data from Experiment 3 were first analysed using repeated- assess the main effects of cup colour and coffee type, as well as their

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F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence
interaction effect, on the participants’ perception of sweetness and
acidity, and on their ‘liking’ ratings. Finally, a repeated-measures
MANOVA was used to compare the expected coffee ratings to the post-
tasting ratings on the dependent variables ‘sweetness’, ‘acidity’, and
‘liking’, where rating type (pre- or post-tasting) was included as an
additional within-participants factor. All post-hoc pairwise comparisons
were Bonferroni corrected, and differences were considered significant
at p ≤ 0.05.
In order to further explore the relationship between pre- and post-
tasting scores, and hedonic judgments, a Pearson’s correlation analysis
was carried out. First, a difference index was generated by subtracting
the post-tasting from the pre-tasting rating values of sweetness and
acidity for each participant (i.e., ‘expectation’ minus ‘perception’ rat-
ings), for both congruent (i.e., pink cup/Brazilian coffee; green cup/
Kenyan coffee) and incongruent (i.e., pink cup/Kenyan coffee; green
cup/Brazilian coffee) conditions. Next, the correlations were calculated
between the difference indices and the liking scores for each of these
four conditions.
3. Results
3.1. Taste expectation (pre-tasting ratings)
The MANOVA tests revealed a significant main effect of cup colour
on participants’ ratings of the expected taste attributes of the coffee in
all three experiments. That is, there was a significant difference in ex-
pected sweetness and acidity ratings based on cup colour in
Experiments 1 [F(2,79) = 8.04, p < 0.01, Wilks’ lambda5 = 0.83], 2
[F(2,89) = 4.07, p < 0.05, Wilks’ lambda = 0.92], and 3 [F
(3,269) = 268.40, p < 0.0001, Wilks’ lambda = 0.25].
Further pairwise comparisons (Bonferroni corrected) on the data
from Experiments 1 and 2 revealed effects between specific groups (i.e.,
cup colours). In Experiment 1, the participants expected the coffee
served in the pink cup to taste sweeter (p < 0.001) and to be less acidic
(p < 0.05) than the coffee served from the white cup (see Fig. 2a). In
Experiment 2, the participants expected the coffee to taste less acidic
(p < 0.01) when served from the pink cup than from the white cup,
with no effect of cup colour on expected sweetness (see Fig. 2b).
Post-hoc tests using Bonferroni correction on the data from
Experiment 3 revealed that the expected acidity of the coffee differed
significantly between the four coloured cups, being green >
yellow > white > pink (all p < 0.05). As for sweetness, there were
significant differences amongst the four coloured cups being tested,
being pink > yellow > white = green (all p < 0.001). In general, the
coffee served in the pink cup was expected to taste sweeter and less
acidic than any of the other colours whereas the coffee from the green
cup was expected to be more acidic than any of the other colours (see
Fig. 3a).
3.2. Taste perception (post-tasting ratings)
3.2.1. Experiments 1 and 2
The MANOVA tests revealed a significant main effect of cup colour
on participants’ ratings of coffee sweetness, acidity, and liking in
Experiments 1 [F(3,78) = 29.22, p < 0.001, Wilks’ lambda = 0.47]
and 2 [F(3,88) = 19.77, p < 0.0001, Wilks’ lambda = 0.60]. Further
5
Wilks' lambda performs, in the multivariate setting, with a combination of
dependent variables, the same role as the F-test performs in one-way analysis of
variance. It is a direct measure of the proportion of variance in the combination
of dependent variables that is unaccounted for by the independent variable (the
grouping variable or factor). If a large proportion of the variance is accounted
for by the independent variable then it suggests that there is an effect from the
grouping variable and that they have different mean values (Wilks' lambda
equal to zero means that there is not any variance not explained by the in-
dependent variable – Which is ideal) (Todorov & Filzmoser, 2010).
162
Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169
pairwise comparisons (Bonferroni corrected) revealed that the coffee, in
both experiments, was rated as tasting sweeter (p < 0.001) and less
acidic (p < 0.001) when sampled from the pink cup than from the
white cup. The coffee was also liked more when tasted from the pink
cup as compared to the white cup in both Experiments 1 (p < 0.001)
and 2 (p < 0.01) (see Fig. 2a and b).
3.2.2. Experiment 3
A two-way repeated measures ANOVA on the data from Experiment
3 revealed significant main effects of the type of coffee (Brazilian or
Kenyan) and cup colour (white, yellow, pink, and green), as well as an
interaction between these factors, on participants’ ratings of coffee
acidity, sweetness, and liking. As for the main effects, coffee type sig-
nificantly affected participants’ ratings of acidity [F(1,135) = 1486.16,
p < 0.0001, Wilks’ lambda = 0.08], sweetness [F(1,135) = 513.29,
p < 0.0001, Wilks’ lambda = 0.21], and liking [F(1,135) = 9.71,
p < 0.01, Wilks’ lambda = 0.93], with the Brazilian coffee being per-
ceived as tasting sweeter, less acidic, and also being liked more overall
than the Kenyan coffee.
The colour of the cup also exerted a significant impact on ratings of
acidity [F(3,133) = 4.14, p < 0.01, Wilks’ lambda = 0.92], sweetness
[F(3,133) = 9.37, p < 0.001, Wilks’ lambda = 0.82], and liking [F
(3,133) = 17.81, p < 0.001, Wilks’ lambda = 0.71]. Regarding the
acidity of the coffee, the only observed significant difference was be-
tween the pink (lower ratings) and green (higher ratings) cups
(p < 0.05). As per sweetness ratings, there was no significant differ-
ence between pink and yellow, and white and green, but a significant
difference between these two pairs was observed (i.e.,
pink = yellow > white = green) (all p < 0.01). Liking ratings were
significantly higher for the yellow cup than for all other three colours
(whose ratings did not differ significantly; yellow >
white = pink = green; all p < 0.001).
A significant interaction effect between coffee type and cup colour
was also observed on acidity [F(3,133) = 12.91, p < 0.001, Wilks’
lambda = 0.77], sweetness [F(3,133) = 34.59, p < 0.001, Wilks’
lambda = 0.88], and liking [F(3,133) = 41.57, p < 0.001, Wilks’
lambda = 0.52] ratings. The results of the post hoc tests (Bonferroni
corrected) are summarized in Table 1 (see also Fig. 3b).
3.3. Taste expectations versus taste perception
3.3.1. Experiments 1 and 2
The repeated measures MANOVA did not reveal a significant main
effect of condition (rating type: pre-tasting vs. post-tasting) in either of
the experiments, but did reveal a significant interaction effect between
rating type and cup colour on participants’ ratings of the sweetness and
acidity of the coffee in both Experiments 1 [F(2,79) = 16.85,
p < 0.001, Wilks’ lambda = 0.83] and 2 [F(2,89) = 8.26, p < 0.01,
Wilks’ lambda = 0.92]. Further pairwise comparisons (Bonferroni cor-
rected) showed specific effects for each cup colour. In Experiment 1, the
coffee was rated as tasting sweeter (p < 0.01) and less acidic
(p < 0.001) than expected when sampled from the pink cup, and also
perceived as more acidic (p < 0.05) than expected when tasted from
the white cup. In Experiment 2, the coffee tasted from the pink cup was
perceived as sweeter (p < 0.01) than expected whereas the coffee
tasted from the white cup was perceived as more acidic (p < 0.05)
than expected (see Fig. 2a and b).
3.3.2. Experiment 3
As for Experiment 3, the repeated measures MANOVA revealed a
significant interaction effect between rating type and cup colour on
participants’ ratings of coffee sweetness and acidity [F(3,133) = 28.80,
p < 0.0001, Wilks’ lambda = 0.84]. No significant main effect of
condition was found. Additional pairwise tests (Bonferroni corrected)
as a function of cup colour revealed specific effects for each coffee type.
The Brazilian coffee was perceived as sweeter than expected when
F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169

Fig. 2. Mean ratings ( ± SE) of sweetness, acidity, and liking for the white (white bars) and pink (grey bars) cups as a function of condition (pre- and post-tasting) in
Experiment 1 (A) and Experiment 2 (B). Asterisk indicates statistical significance between white and pink cups on both pre- and post-tasting ratings at p < 0.05 (*) or
p < 0.001 (**). Dagger indicates statistical significance for pre- versus post-tasting at p < 0.05 (†) or p < 0.001 (††).

tasted from the yellow, white, and green cups (all p < 0.001) whereas
the Kenyan coffee was perceived as less sweet than expected when
tasted from the yellow, white, and pink cups (all p < 0.001). As per the
acidity ratings, the Brazilian coffee was perceived as less acidic than
expected when tasted from the yellow and green cups (all p < 0.001)
whereas the Kenyan coffee was perceived as more acidic than expected
when tasted from all four cups (all p < 0.001) (see Fig. 4).
A Pearson’s correlation analysis was performed to assess the re-
lationship between the generated difference indices (see Section 2.4)
and liking ratings. There was a negative correlation between the acidity
difference index and liking ratings in the incongruent condition ‘green
cup/Brazilian coffee’ (r = 0.36, n = 133, p < 0.001), and between the
sweetness difference index and liking ratings in the incongruent con-
dition pink cup/Kenyan coffee (r = −0.38, n = 134, p < 0.001) (see
Fig. 5). No correlation was observed between the tested variables in the
congruent conditions. The results of all three experiments are sum-
marized in Table 2 (sensory ratings) and Table 3 (hedonic ratings).
4. Discussion
Given previous reports documenting the existence of crossmodal
correspondences between colours and tastes (see Spence et al., 2015),
the three experiments carried out in the present study were designed to
investigate whether the colour of the outer surface of coffee cups

163
F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169

Fig. 3. Mean ratings ( ± SE) of (A) pre-tasting (expectation) and (B) post-tasting (perception) as a function of rating type (sweetness, acidity, and liking) for all four
cup colours tested (pink, yellow, white, and green) in Experiment 3. Panel (B) shows separate plots for Brazilian and Kenyan coffees. Asterisks indicates statistical
significance at p < 0.05 (*) or p < 0.001 (**). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)

(white, pink, yellow, and green) would influence expectations and ex- (Experiments 1 and 2) or filter coffees (Experiment 3) in pre- and post-
perience of taste attributes (sweetness and acidity). Different groups of tasting conditions. In addition, congruent (pink/sweetness) and incon-
amateur consumers of specialty coffee evaluated either espresso gruent (green and yellow/acidity) colour-taste pairings were

164
F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence
Table 1
Post-hoc comparisons for interaction effects between coffee type and cup colour on all dependent variables assessed in Experiment 3.
Brazilian coffee (high sweetness; low acidity)
Acidity* Yellow, Pink, White > Green, White > Pink
Sweetness* Pink > Yellow > White > Green
Liking** Pink = Yellow > White > Green
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.001
Fig. 4. Mean ratings ( ± SE) of pre-tasting (white), post-tasting for the Brazilian coffee (grey), and post-tasting for the Kenyan coffee (black) as a function of rating
type (sweetness and acidity) and the colour of the cup (pink, yellow, white, and green) in Experiment 3. Asterisk indicates statistically significant difference between
pre- versus post-tasting ratings for the Brazilian coffee at p < 0.001 (**). Dagger indicates statistically significance difference between pre- versus post-tasting ratings
for the Kenyan coffee at p < 0.001 (††).
constructed to test whether the colour of the cup would influence
participants’ expectation and perception of sweetness and acidity, as
well as their hedonic judgments of coffees. The results of all three ex-
periments are in agreement with previous studies in showing that that
the colour of the vessel affects both pre- and/or post-tasting evaluations
of several types of beverages (Cheskin, 1957; Schifferstein, 2009;
Piqueras-Fiszman & Spence, 2012), including coffee-based beverages
(Van Doorn et al., 2014).
In Experiments 1 and 2, the participants expected the espresso
coffee to taste sweeter and/or less acidic from the pink cup than from
the white (reference) cup – expectations which were then confirmed in
post-tasting ratings. The espresso was also liked more when tasted from
the pink cup. These preliminary results point towards significant
modulatory effect of the colour pink on both expectation and percep-
tion of sweetness – which was increased – and acidity – which was
decreased – in specialty coffee. They are in part in agreement with
Schifferstein (2009) who demonstrated that pink cups (against a
transparent one) increased participants’ expected sweetness, without
observed differences in sweetness ratings during the actual drinking.
One reason as to why expectations did not influence post-tasting
sweetness in Schifferstein’s study could be that the chosen beverages
(i.e., Earl Grey tea and lemon soft drink) are not necessarily associated
with sweetness in the first place. Thus, in order to search for crossmodal
effects, it is important that the taste primed by the colour of the con-
tainer is actually present in, or has been associated with, the contents.
The findings reported in Experiment 3 widen our understanding of
how the colour of the cup affects pre- and post-tasting ratings of both
sweetness and acidity in specialty coffee. The sweet Brazilian coffee was
sampled from pink (congruent condition), green or yellow (incongruent
conditions) cups. In the same way, an acidic Kenyan coffee was served
in pink (incongruent condition), green or yellow (congruent conditions)
cups. A white cup was also included for the sake of reference.
As anticipated, pre-tasting ratings revealed that the coffee was ex-
pected to have the sweetest and least acidic taste when served in the
pink cup, and the most acidic and least sweet when served in the green
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Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169
Kenyan coffee (low-to-medium sweetness; high acidity)
Pink, Yellow, Green > White, Pink > Green
Yellow > White, Pink, Green > Pink
Green = Yellow > White > Pink
cup. In fact, pink and green are two colours strongly associated with
sweet and sour basic tastes, respectively (Spence et al., 2015). One
suggested explanation for the effect of colour cues on taste/flavour
perception (i.e., crossmodal correspondence) is that many ripening
fruits show a transition from colours at the green end of the spectrum to
colours at the red end of the spectrum (including pink) (e.g., Maga,
1974; Foroni, Pergola, & Rumiati, 2016). Thus, according to this ar-
gument, prior exposure to this natural colour-taste correlation (i.e.,
between redness and sweetness levels in ripening fruits) might help to
explain why red-green colouring might impact the perception of
sweetness-sourness in a beverage such as coffee.
Interestingly, the colour yellow, which has also been reported to be
strongly associated with sour tastes/flavours (such as lemony –
Zampini, Sanabria, Phillips, & Spence, 2007), triggered expectations
towards both acidity and sweetness in both coffee samples. One way in
which to think about this finding is in terms of the role played by
colours in the perception of flavour identity (and its correlation to basic
tastes) – flavour identity which sometimes varies as a function of the
cultural background of the participant assessed (Shankar et al., 2010;
Wan et al., 2014). In Brazil (and many other parts of South America –
e.g., including Colombia), green limes are much more abundant,
common, and cheaper than yellow lemons (which are there called Si-
cilian lemons). In addition to that, Brazil is a tropical country with a
huge availability of yellow fruits with high levels of sweetness, think
here only of mangoes, bananas, and pineapples (but see Velasco et al.,
2016, for the strong red-sweet association also in Brazilians). For in-
stance, a recent study by Torres, Salazar, and Salgado (2016) had Co-
lombian participants rate the sweetness and sourness of jellies of three
different fruit flavours (mango, lulo, and soursop) presented in three
different colours (red, yellow, and green). Intriguingly, sweetness was
rated higher when the three fruit jellies were paired up with yellow
whereas the colour red only decreased sourness ratings in the lulo jelly.
The colour green increased the perception of sourness in both lulo and
soursop jellies. The results of this study can therefore be taken to sug-
gest that participants in tropical countries may have a tendency to
 tural influences.
F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence

scores); P = Perception (i.e., post-tasting scores).

tion of the colour of the cup. In fact, several studies have demonstrated
indices were created by subtracting the post-tasting from the pre-tasting rating

was tasted instead. The Brazilian coffee was perceived as sweeter as

recent reviews). The sweet expectations primed by the pink cup actu-
that people tend to match perceived tastes crossmodally to visual fea-
values of sweetness and acidity, respectively. E = Expectation (i.e., pre-tasting

ally did carry-over to influence people’s perception when a sweet

tures of serving vessels and packaging (see Spence, 2016, 2018, for
Post-tasting ratings of sweetness and acidity also varied as a func-
Fig. 5. Scatter-plots showing the correlation between the difference indices and

associate the colour yellow with sweet taste given contextual and cul-

(Brazilian) coffee was tasted – but not when an acidic (Kenyan) coffee
liking ratings in both incongruent conditions in Experiment 3. The difference

166
Table 2
Compilation of pre- and post-tasting sweetness and acidity ratings (mean ± SE) across all three experiments.
Cup Colour Experiment 1* Experiment 2* Experiment 3*

Pre-tasting (mean ± SE) Post-tasting (mean ± SE) Pre-tasting (mean ± SE) Post-tasting (mean ± SE) Pre-tasting (mean ± SE) Post-tasting (mean ± SE) Brazilian Post-tasting (mean ± SE) Kenyan
Coffee Coffee

Sw Ac Sw Ac Sw Ac Sw Ac Sw Ac Sw Ac Sw Ac

White 5.2 ± 0.1 5.7 ± 0.3 5.1 ± 0.2 6.2 ± 0.1 4.1 ± 0.3 6.0 ± 0.3 4.2 ± 0.3 6.7 ± 0.2 5.3 ± 0.1 5.0 ± 0.1 6.2 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.1 4.5 ± 0.1 6.3 ± 0.1
Pink 5.6 ± 0.2 5.1 ± 0.1 6.3 ± 0.1 4.9 ± 0.2 5.5 ± 0.2 5.1 ± 0.3 6.2 ± 0.1 4.6 ± 0.2 6.4 ± 0.1 4.7 ± 0.1 7.1 ± 0.1 3.9 ± 0.1 4.2 ± 0.1 7.2 ± 0.1
Yellow – – – – – – – – 5.8 ± 0.1 5.3 ± 0.1 6.5 ± 0.1 4.1 ± 0.1 4.9 ± 0.1 6.9 ± 0.1
Green – – – – – – – – 5.2 ± 0.1 5.9 ± 0.1 5.9 ± 0.1 3.6 ± 0.1 4.6 ± 0.1 6.9 ± 0.1

Sw = sweetness; Ac = acidity. For significant differences between mean values, please see Fig. 2 (for Experiments 1 and 2), and Figs. 3 and 4 (for Experiment 3).
*Please note that, since cups, coffee, context, and participants were almost all different between the three experiments, the scores reported here should only be compared within experiments.
Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169
F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence
Table 3
Compilation of liking ratings (mean ± SE) across all three Experiments.
Cup colour Experiment 1* Experiment 2* Experiment 3*
Brazilian coffee Kenyan coffee
White 7.4 ± 0.2 7.8 ± 0.1 6.9 ± 0.1 6.7 ± 0.1
Pink 8.0 ± 0.1 8.4 ± 0.1 7.8 ± 0.1 5.6 ± 0.1
Yellow – – 7.5 ± 0.1 7.4 ± 0.1
Green – – 5.9 ± 0.1 7.5 ± 0.1
For significant differences between mean values, please see Fig. 2 (for Experi-
ments 1 and 2), and Figs. 3 and 4 (for Experiment 3).
*Please note that, since cups, coffee, context, and participants were almost all
different between the three experiments, the scores reported here should only
be compared within experiments.
well as less acidic, and was also liked more when tasted from the pink
cup against the white cup. However, when the acidic Kenyan coffee was
tasted from the pink cup (incongruent condition), it was perceived as
having the highest acidity and lowest sweetness levels as compared to
any other cup colour, and it was also liked the least. Regarding the
green cup, the increased expectation of acidity did increase the actual
perception of acidity for the Kenyan coffee (when compared to the
white cup). The Kenyan coffee was also liked more when sampled from
the green cup. However, when the green cup was paired up with the
Brazilian coffee (incongruent condition), it was perceived as sig-
nificantly lower in both sweetness and acidity, and was also liked the
least. Presumably due to the occurrence of a strong disconfirmation of
expectation the coffees were liked less and, somehow, the most no-
ticeable (but not anticipated) taste was significantly enhanced.
Several studies have reported the role of extrinsic cues as sources of
product-related expectation, and consequent taste/flavour perception
and hedonic judgments (see Piqueras-Fiszman & Spence, 2015, for a
review). Colour-induced expectation effects might influence taste/fla-
vour perception – or more specifically, its identification – by directing
the person’s attention towards a particular component of a flavour
stimulus (Ashkenazi & Marks, 2004). In so doing, that component may
become relatively more salient in the taster’s experience against the
background which contains a variety of other competing in-mouth
sensations (Stevenson, 2012). In addition to any such saliency effect,
the attended flavour component may also be perceived slightly earlier
in time than unattended or less well attended stimuli (see Spence &
Parise, 2010, for a review). This attentional capture (and possible prior
entry triggered) by the colour of the food/drink product extends to the
container in which it happens to be presented (e.g., consuming vessel,
packaging) as people automatically transfer the sensory properties of
the container into the experience of its contents – a phenomenon called
“sensation transference” (Spence & Wan, 2015; Risso et al., 2015;
Skaczkowski et al., 2016). Here, it is perhaps worth noting that the
consumption behaviour of fruits and food/drink products are quite si-
milar in the sense that they are identified by the colour of their outer
shell (i.e., fruit skin or product container) – shell which is normally
discarded.
A comparison between pre-and post-tasting ratings revealed that
some expectations were fulfilled whilst others were disconfirmed. The
confirmation of the colour-induced expectations led to higher hedonic
judgments in both the Brazilian and Kenyan coffees. In fact, it has been
shown that people usually tend to like food and drink more if they meet
their expectations than if they do not (Lee, Frederick, & Ariely, 2006),
since congruent multisensory cues are likely to be processed more easily
(Labroo, Dhar, & Schwarz, 2007), particularly if they are in a context in
which coherence is expected (see Footnote 1). In fact, in the incon-
gruent conditions, as the size of the discrepancy between expectations
and actual stimuli increased, the linking ratings decreased (see Fig. 5
for the correlation between these two variables). It is interesting to note
that the Kenyan coffee was rated as significantly more acidic when
167
Food Quality and Preference 75 (2019) 157–169
tasted from the pink cup than from a cup of any other colour– Including
green. That is, the pink colour led to an enhancement of the unexpected
sensory attribute (i.e. acidity) already present in the coffee. This result
suggests that the coffee already high in acidity might have been per-
ceived as unpleasantly too acidic, which was reflected in the lowest
liking ratings for the Kenyan coffee. Indeed, this perceived discrepancy
could have induced a strong contrast effect which caused the partici-
pants to further magnify the already present difference between ex-
pectation and real stimulus (Cardello & Sawyer, 1992; Yeomans et al.,
2008). It is important to mention that recording expectations prior to
tasting make them explicit to the subject (instead of keeping them
implicit). Despite several studies have employed this pre- × post-
tasting experimental design (Schifferstein, 2009; Van Doorn, Colonna-
Dashwood, Hudd-Baillie, & Spence, 2015; Wang, Carvalho, Persoone, &
Spence, 2017), we are not aware of any study which has specifically
assessed the effect of the gap between expectation and experience on
flavour and hedonic ratings.
Another interesting result to emerge from the present study is that
the yellow cup – when compared to the white cup – increased the
sweetness as well as the acidity ratings of both Brazilian and Kenyan
coffees. In addition, both coffees tasted from the yellow cup were liked
as much as when these two coffees were tasted from their congruent
coloured cups, i.e., pink and green, respectively. This suggests that the
yellow colour was congruently paired up with both sweet and acidic
tastes in this case, as also observed in the pre-tasting effects.
Taken together, these results suggest that the colour of the cup
strongly impacts consumers’ expectation and experience of tastes in
specialty coffee. Nonetheless, it is important to note that the partici-
pants were not informed about the country of origin or flavour profile
of the coffees they were asked to evaluate from the different coloured
cups. In a real coffee shop, the client usually chooses the coffee from a
menu list, or is informed by the barista which beans are currently
available. A regular specialty coffee consumer would know what to
expect regarding the flavour profile when ordering a Kenyan or a
Brazilian coffee. In this real-world scenario, the information about the
country of origin (i.e., semantic cue) would also likely impact flavour/
taste sensory as well as hedonic judgements (Stefani, Romano, &
Cavicchi, 2006). However, the effect of labelling information regarding
country of origin has not been assessed in the present study. In addition,
cups with different shapes were used in Experiments 1 & 2 (handleless,
taller, and less round) and Experiment 3 (handled, shorter, and
rounder). The potential impact of this shape distinction on both ex-
pected and perceived tastes intensities cannot be ruled out (Carvalho &
Spence, 2018; Van Doorn et al., 2017). However, since context, coffee,
and experimental design were almost all different between the three
experiments, is it difficult to infer whether and how these differences in
shape might have affected the taste ratings.
Having said that, various studies have clearly demonstrated the
profound impact that the colour of the drinking vessel has on people’s
perception of a wide variety of beverages, from wine to hot chocolate
through soda and beer, even when the beverage is already familiar to
the participant (see Spence & Wan, 2015, for a review). One curious
example here comes from the fact that when Coca-Cola released a
limited edition white-coloured Christmas can a few years ago to learn
that many consumers complained all too vociferously about the change
in the taste of their well-known red-canned black Coke drink (Esterl,
2011).6
5. Conclusions
Colour plays a central part in consumers’ response towards food/
6
In fact, in response to this consumer backlash, the cans were soon with-
drawn from the shelves, only to be offered to airline passengers who couldn’t so
easily complain (see Spence, 2017, on this story).
F.M. Carvalho and C. Spence
drink, even if the colour is part of the container from which the food/
drink is consumed. The results of the present study suggest this is also
true for specialty coffee since the colour of the cup affected expected
and perceived tastes as well as hedonic judgements in amateur con-
sumers. The colour-induced effects observed in pre- and post-tasting
sweetness and acidity ratings corroborate several previous findings on
the crossmodal correspondence between colours and basic tastes, and
also shed light on cross-cultural effects on this correspondence (i.e., the
yellow-coloured cup being appropriately paired up with both sweet and
acidic tastes).
The present research argues that the drinking vessel is a necessary
part of the multisensory coffee drinking experience. Thus, the specialty
coffee companies should focus not only on the sensory characteristics of
the coffee beverage itself. The sensory properties of the vessel should be
much more carefully thought and designed so as to enhance the ex-
perience of the consumer – by also taking into account individual
preferences of particular coffee taste/flavour.
Acknowledgements
The first author is very grateful to all supporters of “The Coffee
Sensorium” project. This project owes a great deal to many people from
the specialty coffee community. The authors would, in particular, like
to thank Tim Wendelboe and Felipe Croce (from Fazenda Ambiental
Fortaleza) for donating the coffees used in Experiment 3, Diego
Gonzales (Sofa Cafe) for providing the testing location, and Tony Chen
for painting the coffee cups. We would also like to thank Takko Cafe
and Ancora Coffee House for all their support in Experiments 1 and 2.
Finally, thanks to the large crew of baristas who voluntarily helped in
the data collection, and to all of the specialty coffee shops in Sao Paulo
who helped in recruiting amateur consumers through social media.
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