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MOTIVATION AND SUSTAINED MOTIVATION: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND

RESEARCH AGENDA

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Olateju, Olateju, Adeoye, Ilyas & Okogo……………………………………………………………………………………

MOTIVATION AND SUSTAINED MOTIVATION: A REVIEW OF

LITERATURE AND RESEARCH AGENDA
Dare John Olateju
Department of Banking & Finance
Faculty of Management Sciences
University of Jos
+2347032510058

Olakunle Abraham Olateju

Department of Accounting
Osun State University

Seyi Vincent Adeoye

Department of Banking & Finance
Faculty of Management Sciences
University of Jos

Idris Suleiman Ilyas

Bursary Department
University of Jos
&
Peace Okogo
Department of Banking & Finance
Faculty of Management Sciences
University of Jos

ABSTRACT
Motivation varies over time because of its complex and dynamic nature. That is, the level of
motivational need that initiates an engagement in a particular activity may not probably be the same
level over some time. The need to keep employees highly motivated in the long run regardless of the
changing motivational factors requires some theoretical rethinking from the context of need. The
main objective of this study is to conceptualise sustained motivation from the theoretical backdrop of
need theory and its application away from the conventional to the employment situation. The article
revealed that need, beyond varied in value and importance, has a life cycle that makes need evolve in
itself and that the nature of need can determine whether it impacts on motivation will be short-term or
long-term. We predict that the higher the level of need, the higher the stability in behaviour, patterns
of involvement and persistency, the higher the motivation. This article recommends further
intellection discourse that captures both theoretical and practical perspectives on the concept –
sustained motivation, need to develop sustained motivation scale/ instrument for empirical research
and establish empirical evidence from research on sustained motivation to help validate the concept.
Keywords: Expectant need, Necessitous need, Need theory, Internalisation of need, Sustained
motivation

INTRODUCTION
Motivation varies over time because of its complex and dynamic nature (Beltman & Volet, 2007;
Williams, 1996). Lee and Reeve (2020) opine that motivation arises in the process of satisfying
psychological needs and that motivation is grounded on the search for and pursuit for the satisfaction
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of needs.
The level of motivational need that initiates an engagement in a particular activity may not probably
be the same level of need to sustain it (Williams, 1996). Williams (1996) argues that motivation
progresses from meeting necessitous need – extrinsic rewards to meeting expectant need – intrinsic
rewards to sustain long-term interest and participation in an activity and if there is no progression, the
level of motivation falls.
This may occur sometimes when an employee is newly engaged. He may seem motivated because his
necessitous needs are probably met by his salary and due to the novelty of being employed. But after
sometime, he may lose the motivation because his supposed expectant need, which may be in form of
success, value creation, self-fulfilment or self-actualisation, fairness and justice may not be adequately
met (Sirota & Klein, 2014). Motivation then becomes diminished and this becomes a great challenge
to the organisation (Sirota & Klein, 2014). It will become a great challenge to the organisation when
the level of performance starts dropping. He may start coming late to work, no apt to work, unhappy,
aggressive to customers and colleagues and so on. The critical questions are why a fall in employees‘
motivation? Is there a way to sustain employees‘ motivation?
According to Sirota & Klein (2014), giving employees what they need (meeting their expectant need)
to sustain their motivation is inevitable and will be of benefits to the organisations. Rybnicek,
Bergner & Gutschelhofer (2017) note that meeting varying employee‘s need have to be an utmost
priority for every organisation as this is necessary to keep the motivation up. It may be hard for any
scholar or manager to work towards sustaining their employees‘ motivation when the concept is not
well comprehended. Many studies have focused on employee motivation, but the concept of sustained
motivation is grossly misconstrued and the interplay of need on sustained motivation is scarcely
researched (Beltman & Volet, 2007; Royle & Hall, 2012).
Moreover, research on sustained motivation is scanty (Beltman & Volet, 2007) and these literature
Beltman & Volet (2007) and Williams (1996) did not paint a clear picture of the term sustained
motivation to arouse future research. Also, the point of departure is not drawn between motivation and
sustained motivation, thereby bringing confusion and setback to the study of sustained motivation.
And even up till the time of this writing, no article has been seen to address this. There is therefore
knowledge and research gap in the conceptualisation of sustained motivation. This paper is set to
conceptualise sustained motivation from the backdrop of need theory and review how continuous
meeting employees‘ need interplay with sustained motivation from a theoretical context.
Beltman & Volet (2007) examined the application of sustained motivation to real life activities – a
career in sport and music– that require multifaceted long-term acquired skills to excel. While
Williams (1996) examined persistent participation in activities over a long time using rock climbing
as a case study. None of these authors applied the concept of sustained motivation to the employment
situation and yet it has not been given adequate attention in the current literature.
This paper will serve as a bridge and pathfinder for future research in motivation because of the
introduction of the metrics of urgency and time lag to the study of motivational need as a dimension
in the field of motivation as recommended by Beltman & Volet (2007) and Royle & Hall (2012) for
future research.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Motivation
Many scholars who have written on the subject 'motivation', have seen it from different perspectives
and have come up with various definitions just to express their views and ideas on the subject.
Huczynski & Buchanan (2007) define motivation as a combination of goals towards which human
behaviour is directed. Luthans (1992) in his definition, sees the need for the combination of needs,
drives and incentives to direct human behaviour towards achieving goals. Mullins‘ (1999) view of
motivation goes beyond external as he defines it as a driving force within individuals that moves them

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to achieve goals and meet needs and expectations. Motivation theory explains how behaviour starts,
energizes, sustains, directs, and evens stops and the kind of subjective reaction present in an organism
(Ukaejiofo, 2013).
Motivation describes mobilization of various drives, desires, needs, wishes and other forces to achieve
a definite task (Ukaejiofo, 2013). Daniel and Caryl (1995) noted that the word ‗motivate‘, means to
move, push or influence behaviour to achieve organisational goal. Emeka, Amaka & Ejim (2015)
described motivation as a power that strengthens and influences behaviour, directs behaviour and
sustains the tempo of work. Motivation is a set of courses concerned with a kind of inner strength that
boosts employee‘s performance by directing his energy towards accomplishing some definite targets
(Rukhmani, Ramesh & Jayakrishman, 2010).
Employee motivation can be initiated, increased, and even made to reach its peak but sustaining it
seems to be a hurdle which many researchers have not considered (Emeka et al., 2015; Ukaejiofo,
2013). This was keenly observed and noted by Beltman & Volet (2007:314) that many scholars in the
field of motivation only focus on the initiation process of motivation while the aftermath – sustaining
it, is unexplored. Sustaining employees‘ motivation over a long period was succinctly captured by
Beltman & Volet (2007) and Williams (1996) as sustained motivation.
Scholars like Huczynski & Buchanan (2007), Luthans (1992), Mullins (1999), and Ukaejiofo (2013)
view motivation as the combination of needs, drives and incentives to direct human behaviour
towards achieving goals. However, the facet to motivation as becoming two-edged: the urgency and
the value of need – necessitous need on one hand and the time lag on the other as suggested by
Rybnicek et al. (2017) and Spence (2014). Since timing has been incorporated into the concept of
motivation. We view motivation in stages, the initiation stage, increase stage, peak stage, sustained
stage, and then decline stage. Since there is a new metric of time lag in the way motivation is
perceived to give a broader and clearer picture, we suggest a new concept in sustained motivation to
avoid academic confusion.
Sustained Motivation
Sustained motivation is the ability to maintain or keep employees motivated -even after the initial
motivation of necessitous needs are met- for a longer period (Sirota & Klein, 2014). Sustained
motivation can be described as progressive – it can increase and overwhelm, supportive – keep track
and persistent and goal-directed behaviour – avoid distraction (Emeka et al., 2015; Williams, 1996). It
is an inner strength that drives individuals to make organisational goals personal goals for service
term and also provokes employees to work to the best of their abilities with loyalty even amidst
difficulties, challenges and strenuous circumstances (Nwachukwu, 2004). Authors like Cook & Artino
(2016:996) Schunk & Dibenedetto (2019:2,3,5,7) while describing motivation went further to note
that it is a process of initiating or instigating and sustaining employees‘ morale towards achieving
specific goals. Sustaining employee's morale implies meeting employee's expectant needs
continuously. And this could be the way employee perceive the employer in terms of how fair and just
the employer is to the stakeholders (Sirota & Klein, 2014). The importance as noted by Vnouková and
Klupáková (2013) is that it can be instrumental in eliminating high employee turnover rate in
organisations, enhance organisational efficiency and bring about personal fulfilment to employees.
The main difference between motivation and sustained motivation, is the impact each has on
behaviour -the time lag value dimension-. Motivation can be spontaneous. The need to be motivated
and remain with an organisation may no longer be there, this may be due to new and higher needs or
an unmet need. This makes the initial motivational need have short-term impact on behaviour. As
Sirota & Klein (2014) rightly noted, the challenge with motivation is that after a while the motivation
is gone. Their curiosity and search for something that lasts long clearly open up a path for sustained
motivation as a new concept for academic debate. While motivation may end at meeting the
necessitous need, sustained motivation continues with expectant need (Sirota & Klein, 2014).

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Is Sustained Motivation achievable or just an abstraction?

There is evidence around the world that people pursue their dreams amidst all odds and later achieve
their dreams. Williams (1996) examines a set of rock climbers and top singers to know how they can
reach their peak wading into the storm of challenges and limitations, Williams (1996) explainable
answer was sustained motivation, they were continuously motivated even when they felt like quitting.
Beltman & Volet, 2007 asked top-rated athletes whether they never felt like quitting at one point or
the other in their career before reaching the top. The answer was yes, but they persisted and got to
their goals. Staw & Ross' (2015) findings reveal that one can gain a consistent job attitude over a long
time and amidst different situations towards achieving a specific goal. They argue that one‘s
involvement and performance can be consistent and even increase dramatically over time with the
right job attitude. (Staw & Ross, 2015).
Identifying the need of the employee, their dreams and goals and meeting these needs and helping
them achieve their dreams and goals will go a long way in shaping employee's attitudes towards
sustained motivation (Staw & Ross, 2015; Ukaejiofo, 2013). Lee's & Reeve's (2020) findings is clear
evidence that sustained motivation is possible as their findings reveal that memories of satisfying need
affect the decision as to whether to continue in the same activity or not. We argue that sustained
motivation is possible and achievable. Where employees will be completely loyal, obedient, and
committed to the organization and are satisfied with working with the organisation without nursing
the thought of leaving and with high productivity. Base on the argument and the evidence above, we
propose that with all indications, employees can be sustainably motivated
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Need Theory
As various writers view motivation from various perspectives so also are various theories on
motivation. According to Rybnicek et al. (2017), these theories can be classified into three broad
groups which are content, process and justice theories of motivation. These three groups have a
common foundation which is need. (Parijat & Bagga, 2014; Rybnicek et al., 2017). The concept of
need has remained the central idea of every theory and system of motivation for decades (Pincus,
1984:375).
Need is an internal pressure that initiates the cognitive processes which trigger certain behaviours and
directs attitude towards achieving a specific goal. (Rybnicek et al., 2017). Need is a physiological
state not only of deprivation but also of lack, want, essential, passion, desire, goal, and ambition
(Pincus, 1984). When any of these needs is there, one will strive by all means to meet, provide,
satisfy, achieve or fulfil them. The push, urge, drive and strive to meet this need is the rationale
behind the need theory that anchors this research.
Need theory was propounded in the 1940s with Maslow‘s (1943) famous book titled, ―A theory of
Human Motivation‖. The theory emphasises that human needs are hierarchically ranging from the
physiological needs which are the lowest, to the psychological need of self-actualisation which is the
highest. He argues that it is when one need is met that one proceeds to the next need on the ladder.
After Maslow (1943) came Cohen et al. (1955) with cognition theory. This theory is based on the
human need to reason and seek knowledge which Maslow's need theory did not cover. Atkinson‘s
(1958) need theory focuses on need for affiliation and power; the need to fit in, socialise and feel a
sense of belonging and the need to control the actions of others. McClelland‘s (1961) need theory for
achievement postulates that there is a need for personal fulfilment through accomplishment of great
tasks. McClelland & Burnham‘s (2008) need theory emphasises three needs: the need for
achievement, for affiliation and need for power.
Maslow (1987) reviews his previous need theory and metamorphoses it into his theory of motivation,
where he added three more needs: cognitive, aesthetic and transcendence needs. He later classified
them into deficiency needs (physiological, safety, belonging and love and esteem needs) and growth

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needs (cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization and transcendence).

The above mentioned motivation theories and others not mentioned are expected to be initiated by a
specific need (Lee & Reeve, 2020). Need is our foundation also. Our paper differs from others in that
though we classify need into two like Maslow but our classification is based on the urgency test of the
need and the time lag test of the motivation. Our target is to propose which of the two classifications
can sustain motivation.
Criteria for classification of need
Urgency: A state of being very important and demanding immediate attention. It implies that the need
should be attended to first. When life is involved, achievement and power may have no meaning.
When one is in excruciating pain, all that will matter to him may not be affiliation or esteem. If one
has the option to either risk being thrown out on the streets or to continue to save for a governorship
nomination form, I believe the former may be preferred. Invariably, the urgency of a need to an
individual can determine what his attitude would be whether spontaneous or deferred (Royle & Hall,
2012; Staw, 2004). This dimension explains the extent needs vary in value and importance and their
weight on behaviour.
Time lag: This is an interval between a cause and its effect. This depicts for how long the motivation
can be sustained from the period of the arising need to the period of meeting the need. It helps to
determine patterns of involvement and persistency over time (Beltman & Volet, 2007). The period of
looking for food to eat cannot be compared with the period of getting a degree, no matter how serious
a student is. So need for achievement may take a longer period to stay motivated than to stay
motivated with physiological needs. Any motivational need that passes time lag test can be effective
in sustained motivation (Royle & Hall, 2012). The time lag dimension is wider than the concept of
delay of gratification in the sense that delay of gratification is about postponing certain pleasure to the
future to achieve your goals but the concept of time lag looks beyond postponing pleasure
(Bembenutty, 1999). It looks at the extent of the need state in itself. It looks at the duration of the need
state, its tempo and velocity and the degree of its impact on behaviour.
Necessitous Need
Necessitous needs are basic survival needs. They are needs that one cannot do without and they may
include safety, food, clothing and shelter – physiological, quasi-material or quasi-money (Derfler-
Rozin & Pitesa, 2017; Maslow, 1987; Rybnicek et al., 2017). This need will push a man to look for
items necessary for his survival. At this point, he is not concerned about position, power and
popularity, his sole creed is for existence (Maslow, 1987). Necessitous need may be extrinsic and may
encompass physical rewards such as fringe benefits, job security, quasi money and material, work
environment (not hazardous) and conditions of service (Derfler-Rozin & Pitesa, 2017; Rybnicek et al.,
2017; Ukaejiofo, 2013).
Necessitous needs are needs that may have an immediate or short-term effect on attitude. Any need
that passes urgency test only may be necessitous in nature (Williams, 1996). Based on the literature
reviewed above, this article proposes that necessitous need may motivate but may not be able to
sustain it for long.
Expectant need
Expectant needs are needs that one is seeking, aspiring and eagerly waiting for. It may be power, self-
actualisation, knowledge, achievement, position, growth, value creation, fame, fortune making, future
ambition and affiliation and so on (Rybnicek et al., 2017). The expectant need may also be in form of
need for opportunity to express one‘s ability, a sense of challenge, relevance and achievement, being
appreciated, recognition, and feeling a touch of care, promotion and special consideration (Ukaejiofo,
2013). This need could also be inform of equity, justice and fairness in an organisation (Sirota &
Klein, 2014). An employee may decide to stick to an organisation even without better pay or
conditions of service, but just because he perceives that the organisation is fair.

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Bembenutty (1999) argues that expectant need such as success, interest, utility, and task value is
motivational determinants and are known to influence one‘s engagement and decision in general.
Expectant needs are motivational, needs that keep you focused to participate in a task amidst all odds
over a longer period without default because they are needs that are not easily met and take longer
time to be met (Beltman & Volet, 2007; Williams, 1996).
Expectant needs, because these needs are not easily met and they take longer time to be met, the urge
they create in return create stability in attitude, patterns of involvement and persistency over time,
beyond the period necessitous needs can take. This classification of need has delayed or long-term
impact on employees‘ behaviour. Expectant needs are needs that pass both urgency (value) and time
lag test.
Neuroscience of need and sustained Motivation
Neuroscience is the science of how humans react when a need arises and its impact on nervous tissue
in relation to behaviour (Tomova, Tye, & Saxe, 2019). Employees have several and competing needs
and the process of meeting these needs has certain impacts on nervous system. The nervous system
that is made up of the brain, the spinal cord and other nerves, receive and interpret stimuli and
transmit the impulses to the effector. The nervous receives information about the need and initiates a
coordinated action towards meeting the need to achieve employees‘ motivation (Smith et al., 1992;
Tomova et al., 2019). This process creates an internal pressure that initiates the cognitive processes
which trigger certain behaviours towards satisfying these needs. Individual behaviour is
predetermined and directed by the way he/she perceive the need (Williams, 1996). When need is
urgent and of great value, meeting this need becomes the utmost priority (Lee & Reeve, 2020).
Inability to meet this need in reasonable time can lead to dissatisfaction (Herzberg, 1959; Parijat &
Bagga, 2014). Because of the internal pressure that this need generates, the employee will want to
meet this need by all means available. He may want to think more, work more, get more result and
sacrifice more. At this point, sleep may elude him because of this inner pressure called internalisation
of need that is caused by urgency of need (Williams, 1996).
The urgency of need affects the attitude, direction, behaviour and action towards meeting this need
through its internalisation. We argue that when need is internalised, it can create pressure internally
within a person which can affect a person's job attitude, as in contrast with Staw & Ross's (2015)
argument.
This need translates into motivational drive and motivational drive translates into certain habitual
behaviour and actions directed towards achieving this need. As the saying goes, old habits die hard,
the employee starts to have pleasure in engaging in such activities – habitually, that will lead to
meeting this need, extending the period of work involvement and enhance stability in attitude.
As the need afflux, the inner pressure began to mount. The inner pressure releases a steady flow of
energy that keeps the mind stable and focused on meeting the need. Williams (1996) notes that the
stability dimension of participation in an activity is either stable – ability to continue participating and
maintain persistent flow of energy towards meeting the need or unstable and the locus of its control is
internalisation of need (the flow of the inner pressure). He explains further that those that reach the
state of stable intrinsic need are likely to participate long-term in an event than the unstable. Williams'
(1996) view is similar to Weiss & Frazer's (1995) findings that those with higher needs like starter
and primary substitutes based on their perception of mastery and success in the basketball game have
higher participatory motivation than the secondary substitutes that have low need for mastery and
success. In the same vein, Jha (2016) concludes his research by noting that all motivational needs are
positively and significantly related to motivation.
This implies that when the pressure is high, that is the level of need, the level of motivation also
increases. We theorise that motivation has a lifecycle: -- from initiation to afflux, afflux to steady,
then steady to decline stage– and this is proportionate to the level of need at hand. Motivation evolves
alongside need itself and they are not static.

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CONCLUSION
This article reneges some constructs under need theory and building on three major need theory
Maslow (1987), McClelland (1985) and Sirota & Klein (2014). Maslow never stated the criteria for
his previous classification. This paper has added to the annals of scholars by providing criteria for
classifying need for motivational purpose. This paper also serves as an answer to the request of
Beltman & Volet (2007) and Royle & Hall (2012) calling for introduction of time lag as a moderating
metrics to motivation. A new research paradigm was also set in place with the reintroduction of the
concept of sustained motivation which although is not new to literature but is not well conceptualised
(which is the gap this paper has also filled). We view motivation in stages and factors that affect each
stage are recommended for future research. This article also gave an explicit and deeper explanation
of the neuroscience of need and its interplay on motivation as Jha (2016) highlights. This article also
expatiates on Sirota & Klein (2014) by exploring how employers and human resource management
practitioners can use psychology of need as a motivating factor and benefit from it by giving
employees what they need. This article recommends further intellection discourse that captures both
theoretical and practical perspective on the concept – sustained motivation. This discourse should lead
to more robust conceptualisation. There is also need to develop sustained motivation scale/ instrument
to give room for empirical research. This article also recommends empirical research to substantiate
constructs in need-motivation theory in other to gather empirical evidence from research on sustained
motivation to help validate the concept.

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