2009 Ramosy Folguera SP Pub 327

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/249552722
Andean ﬂat-slab subduction through time
Article in Geological Society London Special Publications · December 2009

DOI: 10.1144/SP327.3
CITATIONS READS
325 2,649
2 authors:
Victor A. Ramos Andres Folguera

National Scientific and Technical Research Council National Scientific and Technical Research Council-Facultad de Ciencis Exactas y …
568 PUBLICATIONS 26,096 CITATIONS 339 PUBLICATIONS 5,336 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Special volume of teh journal of South American Earth Sciences dedicated to The evolution of the San Jorge Gulf Basin in Central Patagonia (Paredes, Foix, Allard; Eds)
View project
New Book: Andean Tectonics . Editors. Brian K. Horton and Andrés Folguera. Elsevier Ed. View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Victor A. Ramos on 28 May 2014.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

1 Andean flat-slab subduction through time
2
3
4 VICTOR A. RAMOS & ANDRÉS FOLGUERA*
5 Laboratorio de Tectónica Andina, Universidad de Buenos Aires – CONICET
6
7
*Corresponding author (e-mail: andes@gl.fcen.uba.ar)
8
9 Abstract: The analysis of magmatic distribution, basin formation, tectonic evolution and
10 structural styles of different segments of the Andes shows that most of the Andes have experienced
11 a stage of flat subduction. Evidence is presented here for a wide range of regions throughout the
12 Andes, including the three present flat-slab segments (Pampean, Peruvian, Bucaramanga), three
13 incipient flat-slab segments (‘Carnegie’, Guañacos, ‘Tehuantepec’), three older and no longer
active Cenozoic flat-slab segments (Altiplano, Puna, Payenia), and an inferred Paleozoic flat-
14 slab segment (Early Permian ‘San Rafael’). Based on the present characteristics of the Pampean
15 flat slab, combined with the Peruvian and Bucaramanga segments, a pattern of geological processes
16 can be attributed to slab shallowing and steepening. This pattern permits recognition of other older
17 Cenozoic subhorizontal subduction zones throughout the Andes. Based on crustal thickness, two
18 different settings of slab steepening are proposed. Slab steepening under thick crust leads to dela-
19 mination, basaltic underplating, lower crustal melting, extension and widespread rhyolitic volcan-
20 ism, as seen in the caldera formation and huge ignimbritic fields of the Altiplano and Puna
21 segments. On the other hand, when steepening affects thin crust, extension and extensive
within-plate basaltic flows reach the surface, forming large volcanic provinces, such as Payenia
22
in the southern Andes. This last case has very limited crustal melt along the axial part of the
23 Andean roots, which shows incipient delamination. Based on these cases, a Paleozoic flat slab is
24 proposed with its subsequent steepening and widespread rhyolitic volcanism. The geological
25 evolution of the Andes indicates that shallowing and steepening of the subduction zone are thus
26 frequent processes which can be recognized throughout the entire system.
27
28
29
30 Introduction The objective of the present study is to character-
31 ize geological processes linked to shallowing and
32 The pioneer work of Barazangi & Isacks (1976, steepening of the subduction zones and their
33 1979) described the first two well documented seg- geological consequences. We aim to characterize
34 ments along the Andes without late Cenozoic arc these parameters along the Andes in order to be
35 magmatism and adscribed them to flat-slab subduc- able to identify palaeo flat slab segments during
36 tion (Fig. 1). This cold subduction was associated the Phanerozoic. Based on these premises, three
37 with a subhorizontal Benioff zone identified in the palaeo flat slabs were identified in Cenozoic times.
38 retroarc area that was characterized by large and fre- Even further, it is speculated that a late Paleozoic
39 quent intracrustal earthquakes driven by important flat slab could have developed in the Central
40 basement shortening. As a result, important foreland Andes. These new data enhance the importance of
41 basement uplifts took place in late Cenozoic times flat-slab subduction through time, and indicate that
42 giving rise to the present Sierras Pampeanas it is not an anomalous feature of the present-day
43 (González Bonorino 1950; Jordan et al. 1983a, b). margin, but has been an important feature of the
44 Another detailed seismotectonic study in the north- geological record and its frequency is higher
45 ern Andes recognized a flat-slab segment in the than expected.
46 northern Colombian Andes with similar character-
47 istics (Pennington 1981). Present flat-slab subduction segments
48 Multidisciplinary research performed during
49 the last two decades, mainly based on seismological Seismological data clearly show that there are three
50 and geological data on the continents, and oceano- distinct segments with horizontal subduction along
51 graphic studies in the adjacent areas, depict the the Andean margin: the Bucaramanga, Peruvian and
52 present setting of these three segments, where Pampean segments (Gütscher et al. 2000; Ramos
53 shallowing of the Benioff zone was closely related 1999a). There is also a striking transition to a sub-
54 to collision of aseismic ridges (Pilger 1981, 1984). horizontal subduction in the Ecuadorian Andes
55 However, it was only recently that geological (Gütscher et al. 1999a) that will be described to
56 evidence was obtained along the Andes showed show the initial geological processes linked to the
57 steepening of past subhorizontal subduction. beginning of shallowing. These segments will be
58
From: MURPHY , J. B., KEPPIE , J. D. & HYNES , A. J. (eds) Ancient Orogens and Modern Analogues.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 327, 31– 54.
DOI: 10.1144/SP327.3 0305-8719/09/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2009.
32 V. A. RAMOS & A. FOLGUERA
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105 Colour
106 online=
107 mono
108 hardcopy
109
110
111
112
113
114 Fig. 1. Present flat-slab segments along the Andes (modified from Barazangi & Isacks 1976; Pennington 1981;
115 Ramos 1999a; Gütscher et al. 2000).
116
ANDEAN FLAT-SLAB SUBDUCTION THROUGH TIME 33
117 described from south to north, in order to move from the Mercedario (6850 m) and the La Ramada
118 better known segments to less known settings. (6400 m) among others, correspond to tectonically
119 uplifted areas with Miocene to Late Paleozoic
120 Pampean flat-slab segment rocks above 6000 m (Ramos et al. 1996a). The
121 description of the geological evidence will encom-
122 This segment was one of the first where systematic pass the magmatic, sedimentological and structural
123 data were collected to reconstruct the tectonic history (Fig. 2), later linked to the oceanic features
124 history associated with flat-slab subduction in the associated with the shallowing.
125 Andes (Isacks et al. 1982; Jordan et al. 1983a, b).
126 The segment is located between 278 and 338300 S Magmatic evidence. The recognition of volcanic
127 latitude along the Pampean foreland. The highest gaps in the Quaternary volcanic arc of the Andes
128 segment of the Main Andes coincides with the emphasized the presence of cold subduction that
129 central part of the Pampean flat slab, where moun- coincides with the flat-slab segments (Barazanghi &
130 tain peaks, such as the Aconcagua (6967 m a.s.l.), Isacks 1976). Subsequent studies were able to
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162 Colour
163 online=
164 mono
165 hardcopy
166
167
168
169
170
171 Fig. 2. Pampean flat-slab segment with indication of isobaths to the Nazca oceanic plate based on Cahill & Isacks
172 (1992) (compare with the Benioff geometry proposed by Pardo et al. 2002 and Alvarado et al. 2005a, b); main
173 basement uplifts of Sierras Pampeanas (Jordan et al. 1989), and location of the Precordillera fold and thrust belt
174 (Ramos et al. 2002).
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217 Colour
218 online=
219 mono
220 hardcopy
221
222
223
224
225
226 Fig. 3. Evolution of arc magmatism through time in the Pampean flat-slab: (a) Representative ages after Ramos et al.
227 (2002) with indication of the isobath of 200 km depth corresponding to the oceanic slab; (b) Cross-section at crustal Q11
228 scale showing the expansion and migration of the main volcanic centers during the shallowing of the oceanic slab.
229 Main elevations in the High Andes not related to the Quaternary volcanoes are also indicated.
230
231
232
233 recognize that the gap had existed since Late than 10 000 m of continental fluvial deposits, such
234 Miocene times (Jordan et al. 1983b). Detailed petro- as in the Neogene depocentre of Sierra de Los
235 graphic studies performed in the late Cenozoic arc Colorados at 298S lat. (Ramos 1999b).
236 show that the geochemical signature changes in The beginning of the broken foreland
237 the main arc through time (Kay et al. 1987), and stage coincided with the eastward advance of the
238 that the arc expanded towards the foreland region shallowing of the subducted slab beneath the
239 (Kay & Gordillo 1994). The geochemistry shows retroarc area. Sedimentological studies show
240 that the La/Yb ratios increased in Early to Late that the Early Miocene foreland basin was canniba-
241 Miocene arc rocks, at the same time that crustal lized during the Miocene, with the largest subsi-
242 stacking thickened the crust (Kay et al. 1991; Kay & dence rates experienced during the Middle
243 Mpodozis 2002; Litvak et al. 2007). Miocene inception of the Pampean flat-slab at
244 Geochronological data show that the main ande- these latitudes (Fig. 4).
245 sitic arc was active from 22–8.6 Ma, although Some basin remnants in the western interior
246 volumes of erupted magmas were drastically areas between the Frontal Cordillera and the
247 reduced throughout this time (Ramos et al. Precordillera, such as the Iglesia Valley basin,
248 1996a). A minor late rhyolitic eruption of Vacas were reactivated as piggy-back basins by out-of-
249 Heladas Ignimbrites at 7.67 Ma was the last activity sequence thrusts (Beer et al. 1990; Zapata &
250 in the area (Ramos et al. 1989). Subsequent hydro- Allmendinger 1996). There is also a great variation
251 thermal mineralization was widespread along the in the timing of deformation when the sedimentary
252 segment in El Indio, Valle del Cura and Maricunga record is compared from north to south. Synoro-
253 mineral districts (Mpodozis et al. 1995; Kay & genic deposition gets younger to the east and to
254 Mpodozis 2001). The latest activity east of the the south (Vergés et al. 2001), when comparing
255 previous main arc was the eruption of the Cerro de time of deposition along the Rı́o San Juan and
256 Vidrio rhyolitic dome dated at 2.0 + 0.2 Ma (Ar– Jachal further north. The same trend is regionally
257 Ar in glass) by Bissig et al. (2002) in Valle del observed along the entire segment (Jordan et al.
258 Cura. Both rhyolitic episodes are interpreted as 2001; Ramos 1999b).
259 minor melts of the crust.
260 The expansion of the arc magmatism is first Tectonic history. The timing of shortening in the
261 associated with a second dehydration front. At the Principal and Frontal cordilleras and the Precordil-
262 latitude of the Aconcagua for example, the main lera show some striking relations when analyzed
263 Middle Miocene arc was characterized by large in conjunction with: (1) the shortening rates of
264 volumes of andesites and dacites in the Principal the fold and thrust belts; (2) the propagation of the
265 Cordillera, whereas in the Precordillera at orogenic front; (3) the subsidence rate of the
266 c. 130 km east of the main arc, small volcanic adjacent foreland basin; and (4) the uplift of
267 centres and subvolcanic bodies were emplaced in Sierras Pampeanas (Fig. 5). The shortening of
268 Paramillos and Cerro Colorado (Kay et al. 1991). this fold-and-thrust belt was concentrated in a
269 The main arc, as well as the second volcanic front, thin-skinned belt within the Principal Cordillera
270 shifted eastward. The shifting and subsequent cessa- prior to the shallowing. This period recorded a
271 tion of the magmatic arc simultaneously moved shortening rate of 5.5–5.75 mm/a, and a slow
272 from west to east, and from north to south, ending propagation rate of 2.5 mm/a of the thrust or
273 at 5 + 0.5 Ma west of Sierra de Aconquija orogenic mountain front. The propagation rate
274 (278200 S lat.), 4.7 + 0.3 Ma at the Pocho volcanic increased to 13.3 mm/a soon after the beginning
275 field (318300 S lat.), and 1.9 + 0.2 Ma in Sierra del of shallowing, while the shortening was reduced to
276 Morro at 338100 S lat. (Ramos et al. 2002). 3.6 mm/a. This change from thin to thick skinned
277 shortening is also reflected in the subsidence rate
278 Sedimentary evolution. Several retroarc foreland of the foreland basin (Fig. 5).
279 basins were formed along the flat-slab segment This data – when compared with the tectonic
280 (Jordan 1984). Besides the general Andean trend evolution of the adjacent oceanic region – show
281 of east migration of the synorogenic depocentres close time and space relationships between collision
282 recorded from Late Cretaceous to Neogene times of the Juan Fernández aseismic ridge against the
283 through the entire Andes (Ramos 1999b), the flat- margin and the beginning of the shallowing of the
284 slab segment superimposed a special character. subducted slab (Yañez et al. 2001). The south and
285 East migration of the foreland system is linked to eastward shifting of the magmatic arc, the time of
286 fragmentation of the foreland basement (Jordan deformation and basin evolution accompany the
287 et al. 1989). Detailed magnetostratigraphic studies migration of the Juan Fernández ridge along and
288 show that subsidence rates were exceptional beneath the upper plate, as clearly demonstrated by
289 during the broken foreland stage (Reynolds et al. Pilger (1984), Gütscher et al. (2000) and Kay &
290 1990). Locally, some depocentres recorded more Mpodozis (2002). The most active neotectonic
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315 Colour
316 online=
317 mono
318 hardcopy
319
320
321
322
323
324 Fig. 4. Subsidence rates in the proximal, intermediate and distal areas of the Bermejo broken foreland basin, with
325 indication of the beginning of flat-slab subduction at these latitudes (modified from Ramos 1999b). Seismostratigraphic
326 data after Reynolds et al. (1990).
327
328
329 area corresponds to the Pie de Palo uplift, an area of by Dorbath et al. (1986, 1991). This survey demon-
330 high intracrustal seismicity (Kadinsky-Cade strated that the subduction zone starts under the
331 et al. 1985; Regnier et al. 1992) and a western trench with a 308 dip until approximately 100 km
332 Sierras Pampeanas block where an average uplift depth (Fig. 6), where it becomes horizontal
333 rate of 1.0 mm/a during the last 3 Ma has been beneath the Eastern Cordillera and the Subandean
334 observed (Ramos et al. 2002; Siame et al. 2006a). zone (Dorbath et al. 1991). Pilger (1984) showed
335 Pie de Palo is just above the track of the Juan the kinematics between the Nazca Ridge collision
336 Fernández ridge, as indicated by the coincidence and the shallowing of the central Peru segment.
337 between high density of earthquake epicentres and This region was examined again by Gütscher et al.
338 the projection of the oceanic feature (Kirby et al. (1999b), who challenged the previous proposal
339 1996), and is located where the ridge is presently and instead of the collision of an aseismic ridge pro-
340 shallowing the subducting slab. posed that the large Peruvian flat-slab segment was
341 the result of the Nazca Ridge and the Inca Plateau
342 Peruvian flat-slab segment subduction. Precise timing of the Nazca Ridge col-
343 lision, and constraints in the length of the ridge,
344 This segment is encompassed between the Gulf of support that collision started at c. 11.2 Ma at about
345 Guayaquil at 58S and Arequipa at 148S latitudes. 118S, moving later to the present position, as
346 It has been described by Barazanghi & Isacks depicted by Hampel (2002). The segment north of
347 (1976, 1979) based on global data of the ISC catalo- this latitude requires a collision of a plateau or
348 gue, and with more precision using local networks other oceanic feature.
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366 Colour
367 online=
368 mono
369 hardcopy
370
371
372
373 Q9
374
375 Fig. 5. The Aconcagua fold and thrust belt in the Central Andes at 328S latitude with variations on shortening and
376 propagation rates through time (after Ramos et al. 1996b and Hilley et al. 2004) and the subsidence rates in the foreland
377 basin after Irigoyen et al. (2002).
378
379
380 The Peruvian flat-slab segment shares many zircon ages as young as 6 Ma. The magmatic lull
381 common features with the Pampean flat slab. The following Nazca Ridge subduction began at the
382 second highest part of the Andes coincides with end of the Miocene. Most of the emplacement of
383 the Cordillera Blanca, with mountains such as the Cordillera Blanca Batholith and coeval ignim-
384 Huascarán (6778 m a.s.l.), which is only 110 m brites took place during the southern sweep of the
385 lower than the Aconcagua massif, and other Late Nazca Ridge (Aleman 2006).
386 Miocene granitic peaks over 6000 m. The Cordillera Neotectonics in the forearc where the Nazca
387 Blanca is in the central part of an important Ridge intersects the trench are described by
388 basement high, which includes the Marañón Macharé et al. (1986). Further support includes
389 Massif further to the east in the Eastern Cordillera. active tectonics and uplift in the foreland region in
390 The Cordillera de Marañón is a basement uplift the Fitzcarrald arch in the Subandean region,
391 that exposed middle crustal rocks very similar in where the aseismic ridge is being presently sub-
392 composition and metamorphic degree to the ducted. Evidence consists of a radial drainage
393 Sierras Pampeanas. The Peruvian segment also network and deformation of Pliocene – recent
394 coincides with an area of no-arc volcanism, at fluvial deposits on both sides of this structural
395 least since latest Miocene times. Radiometric ages high (Espurt et al. 2007). Both forearc and foreland
396 document several Cenozoic pulses of eastward geology, together with the distribution of late Ceno-
397 magmatic migration (Aleman 2006). The cessation zoic arc volcanoes, highlight the relationships
398 (c. 12 Ma) of magmatism in the northern part of between aseismic ridge subduction, active uplift
399 the flat slab correlates with the complete subduction and cessation of magmatism.
400 of the Inca Plateau and the arrival of the Nazca
401 Ridge. As in the Pampean flat slab, the cessation Bucaramanga segment
402 of the main magmatic activity in the volcanic arc
403 is followed by the emplacement of minor crustal The early proposal of Pennington (1981), based on
404 melts of acidic composition. An example are the limited seismological data, showed a shallow sub-
405 granites of Cordillera Blanca where McNulty et al. duction zone beneath northern Colombia. This fact
406 (1998) and Giovanni et al. (2006) reported U– Pb has been confirmed by the seismological studies of
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452 Colour
453 online=
454 mono
455 hardcopy
456
457
458
459
460
461 Fig. 6. (a) General features of the Peruvian flat slab based on Hampel (2002) and Aleman (2006). See the coincidence
462 between the projection of the Nazca Ridge into the foreland and the uplift of the Fitzcarrald arch and associated alluvial
463 fan (Espurt et al. 2007). (b) Geometry of Benioff-Wadatti zone beneath central Peru at 14– 128S latitude (based on
464 Dorbarth et al. 1991).
465 Gütscher et al. (2000) in the Northern Andes north microplate and South America, after the middle
466 of 58N, and the analysis made by Corredor (2003), Miocene collision of the Chocó block (12 –13 Ma,
467 who shows the shallow subduction produced by Duque Caro 1990).
468 the recent subduction of the Caribbean plate The cessation of the late Cenozoic magmatic arc
469 beneath the Northern Andes. The dense concen- north of Cerro Bravo and Nevados de Ruiz (Mendez
470 tration of intracrustal earthquakes of the Bucara- Fajury 1989), as well as the intense widespread
471 manga nest (Fig. 7) is associated with basement neotectonic intracrustal activity, is better explained
472 deformation and uplift of the Eastern Cordillera, by the flat slab model of Gütscher et al. (2000).
473 characteristic of flat-slab subduction. However, an Their regional seismic tomography depicts a cold
474 alternative hypothesis was advanced by Taboada mantle and lower crust in this segment.
475 et al. (2000), where most of this intraplate The latest volcanic activity is exposed near
476 deformation at Bucaramanga was explained as a Boyacá in the retroarc region in the northern part
477 palaeo-Benioff zone associated with an old but of the Eastern Cordillera. The Tunja and Paipa
478 still active subduction between the Panamá volcanoes, among others, are associated with
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512 Colour
513 online=
514 mono
515 hardcopy
516
517
518
519
520
521 Fig. 7. Seismic activity and main morphostructural units of the Bucaramanga flat slab based on Dimate et al. (2003).
522 Volcanic arc based on Mendez Fajury (1989) and retroarc volcanoes based on Cepeda et al. (2004).
523 pyroclastic flows that range in age from 2.5–2.1 Ma wedge (Bourdon et al. 2003), and in the expansion
524 for the oldest eruption, to pyroclastic flows younger of the volcanic arc that coincides with the projection
525 than 1.5 Ma (Cepeda et al. 2004). This dominant of the Carnegie ridge, an aseismic oceanic ridge that
526 Pliocene–Quaternary explosive volcanic activity is now obliquely colliding against the margin
527 has a high-K rhyolitic composition that resembles (Gütscher et al. 1999a). The forearc crust is over-
528 the last magmatic activity, characterized by the thickened only in the segment where the Carnegie
529 rhyolitic dome described by Bissig et al. (2002) in ridge (Fig. 1) is colliding against the margin, as
530 the Pampean flat slab. The rhyolitic composition demonstrated by wide-angle seismic data recently
531 of both areas, the residual thermal fields, and the collected offshore (Gaillier et al. 2007). This col- Q1
532 mechanism of emplacement are very similar in lision is also related to the abnormal present uplift
533 both regions (Cepeda et al. 2004). This volcanic of the Cordillera Real and the Subandean block
534 activity is better explained by the shallowing of that controls the Pastaza alluvial megafan (Bés de
535 the subducted Bucaramanga Pacific slab than by Berc et al. 2005). Uplift rates during the Pleistocene
536 the inception of a new volcanic arc, as the result of 1.37– 1.4 cm/a, associated with an exhumation
537 of the subduction zone that is being developed of the late Cenozoic alluvial plain of 500 m, are
538 from the Caribbean margin of Colombia and closely linked to the Carnegie ridge collision
539 Venezuela (Audemard & Audemard 2001). (Christophoul et al. 2002; Baby et al. 2004). Impor-
540 Therefore, the flat slab hypothesis explains the tant intracrustal seismic activity is related to the
541 active present uplift of the northern segment of the basement structure of the Cutucu high. This uplift
542 Eastern Cordillera, the cessation of arc magmatism, may correlate with the fission track data for the
543 the neotectonic features associated with the tectonic Cordillera Real that shows more than 9 km uplift
544 inversion of previous rifts (Sarmiento-Rojas et al. in late Cenozoic times (Spikings et al. 2001).
545 2006), the large intracrustal seismicity (Dimate Another segment with incipient evidence of
546 et al. 2003) and the complex latest Cenozoic struc- shallowing is the Guañacos segment, located
547 ture of the Pie-de-monte Llanero (Martı́nez 2006). between 368 and 388300 S latitudes. It is character-
548 ized by strong neotectonic and intracrustal activity
549 in both: i) the forearc region at the Nahuel Buta
550 Incipient flat-slab subduction segments Cordillera and offshore Cretaceous-Paleogene
551 Arauco Basin (368300 –378300 S; Melnick et al.
552 One of the best lines of evidence of early-stage 2006a) and ii) the western retroarc zone at the
553 shallowing is documented inland of the collision Guañacos fold and thrust belt (368 –388S; Folguera
554 of the Carnegie aseismic ridge (Gütscher 1999a). et al. 2004a). The two sectors correspond to
555 The volcanic arc of Colombia is composed of a ancient deformed belts that have been suddenly
556 line of individual volcanoes from Cerro Bravo at reactivated in Late Pliocene to Quaternary times.
557 58N to Cumbal at 28300 N latitude (Fig. 7). South of The offshore Arauco Basin, which was previously
558 the border with Ecuador, it changes to a complex uplifted in the Late Cretaceous, as indicated by
559 volcanic arc system, which is expanded towards fission track ages (Glodny et al. 2007), has been
560 the foreland. Active volcanoes are emplaced on shortened since 3.6 Ma at a rate of 0.8 mm a21 as
561 the Western Cordillera, the Inter-Andean Valley, the an eastward vergent fold and thrust belt. On the
562 Eastern Cordillera (or Cordillera Real) and in the other hand, recent neotectonics characterized the
563 Subandean zone across 120 km from the volcanic Guañacos fold and thrust belt, which was a Palaeo-
564 arc front. gene basin inverted during Late Miocene times. The
565 Individual volcanoes, such as the Cayambé and Pleistocene magmatic arc has migrated about 30 km
566 Quimsacocha volcanoes, show a trend from old to the east in this segment regarding the Pliocene
567 calc-alkalic volcanic rocks to a more recent new volcanic front. Petrological studies performed in
568 edifice with a typical adakitic signature (Beate the Cenozoic arc at these latitudes show crustal
569 et al. 2001; Samaniego et al. 2002). Although the thickening and subduction erosion, both processes
570 origin of this adakitic signal was early ascribed to consistent with shallowing of the subduction zone
571 slab melting, this has been questioned with their (Kay et al. 2005). Gravimetric studies show that
572 formation being attributed to melting of thickened the 368 –388300 S segment is characterized by a
573 continental crust or forearc subduction erosion long wavelength residual gravimetric anomaly that
574 (Ramos 2004). Both processes, crustal thickening can only be explained (see density model in
575 and forearc crustal erosion, are consistent with flat Alasonati Tašárová 2007; Hackney et al. 2006) by
576 subduction (Kay & Mpodozis 2002). the shallowing by 108 of the subduction angle of
577 The variation in the dip of the subducted slab has the Nazca subducted plate. Therefore, the anoma-
578 been addressed by the change in petrological lous concentration of crustal earthquakes linked to
579 characteristics, such as the depth of generation and unusual neotectonic activity in a 200 km wide sub-
580 degree of partial melting in the asthenospheric ducted segment, may indicate incipient shallowing
581 at the transition between the Central and Patagonian segments: (1) rapid cessation of the magmatic arc
582 Andes since Late Pliocene times. between 45 and 35 Ma; (2) widespread deformation
583 Another segment with an incipient flat slab is and crustal thickening in the Eastern Cordillera; (3)
584 the Transmexican volcanic belt in central Mexico, the tectonothermal Zongo San Gabán effect that per-
585 which is related to the collision of the Tehuantepec vasively resets the Ar– Ar ages along 450 km, over-
586 aseismic ridge, although a different mechanism for printing Permian and Triassic metamorphic rocks
587 uplift has been proposed (Ferrari 2006). A detailed with a cryptic 38 Ma age; and (4) no igneous
588 analysis of this segment is outside the scope of rocks of this age are known in this segment. This
589 this paper. effect was interpreted as the result of heat advection
590 by fluids at 38 Ma that predated the activity of the
591 sub-Andean fold and thrust belt (Farrar et al.
592 Past flat-slab subduction segments 1988). These processes were explained by a shal-
593 lowing of the subducted slab that became subhori-
594 There is a strong correlation between the segment zontal at about c. 35 Ma and lasted until c. 25 Ma.
595 with current arc volcanism in the Central Andes The steepening of the subduction zone was
596 (see central volcanic zone in Fig. 1) and the area evidenced by widespread bimodal volcanism
597 of past flat-slab subduction extending from southern where rhyolites and basalts cover a wide area. As
598 Peru to northern Argentina (Fig. 8). A summary of a result, great volumes of rhyolites up to 530 km3
599 the geological processes involved in the changes were spread on the present Altiplano and western
600 from normal to flat, and from flat to normal subduc- slope of Eastern Cordillera between 26 and 22 Ma
601 tion, will be discussed updating the proposal of (Sandeman et al. 1995). During flat subduction the
602 James & Sacks (1999) (also see Sebrier et al. 1988). overlying lithosphere is hydrated by dewatering of
603 the flat slab (James & Sacks 1999). Consequent
604 Altiplano flat-slab segment of Southern Peru steepening and expansion of the mantle wedge con-
605 trolled the flow of hot asthenosphere and melting
606 A period of flat-slab subduction was recorded in of the hydrated lithosphere beneath the Altiplano
607 southern Peru and northern Bolivia, between 148 and Eastern cordilleras. Volcanic arc retreat is
608 and 208S latitudes (James & Sacks 1999). The reflected by the shifting to the trench of the Tacaza
609 evidence was similar to the previous described arc between 29 and 15 Ma, the Upper Barroso arc
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628 Colour
629 – online=
630 mono
631 hardcopy
632
633
634
635
636
637 Fig. 8. Segments that recorded flat subduction in Late Eocene to Early Miocene times that correspond to the present
638 Central Volcanic Zone (based on James & Sacks 1999 and Kay et al. 1999).
639 (10–6 Ma) and Lower Barroso in the last 3 Ma to foreland basin (De Celles & Horton 2003) enabled
640 meet the present frontal arc during the Pleistocene. the onset of the deformation in the Subandean
641 The main points of these processes are the weak- region to be constrained to after 10 Ma.
642 ening of the lithosphere during steepening of the Again, the same processes indicate that strong
643 subduction, delamination of the lithosphere and deformation in the axial part of the Puna and
644 part of the lower crust (Kay & Kay 1993), and the Eastern cordilleras were related to shallowing of
645 collapse of the crust to form the Subandean fold the subduction zone, while steepening produced
646 and thrust belt. For further details, see James & important hot asthenospheric flow, which in contact
647 Sacks (1999) and Kay et al. (1999). with the hydrated lithosphere (Oncken et al. 2006),
648 led to important crustal and lithospheric delamina-
649 Puna flat-slab segment of southern Bolivia– tion. As a result, huge rhyolitic calderas and ignim-
650 britic fields are associated with thermal uplift and
651 northern Argentina the consequent horizontal collapse and weakening
652 This trend of shallowing progressed to the south, of the crust with the deformation of the Subandean
653 where another period of flat subduction was recog- belt (Isacks 1988; Kay et al. 1999; Beck & Zandt
654 nized between 208 and 248S (Kay et al. 1999). 2002; Garzione et al. 2006).
655 The shallowing took place between 18 and 12 Ma,
656 as recognized by the cessation of the magmatism,
657 Payenia segment
crustal shortening and deformation of the southern
658 Altiplano and northern Puna. Precise timing of Arc related rocks were emplaced more than 550 km
659 the deformation established by Allmendinger et al. away from the trench during Late Miocene times,
660 (1997), Baby et al. (1995) and Oncken et al. from 348300 to 378450 S (Fig. 9), suggesting
661 (2006), together with the palaeogeography of the shallow subduction processes at that time (Kay
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685 Colour
686 online=
687 mono
688 hardcopy
689
690
691
692
693
694 Fig. 9. Expansion of the magmatic arc during the Middle to Late Miocene showing the location of exhumed andesitic to
695 dacitic arc rocks on the San Rafael block. Subsequent extensional structures, within plate basaltic flows, and huge
696 rhyolitic calderas and ignimbritic flows along the main Andes suggest steepening of the subducted slab.
697 2001; Kay et al. 2006a, b). Intermediate positions of dacites and andesites emplaced in the San Rafael
698 the arc are located on the eastern slope of the Andes block between 13 and 4 Ma.
699 near the drainage divide area (Nullo et al. 2002) to In addition, the main phase of deformation in the
700 the east of the Late Oligocene arc, emplaced eastern section of the Malargüe fold and thrust belt
701 mainly on the western Andean slope. Easternmost at these latitudes has been constrained to 13–10 Ma
702 centres were emplaced over the San Rafael block, (Giambiagi et al. 2007), which indicates a genetic
703 a basement block that cannibalized the distal relationship between the initial phase of arc expan-
704 section of the Rio Grande foreland basin. The sion, uplift of the main Andes, sedimentation in the
705 uplift of this block was associated with the foreland adjacent foreland basin, and the breaking of the
706 migration of the Malargüe fold and thrust belt to the foreland area.
707 east (Kozlowski et al. 1993; Manceda & Figueroa During latest Miocene-Early Pliocene times, this
708 1995). The San Rafael block was exhumed in Late compressional crustal stage changed to an exten-
709 Miocene times (Dessanti 1956; González Dı́az sional regime with the development of extensional
710 1964; Polanski 1964; Yrigoyen 1993, 1994). The troughs across the area that had previously recorded
711 Middle Miocene age assigned to the synorogenic arc expansion (Fig. 10) (Bermúdez et al. 1993;
712 sequences at the San Rafael block (Soria 1984; Melnick et al. 2006b; Folguera et al. 2007a). Arc
713 Marshall et al. 1986) points to a Late Miocene dynamics were characterized during this period by
714 exhumation that coincides with the age of the fast retreat to the present position on the western
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738 Q10
739
740
741
742 Colour
743 online=
744 mono
745 hardcopy
746
747
748
749
750
751 Fig. 10. Distribution of Upper Palaeozoic magmatic rocks and deformation in the southern Central Andes (based
752 on Caminos 1979; Ramos et al. 1988; Varela et al. 1993; Mpodozis & Ramos 1989; Mpodozis & Kay 1990). Maximum
753 expansion of arc volcanic rocks in the Early Permian was followed by subsequent extensional regime associated
754 with the Choiyoi volcanic province.
755 flank of the Andes. Extensional deformation is arc expansion; and (4) resetting of remanent magne-
756 associated at depth with crustal attenuation as well tization in the area suggests abnormal lithospheric
757 as anomalous sublithospheric heating inferred by heating that preceeds eruption of intraplate melts.
758 teleseismic and tomographic analysis (Gilbert These facts point to a flat subduction cycle in
759 et al. 2006; Yuan et al. 2006). Gravimetric studies Early Permian times, followed by slab steepening
760 show high positive residual anomalies with areas and consequent orogenic collapse in the Late
761 submitted to extension, inferring an area of continu- Permian to Early Triassic, as proposed by Martı́nez
762 ous asthenospheric upwelling in coincidence with et al. (2006).
763 the area of previous arc expansion (Folguera et al.
764 2007b). This extensional setting hosted rhyolitic Sedimentary evolution. Late Carboniferous– Early
765 associations derived from crustal melts at the Permian 7000–8000 m thick marine to non-marine
766 highest collapsed sector of the Andes in the Las sequences are hosted along the eastern slope of the
767 Loicas trough (Fig. 9) (Hildreth et al. 1984, 1991, Principal Cordillera of Mendoza and San Juan
768 1999), whereas in foreland sectors it was associated (Fig. 10). Those are locally covering a Late Proter-
769 with poorly differentiated mantle derived products ozoic basement indicating an important erosional
770 (González Dı́az 1972; Rossello et al. 2002; Kay hiatus prior to their deposition. The broad area
771 et al. 2006b). uplifted in the Main Andes was the source of these
772 These two contrasting stages of deformation and sequences, which are characterized by coarsening-
773 arc dynamics, which occurred during the last 15 Ma up cycles. This episode of mountain building, known
774 between 348300 and 378450 S, point to a scenario as the San Rafael orogenic phase (280 –270 Ma:
775 in which progressive shallow subduction from Azcuy & Caminos 1987; Llambı́as et al. 1993;
776 15–5 Ma was followed by sudden slab steepening Cortés & Kleiman 1999), ended in the Lower
777 during the last 4 Ma, associated with the partial col- Permian with an important angular unconformity.
778 lapse of the orogen at these latitudes. From west to east these sequences were gathered
779 in the Loma de los Morteritos and El Plata for-
780 mations, with palynomorphs indicative of a Late
781 Palaeozoic flat-slab subduction segment? Carboniferous to Early Permian age. These units,
782 located on the eastern slope of the Frontal Cordil-
783 Palaeozoic deformations exhumed by Andean lera, formed the maximum depocentre of the Late
784 events through the Southern Central Andes have Palaeozoic in the region (Polanski 1958; Caminos
785 been connected to collisional episodes (Ramos 1965; Folguera et al. 2004b). To the east, Late
786 et al. 1984; Ramos 2004). Early Permian defor- Palaeozoic thicknesses fall in the western Precordil-
787 mations of the San Rafael tectonic phase have also lera region (Fig. 10), where several coarsening-up
788 been related to collision of an unidentified X tectonostratigraphic units do not reach 500 m.
789 terrane (Mpodozis & Kay 1990). This deformation These sequences, as determined by invertebrate
790 exhibits some peculiarities in the foreland sedimen- and palynomorph associations (Ottone 1987), are
791 tation and is associated with a phase of orogenic col- coeval with the magmatic rocks and the structural
792 lapse that led Mpodozis & Kay (1990) to propose deformation of the region.
793 structural instabilities after orogenic development. This main depocentre of several thousand metres
794 The analysis of the late Palaeozoic orogenies in flanked the Early Permian belt of deformation, and
795 other areas of Gondwana led Cawood & Buchan pinch out to the platform area. The foreland basin
796 Q2 (2007) to argue that deformation is not always started with shore sediments over which deltaic
797 related to a collisional event. Furthermore, in this bodies and turbiditic lobes prograded, ending with
798 segment of the Andes, little attention has been braided fluvial systems (Heredia et al. 2002). More-
799 paid to coeval arc dynamics, which constitutes a over, the dominance of westward palaeocurrents
800 direct indicator of Benioff zone variations through and lithoclasts of crystalline basement indicate
801 time. The Early Permian San Rafael tectonic phase that the basement may have been exhumed east of
802 is associated with unique processes that resemble the Early Permian orogenic front, potentially as an
803 more those of Andean tectonics than those occurred incipient Sierras Pampeanas system, similar to the
804 in Palaeozoic times at these latitudes (Ramos & present setting of the Pampean flat slab (Fig. 2).
805 Folguera 2007): (1) arc related volcanic assem- Lower Permian mesosiliceous lavas are part of
806 blages cover diachronically Early Permian com- the basal section of the Choiyoi Group. The upper
807 pressive deformation features; (2) Early Permian part of this unit accumulated either in the Frontal
808 arc abnormally expanded to extend through the Cordilleran or Precordilleran areas in a contrasting
809 entire region and probably its front shifted to the tectonic regime when compared to the basal
810 east; (3) extensional processes followed the main member. As revealed by the structural style of the
811 phase of orogenic building and intraplate rhyolitic Andean fold and thrust belt at these latitudes, the
812 sequences were erupted through the area of previous main basement thrusts are the result of tectonic
813 inversion of extensional faults that controlled the Main Andes that correspond to sutures formed as
814 main depocentres of the Choiyoi Group (Cristallini a result of Late Proterozoic to Early Palaeozoic
815 & Ramos 2000; Rodrı́guez Fernández et al. 1997). terrane amalgamation (Ramos 1988). These
816 sutures were reactivated with important strike-slip
817 Magmatic evidence. Several studies have pointed displacements in the Late Palaeozoic. The dominant
818 out that Lower Permian calc-alkaline series, right lateral displacements were caused by the
819 gathered with different names in the southern Pre- oblique convergence of the subducting Pacific
820 cordilleran region, have unconformably covered (Panthalassa) oceanic plate (Rapalini & Vilas
821 the San Rafael unconformity in the Frontal Cordil- 1991), which originated several deep transtensional
822 lera (Coira & Koukharsky 1976; Vilas & Valencio depocentres (Fernández Seveso et al. 1993;
823 1982; Cortés 1985; Kay et al. 1989; Rapalini & Fernández Seveso & Tankard 1995). The depocen-
824 Vilas 1991; Sato & Llambı́as 1993; Sotarello et al. tres are associated with alkaline eruptions typical
825 2005). In addition, other isolated minor volcanic of extensional intraplate settings (Koukharsky
826 bodies with similar chemical patterns and Early et al. 2001; Ramos et al. 2002), found in the
827 Permian age have been found to the east up to Paganzo Basin. Fernández Seveso et al. (1993)
828 250 km away from their westernmost position discuss the relation between Early Permian com-
829 (Fig. 10), on the Precordillera and Sierras Pampea- pressive thrusting in the western Andean sector
830 nas domains (Rubinstein & Koukharsky 1995; and transtension at the eastern foreland area. They
831 Castro de Machuca et al. 2007). The magmatic arc propose that the origin of the extension could have
832 was located mainly westward of the Frontal Cordil- been related to breaking up of the foreland basement
833 lera during the Carboniferous (Hervé et al. 1987), due to crustal downwarping as found in modern ana-
834 which implies a strong eastward shifting and expan- logues. This transtension in the Paganzo Basin
835 sion from the Late Carboniferous to the Early would be a passive response in the foreland area to
836 Permian (Rodrı́gez Blanco 2004). Early Permian orogenic loading of the San Rafael thrust wedge.
837 sequences are in turn separated by an erosional An alternative hypothesis would be to consider a
838 hiatus from an extensive intraplate rhyolitic associ- high partitioned subduction system where displace-
839 ation of the Choiyoi Group of Late Permian to Early ments perpendicular to the trench would have been
840 Triassic age (Rapalini & Vilas 1991). On geochem- absorbed in the San Rafael fold and thrust belt;
841 ical grounds, the plutonic and volcanic rocks of the lateral displacements imposed by oblique conver-
842 Choiyoi Group define a large within plate volcanic gence between plates would have been concentrated
843 province (Kay et al. 1989; Mpodozis & Ramos and localized in ancient lithospheric boundaries
844 1989) that covers important sectors of the Main (Rapalini & Vilas 1991; Fernández Seveso et al.
845 Andes and Precordillera regions (Fig. 10). The 1993). In this context, high oblique convergence
846 area of Early Permian arc expansion coincides and strong coupling associated with shallow sub-
847 with a phase of extensional collapse with peak duction would be the condition for the development
848 igneous activity around 260 –240 Ma at these lati- of a high strain partitioned subduction regime
849 tudes (Martı́nez 2004). during Late Carboniferous –Early Permian times.
850 Arc expansion, stacking of the western sector
851 Tectonic history. A wide volcanic arc, in excess of of the fold and thrust belt during San Rafael
852 200 km, developed in Late Carboniferous–Early tectonic phase, formation of foreland basins, and
853 Permian times and has been exhumed along the transtensional to transpressional? reactivation of Q3
854 Pampean flat slab zone. The volcanic sequences Proterozoic-early Paleozoic sutures in the foreland
855 are interfingered in the west with a 7000–8000 area, ended in the tectonic wedge collapse. As a
856 thick turbiditic to deltaic succession whose eastern- result, a multitude of rift systems were filled by
857 most section is preserved at the eastern Frontal the Choiyoi Group.
858 Cordillera (Fig. 10). Towards the east, the volcanic Rotation of half grabens produced erosional
859 rocks were emplaced over folded and thrust unconformities that separate Early Permian volca-
860 sequences deformed during the San Rafael orogenic nics from the rest of the late Paleozoic sequence.
861 phase. The sedimentary depocentre, characterized This zone of orogenic collapse coincides with the
862 by the stacking of coarsening-up cycles, was area of arc expansion and San Rafael orogenic com-
863 affected by the Early Permian deformation. This pressional deformations, suggesting a common
864 basin was formed during the arc expansion stage, mechanism. Therefore, slab steepening and conse-
865 with its subsidence controlled by orogenic loading. quent asthenospheric injection in the broadened
866 It experienced rapid thinning towards the east in asthenospheric wedge, after shallow subduction,
867 the present eastern Precordillera. are the mechanisms proposed for the origin of
868 Regional analysis of the Late Carboniferous to the anomalously voluminous rhyolitic magmas of
869 Early Permian tectonics shows some striking facts. the Choiyoi Group and its extensional tectonic
870 There are major crustal anisotropies east of the control. As a result, delamination of the lower
871 crust took place after thickening and eclogitization and the Gondwana margin. The larger area and
872 during the San Rafael compressive phase. Sublitho- elevations up to 5250 m reached by the Sierras
873 spheric heating due to slab steepening explains the Pampeanas in the Sierra de Aconquija could be
874 massive crustal melting, as the lower crust was related to the more segmented nature of the base-
875 directly in contact with the rising asthenospheric ment with several sutures and ophiolitic belts reacti-
876 flux (Martı́nez et al. 2006). vated first as extensional faults during the opening
877 of the South Atlantic, and later, as a thrust during
878 the shallowing of the oceanic slab (Ramos et al.
879 Normal to flat-slab transition 2002). Other segments such as the Bucaramanga
880 Several examples of different ages and several are related to the reactivation and uplift of the
881 distinct segments of the Andes show that the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia by tectonic inver-
882 transit from normal subduction to flat-slab subduc- sion of extensional faults, partially coinciding with
883 tion is associated with a series of events: sutures (Cortés et al. 2006; Ramos & Moreno
884 2006). Even in a small segment as the Payenia flat-
885 Migration of the volcanic front and expansion of the slab, the uplift of the San Rafael Block coincided
886 arc magmatism. It is important to note that with the maximum expansion of the arc. There is a
887 migration of the arc is indicated by the location of close relationship between arc migration, thermal
888 the largest volume of magmatic rocks; although weakening of the crust and basement uplift
889 magmatism in the previous setting may last for (James & Sacks 1999; Ramos et al. 2002) during
890 several million years, but with insignificant volu- the shallowing of the oceanic slab. Some pervasive
891 mes. Such migration involves a decreasing volume tectonothermal effects, such as the Zongo –San
892 of magmatic rocks that parallel the decline of Gabán (Farrar et al. 1988) and the San Rafael effect
893 dehydration in the subducted slab. This migration (Rapalini & Astini 2005), are associated with
894 can be correlated to crustal weakening of the this stage.
895 foreland and subsequent faulting. Geochemical sig-
896 Basin subsidence. The increase in subsidence has a
nature of these magmas changes with the distance to clear relationship with the approximation of the
897 the trench as well as the depth of generation (Kay &
898 thrust front, as shown in several Subandean basins
Mpodozis 2002). Final products may be as far as (Irigoyen et al. 2002; Jordan 1995). However, the
899 600 km from the trench, as in the Bucaramanga
900 subsidence achieves a critical collapse when the
segment (Jaramillo & Rojas 2003; Cepeda et al. basement is broken and maximum thicknesses
901 2004), and up to 750 km in the Pampean flat slab
902 are obtained. This is seen in the Pampean flat slab,
(Kay & Gordillo 1994). where more than 10 000 m of sediments in the
903
904 Uplift of the Main Andes. Tectonic uplift is well synorogenic deposits of the Bermejo foreland
905 documented in the Peruvian segment and in the basin have been reported by Ramos et al. (2002).
906 Pampean flat slab, where the Cordillera Blanca There are incomplete records in other segments,
907 and the High Cordillera of Mendoza and San Juan but De Celles & Horton (2003) described several
908 encompass the highest sectors of the Andes with thousand metres in the Oligocene and Early
909 the Huascarán (6778 m) and the Aconcagua Miocene of the Altiplano. The Payenia segment
910 (6967 m) mountains. The main difference between nicely depicts the migration and cannibalization of
911 these two segments is that the Peruvian one registers the previous basins until the broken foreland stage
912 some extensional collapse of the Cordillera Blanca is reached.
913 (Siame et al. 2006b), while the Aconcagua shows
914 no evidence of extension (Ramos et al. 1996b). Flat to normal slab transition
915 This could imply that extension is more related to
916 slab buoyancy from ridge subduction of the pre- On the other hand, the processes related to the tran-
917 thickened continental crust, as proposed by sition from flat-slab to normal subduction are less
918 McNulty & Farber (2002), than to orogenic collapse well known, but have interesting characteristics:
919 in the sense of Dewey (1988).
920 Rhyolitic flare-up. One of the first results of stee-
921 Broken foreland. Although the Sierras Pampeanas pening of the subducted oceanic slab is the presence
922 is one of the most typical features of the Pampean of large crustal melts that are suddenly erupted over
923 flat slab (Jordan et al. 1983a, b), most other areas the flat-slab area in thick continental crust (Kay
924 have recorded basement uplifts. The Peruvian et al. 1999). Recent studies demonstrate that these
925 segment is characterized by the Marañón Massif large lower crustal melts are associated with litho-
926 (3400 m a.s.l.), a basement uplift of the Eastern Cor- spheric removal, sinking of the eclogitized lower
927 dillera produced in Late Miocene times almost crust, and crustal delamination, as earlier proposed
928 along the suture between an allochthonous terrane by Kay & Kay (1993).
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
959
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975 Colour
976 online=
977 mono
978 hardcopy
979
980
981
982
983
984 Fig. 11. Segments that have experienced shallowing of the subduction zone during Cenozoic times along the Andes.
985 Note the almost continuous outline of flat-slabs.
986
987 Thermal uplift. This effect is a direct consequence 408 and 438S has experienced some shallowing
988 of the lithospheric removal (Isacks 1988), although during late Paleogene times (de Ignacio et al.
989 it has only been well documented in the Altiplano– 2001). There is no obvious trend or wave of shallow-
990 Puna segment (Whitman et al. 1996; Allmendinger ing, except among the Altiplano, Puna and Pampean
991 et al. 1997). Different geophysical tools have been segments, where there is some defined younging to
992 used to confirm this evidence (see review in the south. The other segments, at the present level of
993 Oncken et al. 2006). Evidence of thermal uplift knowledge, show a random inception.
994 has not been documented in other segments.
995 Reduced uplift in a thermal weakened area has Funding for this research was provided by grants ANPCYT
996 been recently proposed in the Payenia segment PICT 14144, CONICET PIP 5965 and UBACyT 160.
997 with reduced geophysical datasets by Folguera The authors are grateful to C. Mpodozis (Sipetrol, Chile)
and S. M. Kay (Cornell University, USA) for many years
998 et al. (2007c).
of fruitful discussions on these topics, as well as to the
999 researchers of Laboratorio de Tectónica Andina (Univer-
1000 Extensional regime. The onset of the steepening of sity of Buenos Aires). The critical reviews of
1001 the subducted slab in some areas is associated with B. McNulty and P. Cawood are greatly appreciated.
1002 the vertical collapse by extension of the previous
1003 contracted structures. This is seen in the Payenia
1004 segment, where the pre-Miocene peneplain, uplifted
1005 in the Late Miocene, is segmented by normal faults References
1006 (Ramos & Folguera 2005). Although the Puna has A LASONATI T AŠÁROVÁ , Z. 2007. Towards understand-
1007 evidence of Pliocene extensional faulting that has ing the lithospheric structure of the southern Chilean
1008 been interpreted in different ways (Allmendinger subduction zone (368S–428S) and its role in the
1009 et al. 1997), it is important here to note that exten- gravity field. Geophysical Journal International, doi:
1010 sion occurs immediately after the thermal uplift of 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2007.03466.
1011 the area. A LEMAN , A. M. 2006. The Peruvian flat-slab. Backbone of
1012 the Americas, Asociación Geológica Argentina – Geo-
logical Society of America Symposium, Abstract with
1013 Intense deformation shifted to the foreland. The Programs, p. 17, Mendoza.
1014 best example of migration of deformation that post- A LLMENDINGER , R. W., J ORDAN , T. E., K AY , S. M. &
1015 dates thermal uplift and some extension in the axial I SACKS , B. L. 1997. The evolution of the Altiplano-
1016 area, is the formation of the southern Subandean Puna Plateau of the Central Andes. Annual Reviews
1017 fold and thrust belt. The spatial and temporal Earth Planetary Sciences, 25, 139– 174.
1018 relationships are clearly seen in southern Bolivia A LVARADO , P., C ASTRO DE M ACHUCA , B. & B ECK , S.
1019 (Beck & Zandt 2002). In some other segments, 2005a. Comparative seismic and petrographic crustal
1020 this relationship is not evident, although in the study between the Western and Eastern Sierras
1021 Payenia flat slab, the Guañacos fold and thrust belt Pampeanas region (318S). Revista de la Asociación
Geológica Argentina, 60, 787– 796.
1022 was developed after the emplacement of calderas A LVARADO , P., B ECK , S., Z ANDT , G., A RAUJO , M. &
1023 and rhyolitic domes as well as the San Rafael T RIEP , E. 2005b. Crustal deformation in the south-
1024 block. This belt along the axis of the Andean Cordil- central Andes backarc terranes as viewed from
1025 lera has evidence of neotectonic activity (Folguera regional broad-band seismic waveform modeling.
1026 et al. 2004a). Geophysical Journal International, 163, 580 –598.
1027 A UDEMARD , F. E. & A UDEMARD , F. A. 2001. Structure
1028 Widespread mafic within plate floods. The segment of the Mérida Andes, Venezuela: relation with the
1029 with thin crust, even after gentle shortening, shows South America-Caribbean geodynamic interaction.
1030 Tectonophysics, 345, 299– 327.
an important basaltic flood linked to the inception
A ZCUY , C. & C AMINOS , R. 1987. Diastrofismo. In:
1031 of the steepening. These basaltic floods, in the A RCHANGELSKY , S. (ed.) El sistema Carbonı́fero en
1032 Payenia segment, indicate a mantle-derived poorly- la República Argentina. Academia Nacional de
1033 evolved magma of mafic composition and within Ciencias, Córdoba, 239–251.
1034 plate signature (Kay et al. 2006a, b). Acidic rocks B ABY , P., M ORETTI , I. ET AL . 1995. Petroleum system of
1035 of Pliocene to Quaternary age in this area are scarce the northern and central Bolivian Subandean zone. In:
1036 and are mainly small crustal melts as in Cerro T ANKARD , A. J., S UÁREZ S ORUCO , R. & W ELSINK ,
1037 Peceño, in the San Rafael Block. H. J. (eds) Petroleum basins of South America.
1038 In conclusion, it is interesting to show that when American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
1039 the present and past Cenozoic segments that had Memoir, 62, 445– 458.
B ABY , P., R IVADENEIRA , M. & B ARRAGÁN , R. 2004.
1040 experienced flat-slab subduction are posted along La Cuenca de Oriente: Geologı́a y Petróleo. Travaux
1041 the Andes (Fig. 11), an almost continuous belt of de l’Institut Francais d’Etudes Andines, 144, 1– 195.
1042 flat-slabs is outlined. The area that does not show B ARAZANGI , M. & I SACKS , B. 1976. Spatial distribution
1043 evidence is Patagonia, although some studies pos- of earthquakes and subduction of the Nazca plate
1044 tulate that the northern Patagonian massif between beneath South America. Geology, 4, 686– 692.
1045 B ARAZANGI , M. & I SACKS , B. 1979. Subduction of the C EPEDA , N. 2004. Estratigrafı́a de las vulcanitas asocia-
1046 Nazca plate beneath Peru evidence from spatial distri- das al Volcán de Paipa, municipios de Paipa y Tuta,
1047 bution of earthquakes. Geophysical Journal of Royal Departamento de Boyacá, Colombia. Tesis de Grado,
1048 Astronomic Society, 57, 537– 555. Universidad Nacional de Colombia (unpublished),
B EATE , B., M ONZIER , M., S PIKINGS , R., C OTTEN , J., Bogotá. Q5
1049 S ILVA , J., B OURDON , E. & E ISSEN , J.-P. 2001. Mio- C EPEDA , H., P ARDO , N. & J ARAMILLO , J. M. 2004. The
1050 Pliocene adakite generation related to flat subduction Paipa Volcano, S.A. International Association of Vol-
1051 in southern Ecuador: the Quimsacocha volcanic canology and Chemistry of the Earth Interior. IAVCEI
1052 center. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 192, International meeting 2004, Poster Session, Pucón.
1053 561–570. C OIRA , B. & K OUKHARSKY , M. 1976. Efusividad tardı́o-
1054 B ECK , S. L. & Z ANDT , G. 2002. The nature of orogenic hercı́nica en el borde oriental de la cordillera Frontal,
1055 crust in the central Andes. Journal of Geophysical zona del arroyo del Tigre, provincia de Mendoza,
1056 Research, 107, doi: 10.1029/2000JB000124. República Argentina. Congreso Geológico Chileno,
1057 B ÈS DE BERC , S., S OULA , J. C., B ABY , P., S OURIS , M., Abstracts, 1, 105–123.
C HRISTOPHOUL , F. & R OSERO , J. 2005. Geomorphic C ORREDOR , F. 2003. Seismic strain rates and distributed
1058 evidence of active deformation and uplift in a modern continental deformation in the northern Andes and
1059 continental wedge-top-foredeep transition: example of three-dimensional seismotectonics of northwestern
1060 the eastern Ecuadorian Andes. Tectonophysics, 399, South America. Tectonophysics, 372, 147– 166.
1061 351–380. C ORTÉS , J. 1985. Vulcanitas y sedimentitas lacustres en la
1062 B EER , J. A., A LLMENDINGER , R. W., F IGUEROA , D. E. & base del Grupo Choiyoi al sur de l estancia de Tambil-
1063 J ORDAN , T. 1990. Seismic stratigraphy of a Neogene los, Provincia de Mendoza. República Argentina. IV
1064 Piggyback basin, Argentina. American Association Congreso Geológico Chileno, Abstracts, 1, 89– 108.
1065 Petroleum Geologist, Bulletin, 74, 1183– 1202. C ORTÉS , J. & K LEIMAN , L. 1999. La orogenia Sanrafaé-
1066 B ERMÚDEZ , A., D ELPINO , D., F REY , F. & S AAL , A. lica en los Andes de Mendoza. 148 Congreso Geológio
1993. Los basaltos de retroarco extraandinos. In: Argentino, Abstracts, 1, 31.
1067 R AMOS , V. A. (ed.) Geologı́a y Recursos Naturales C ORTÉS , M., C OLLETTA , B. & A NGELIER , J. 2006. Struc-
1068 de Mendoza. XII8 Congreso Geológico Argentino y ture and tectonics of the central segment of the Eastern
1069 II8 Congreso de Exploración de Hidrocarburos, Rela- Cordillera of Colombia. Journal of South American
1070 torio, 161–172, Buenos Aires. Earth Sciences, 21, 437–465.
1071 B ISSIG , T., C LARK , A. H. & L EE , J. K. W. 2002. Cerro de C RISTALLINI , E. & R AMOS , V. A. 2000. Thick-skinned
1072 Vidrio rhyolitic dome: evidence for Late Pliocene and thin-skinned thrusting in the La Ramada fold and
1073 volcanism in the central Andean flat-slab region, thrust belt: crustal evolution of the High Andes of
1074 Lama-Veladero district, 298200 S, San Juan Province, San Juan, Argentina (328S). Tectonophyics, 317,
1075 Argentina. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 205– 235.
15, 571–576. D ESSANTI , R. 1956. Hoja Cerro Diamante 1 sheet
1076 B OURDON , E., E ISSEN , J.-P., G UTSCHER , M.-A., 1: 250,000. Provincia de Mendoza. Servicio Nacional
1077 M ONZIER , M., H ALL , M. L. & C OTTEN , J. 2003. Mag- Minero Geológico, Boletı́n, 85, 1 –79.
1078 matic response to early aseismic ridge subduction: the D E C ELLES , P. G. & H ORTON , B. 2003. Early to middle
1079 Ecuadorian margin case (South America). Earth and Tertiary foreland basin development and the history
1080 Planetary Science Letters, 205, 123– 138. of Andean crustal shortening in Bolivia. Geological
1081 C AHILL , T. & I SACKS , B. L. 1992. Seismicity and the Society of America, Bulletin, 115, 58–77.
1082 shape of the subducted Nazca plate. Journal of Geo- D E I GNACIO , C., L ÓPEZ , I., O YARZUN , R. & M ÁRQUEZ ,
1083 physical Research, 97, 17503–17529. A. 2001. The northern Patagonia Somuncura plateau
1084 C AMINOS , R. 1965. Geologı́a de la vertiente oriental del basalts: a product of slab-induced, shallow astheno-
Cordón del Plata, Cordillera Frontal de Mendoza. spheric upwelling? Terra Nova, 13, 117– 121.
1085 Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, 20, D EWEY , J. F. 1988. Extensional collapse of orogens.
1086 351–392. Tectonics, 7, 1123–1139.
1087 C AMINOS , R. 1979. Cordillera frontal. In: T URNER , D IMATE , C., R IVERA , L. ET AL . 2003. The 19 January
1088 J. C. M. (ed.) Segundo Simposio de Geologı́a Regional 1995 Tauramena (Colombia) earthquake: geometry
1089 Argentina. Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Córdoba, and stress regime. Tectonophysics, 363, 159 –180.
1090 1, 397–453. D ORBATH , C., D ORBATH , L., C ISTERNAS , A.,
1091 C ASTRO DE M ACHUCA , B., C ONTE -G RAND , A., D EVERCHERE , J., D IAMENT , M., O COLA , L. &
1092 M EISSL , E., P ONTORIERO , S., S UMAY , C. & M ORALES , M. 1986. On crustal seismicity of the
1093 M ORATA , D. 2007. Manifestaciones del magmatismo Amazonian foothill of the central Peruvian Andes.
neopaleozoico (Carbonı́fero superior-Pérmico) en la Geophysical Research Letters, 13, 1023– 1026.
1094 sierra de la Huerta, sierras Pampeanas occidentales, D ORBATH , L., D ORBATH , C., J IMENEZ , E. & R IVERA , L.
1095 Provincia de San Juan. Caracterización petrológica 1991. Seismicity and tectonic deformation in
1096 de los pórfidos Marayes Viejo y El Arriero. Revista the Eastern Cordillera and the sub-Andean zone of
1097 Q4 de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, in press. Central Perú. Journal of South Americn Earth
1098 C HRISTOPHOUL , F., B ABY , P. & D ÁVILA , C. 2002. Sciences, 4, 13–24.
1099 Stratigraphic responses to a major tectonic event in a D UQUE C ARO , H. 1990. The Chocó block in the north-
1100 foreland basin: the Ecuadorian Oriente Basin from western corner of South America: structural, tectonos-
1101 Eocene to Oligocene times. Tectonophysics, 345, traigraphic and paleogeographic implications. Journal
1102 281–298. of South American Earth Sciences, 3, 71–84.
1103 E SPURT , N., B ABY , P. ET AL . 2007. How does the Nazca Malargüe fold and thrust belt, Southern Central
1104 Ridge subduction influence the modern Amazonian Andes. Tectonophysics, Special Issue ISAG 2005. Q7
1105 foreland basin? Geology, 35, 515–518. G ILBERT , H., B ECK , S. & Z ANDT , G. 2006. Lithospheric
1106 F ARRAR , E., C LARK , A. H., K ONTAK , D. J. & and upper mantle structure of central Chile and
A RCHIBAL , D. A. 1988. Zongo-San Gabán zone: Argentina. Geophysical Journal International, 165,
1107 eocene foreland boundary of the Central Andean 383, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.02867.x.
1108 orogen, northwest Bolivia and southeast Peru. G LODNY , J., G RÂFE , K., E CHTLER , H. & R OSENAU , M.
1109 Geology, 16, 55–58. 2007. Mesozoic to Quaternary continental margin
1110 F ERNÁNDEZ S EVESO , F. & T ANKARD , A. 1995. dynamics in South-Central Chile (36–428S): the
1111 Tectonics and stratigraphy of the Late Paleozoic apatite and zircon fission track perspective. Inter-
1112 Paganzo basin of Western Argentina and its regional national Journal of Earth Sciences (Geologische
1113 implications. In: T ANKARD , A. J., S UÁREZ Rundschau), doi: 10.1007/s00531-007-0203-1.
1114 S ORUCO , R. & W ELSINK , H. J. (eds) Petroleum G ONZÁLEZ B ONORINO , F. 1950. Algunos problemas
1115 Basins of South America. American Association of geológicos de las Sierras Pampeanas. Revista de la
Petroleum Geologists, Memoir, 62, 285– 301. Asociación Geológica Argentina, 5, 81– 110.
1116 F ERNÁNDEZ S EVESO , F., P ÉREZ , M., B RISSON , I. & G ONZÁLEZ D ÍAZ , E. F. 1964. Rasgos geológicos y evolu-
1117 A LVAREZ , L. 1993. Sequence stratigraphy and ción geomorfológica de la Hoja 27 d (San Rafael) y
1118 tectonic analysis of the Paganzo basin, Western zona occidental vecina (Provincia de Mendoza).
1119 Argentina. 128 International Congress on the Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, 19,
1120 Carboniferous-Permian systems (Buenos Aires), 151–188.
1121 Comptes Rendus, 2, 223 –260. G ONZÁLEZ D ÍAZ , E. F. 1972. Descripción geológica de la
1122 F ERRARI , L. 2006. Laramide and Neogene shallow Hoja 30d Payún-Matrú, Provincia de Mendoza. Direc-
1123 subduction in Mexico: constraints and contrasts. ción Nacional de Geologı́a y Minerı́a, Boletı́n, 130,
1124 Backbone of the Americas, Asociación Geológica 1– 88.
Argentina – Geological Society of America Sym- G ÜTSCHER , R., M ALAVIEILLE , J., L ALLEMEND , S. &
1125 posium, Abstract with Programs, p. 17, Mendoza. C OLLOT , J. Y. 1999a. Tectonic segmentation of the
1126 F OLGUERA , A., B OTTESI , G., R AMOS , V. A. & Z APATA , North Andean margin: impact of the Carnegie Ridge
1127 T. 2007a. Crustal collapse at the retroarc zone Collision. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 168,
1128 (2 –0 Ma): tromen volcanic plateau, Southern Central 255–270.
1129 Andes (368400 –378300 S). Tectonophysics, Special G ÜTSCHER , M. A., O LIVET , J. L., A SLANIAN , D.,
1130 Q6 Issue ISAG 2005. E ISSEN , J. P. & M AURY , R. 1999b. The ‘lost Inca
1131 F OLGUERA , A., I NTROCASO , A. ET AL . 2007b. Crustal Plateau’: cause of flat subduction beneath Peru?
1132 attenuation in the Southern Andean retroarc deter- Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 171, 335– 341.
1133 mined from gravimetric studies (388– 398300 S): The G ÜTSCHER , M. A., S PAKMAN , W., B IJWAARD , H. &
Lonco-Luán astenospheric anomaly. Tectonophysics, E NGDAHL , E. R. 2000. Geodynamic of flat subduction:
1134 doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2007.04.001. seismicity and tomographic constraints from the
1135 F OLGUERA , A., A LASONATI T AŠÁROVÁ , S., H ESE , F., Andean margin. Tectonics, 19, 814–833.
1136 H ACKNEY , R., G OTZE , H., S CHMIDT , S. & R AMOS , H ACKNEY , R., E CHTLER , H. ET AL . 2006. The segmented
1137 V. A. 2007c. Crustal attenuation along the Andean overriding plate and coupling at the South-Central
1138 retroarc zone 368– 398S from gravimetric análisis. Chilean margin (368–428S). In: O NCKEN , O.,
1139 208 Colloquium on Latinoamerican Earth Sciences, C HONG , G. ET AL . (eds) The Andes – Active Subduc-
1140 Abstracts, 38–41, Kiel. tion Orogeny. Frontiers in Earth Sciences Series, 1,
1141 F OLGUERA , A., R AMOS , V. A., H ERMANNS , R. L. & Springer, Berlin.
1142 N ARANJO , J. 2004a. Neotectonics in the foothills of H AMPEL , A. 2002. The migration history of the Nazca
the southernmost central Andes (378– 388S): evidence ridge along the Peruvian active margin: a
1143 of strike-slip displacement along the Antiñir-Copahue re-evaluation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
1144 fault zone. Tectonics, 23, TC5008, doi: 10.1029/ 203, 665 –679.
1145 2003TC001533. H EREDIA , N., R ODRÍGUEZ F ERNÁNDEZ , L. R., G ALLAS-
1146 F OLGUERA , A., E TCHEVERRÍA , M. ET AL . 2004b. Hoja TEGUI , G., B USQUETS , P. & C OLOMBO , F. 2002.
1147 Geológica Potrerillos 3369–15. Servicio Geológico Geological setting of the Argentine Frontal Cor-
1148 Minero Argentino, Boletı́n, 301, 1 –142. dillera in the flat-slab segment (308000 –318300 S
1149 G AILLER , A., C HARVIS , P. & F LUEH , E. R. 2007. Seg- latitude). Journal of South American Earth Sciences,
1150 mentation of the Nazca and South American plates 15, 79–99.
1151 along the Ecuador subduction zone from wide angle H ERVÉ , F., G ODOY , E., P ARADA , M., R AMOS , V. A.,
seismic profiles. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, R APELA , C., M PODOZIS , C. & D AVIDSON , J. 1987.
1152 Q1 260, 444– 464. A general view on the Chilean Argentinian Andes,
1153 G ARZIONE , C. N., M OLNAR , P., L IBARKIN , J. C. & with emphasis on their early history. In: M ONGER , J.
1154 M AC F ADDEN , B. J. 2006. Rapid late Miocene rise of & F RANCHETEAU , J. (eds) Circum-Pacific orogenic
1155 the Bolivian Altiplano: evidence for removal of belts and evolution of the Pacific Basin. American
1156 mantle lithosphere. Earth and Planetary Science Geophysical Union, Geoynamics Series, 18, 97–113.
1157 Letters, 241, 543–556. H ILDRETH , W., D RAKE , R., G ODOY , E. & M UNIZAGA , F.
1158 G IAMBIAGI , L., B ECHIS , F., G ARCÍA , V. & C LARK , A. 1991. Bobadilla caldera and 1.1 Ma ignimbrite
1159 2007. Temporal and spatial relationships of thick- at Laguna del Maule, Southern Chile. VI8 Congreso
1160 and thin-skinned deformation: a case study from the Geológico Chileno Actas, 62– 63.
1161 H ILDRETH , W., F IERSTEIN , J., G ODOY , E., D RAKE , R. & K ADINSKY -C ADE , K., R EILINGER , R. & I SACKS , B.
1162 S INGER , B. 1999. The Puelche volcanic field: exten- 1985. Surface deformation associated with the
1163 sive Pleistocene rhyolite lava flows in the Andes of November 23, 1977, Caucete, Argentina, earthquake
1164 Central Chile. Revista Geológica de Chile, 26, sequence. Journal of Geophysical Research, 90,
275–309. 12 691– 12 700.
1165 H ILDRETH , W., G RUNDER , A. & D RAKE , R. 1984. The K AY , R. W. & K AY , S. M. , 1993. Delamination and dela-
1166 Loma Seca Tuff and the Calabozos Caldera: a major mination magmatism. Tectonophysics, 219, 177 –189.
1167 ash-flow and caldera complex in the southern Andes K AY , S. 2001. Tertiary to recent magmatism and tectonics
1168 of Central Chile. Geological Society of America, of the Neuquén basin between 36805 0 and 388S
1169 Bulletin, 95, 45–54. latitude. Repsol-YPF Buenos Aires. Unpublished
1170 H ILLEY , G. E., S TRECKER , M. R. & R AMOS , V. A. 2004. Report, 77 p.
1171 Growth and erosion of fold-and-thrust belts with K AY , S. M. & G ORDILLO , C. E. 1994. Pocho volcanic
1172 application to the Aconcagua fold-and-thrust belt, rocks and the melting of depleted continental litho-
1173 Argentina. Journal of Geophysical Research 109, sphere above a shallowly dipping subduction zone in
B01410, doi: 10.1029/2002JB002282. the Central Andes. Contributions to Mineralogy and
1174 I RIGOYEN , M. V., B UCHAN , K. L., V ILLENEUVE , M. E. & Petrology, 117, 25–44.
1175 B ROWN , R. L. 2002. Cronologı́a y significado tectó- K AY , S. M. & M PODOZIS , C. 2001. Central Andean ore
1176 nico de los estratos sinorogénicos neógenos aflorantes deposits linked to evolving shallow subduction
1177 en la región de Cacheuta-Tupungato, provincia de systems and thickening crust. GSA Today, 11(3), 4– 9.
1178 Mendoza. Revista de la Asociación Geológica K AY , S. M. & M PODOZIS , C. 2002. Magmatism as a probe
1179 Argentina, 57, 3– 18. to the Neogene shallowing of the Nazca plate beneath
1180 I SACKS , B. 1988. Uplift of the Central Andean plateau and the modern Chilean flat-slab. Journal of South
1181 bending of the Bolivian orocline. Journal Geophysical American Earth Sciences, 15, 39– 57.
1182 Research, 93, 3211–3231. K AY , S. M., M ANCILLA , O. & C OPELAND , P. 2006a.
I SACKS , B., J ORDAN , T., A LLMENDINGER , R. & R AMOS , Evolution of the Backarc Chachahuén volcanic com-
1183 V. A. 1982. La segmentación tectónica de los Andes plex at 378S latitude over a transient Miocene shallow
1184 Centrales y su relación con la placa de Nazca subduc- subduction zone under the Neuquén Basin. In: K AY ,
1185 tada. V8 Congreso Latinoamericano de Geologı́a, S. M. & R AMOS , V. A. (eds) Evolution of an Andean
1186 Actas, 3, 587–606. Margin: A Tectonic and Magmatic View from the
1187 J AMES , D. E. & S ACKS , S. 1999. Cenozoic formation of Andes to the Neuquén Basin (358– 398S lat.). Geologi-
1188 the Central Andes: a geophysical perspective. In: cal Society of America, Special Paper, 407, 215– 246.
1189 S KINNER , B. ET AL . (eds) Geology and Mineral Depos- K AY , S. M., B URNS , M. & C OPELAND , P. 2006b. Upper
1190 its of Central Andes. Society of Economic Geology, Cretaceous to Holocene Magmatism over the
1191 Special Publication, 7, 1 –25. Neuquén basin: evidence for transient shallowing of
J ARAMILLO , J. M. & R OJAS , P. 2003. Depósitos de the subduction zone under the Neuquén Andes (368S
1192 cenizas volcánicas en la Cordillera Oriental. 98 Con- to 388S latitude). In: K AY , S. M. & R AMOS , V. A.
1193 greso Colombiano de Geologı́a, Resúmenes, p. 150, (eds) Evolution of an Andean Margin: A Tectonic
1194 Medellı́n. and Magmatic View from the Andes to the Neuquén
1195 J ORDAN , T. E. 1984. Cuencas, volcanismo y acortamien- Basin (358–398S lat.). Geological Society of
1196 tos cenozoicos, Argentina, Bolivia y Chile, 208288 America, Special Paper, 407, 19–60.
1197 lat. S. 98 Congreso Geológico Argentino, Actas, 2, K AY , S. M., G ODOY , E. & K URTZ , A. 2005. Episodic arc
1198 7–24. migration, crustal thickening, subduction erosion, and
1199 J ORDAN , T. E. 1995. Retroarc foreland and related basins. magmatism in the south-central Andes. Bulletin of
1200 In: S PERA , C. & I NGERSOLL , R. V. (eds) Tectonics of the Geological Society of America, 117, 67–88.
Sedimentary basins. Blackwell Scientific, Cambridge, K AY , S. M., M AKSAEV , V., M OSCOSO , R., M PODOZIS ,
1201 MA, 331–362. C. & N ASI , C. 1987. Probing the evolving Andean
1202 J ORDAN , T. E., I SACKS , B., R AMOS , V. A. & lithosphere: Mid-late Tertiary magmatism in Chile
1203 A LLMENDINGER , R. W. 1983a. Mountain building (298–308300 S) over the modern zone of subhorizontal
1204 in the Central Andes. Episodes, 1983(3), 20–26. subduction. Journal Geophysical Research, 92(B7),
1205 J ORDAN , T. E., I SACKS , B. L., A LLMENDINGER , R. W., 6173– 6189.
1206 B REWER , J. A., R AMOS , V. A. & A NDO , C. J. K AY , S. M., M PODOZIS , C. & C OIRA , B. 1999. Neogene
1207 1983b. Andean tectonics related to geometry of sub- magmatism, tectonism, and mineral deposits of
1208 ducted Nazca plate. Geological Society of America, the Central Andes (228S to 338S). In: S KINNER , B.
1209 Bulletin, 94, 341–361. ET AL . (eds) Geology and Mineral Deposits of Central
J ORDAN , T. E., S CHULENEGGER , F. & C ARDOZO , N. Andes. Society of Economic Geology, Special Publi-
1210 2001. Unsteady and spatially variable evolution of cation, 7, 27– 59.
1211 the Neogene Andean Bermejo Foreland basin, K AY , S. M., M PODOZIS , C., R AMOS , V. A. & M UNI-
1212 Argentina. Journal of South Americn Earth Sciences, ZAGA , F. 1991. Magma source variations for mid to
1213 14, 775–798. late Tertiary volcanic rocks erupted over a shallowing
1214 J ORDAN , T., Z EITLER , P., R AMOS , V. A. & G LEADOW , subduction zone and through a thickening crust in the
1215 A. J. W. 1989. Thermochronometric data on the Main Andean Cordillera (28–338S). In: H ARMON ,
1216 development of the basement peneplain in the Sierras R. S. & R APELA , C. (eds) Andean Magmatism and
1217 Pampeanas, Argentina. Journal of South American its Tectonic Setting. Geological Society of America,
1218 Earth Sciences, 2, 207– 222. Special Paper, 265, 113–137.
1219 K AY , S., R AMOS , V. A., M PODOZIS , C. & S RUOGA , P. M C N ULTY , B. A. & F ARBER , D. 2002. Active detachment
1220 1989. Late Paleozoic to Jurassic silicic magmatism at faulting above the Peruvian flat-slab. Geology, 30,
1221 the Gondwana margin: analogy to the Middle Protero- 567–570.
1222 zoic in North America? Geology, 17, 324–328. M C N ULTY , B. A., F ARBER , D. L., W ALLACE , G. S.,
K IRBY , S., E NGDAHL , E. R. & D ENLINGER , R. 1996. L OPEZ , R. & P ALACIOS , O. 1998. Role of plate kin-
1223 Intermediate-depth intraslab earthquakes and arc ematics and plate-slip-vector partitioning in continen-
1224 volcanism as physical expressions of crustal and tal magmatic arcs; evidence from the Cordillera
1225 uppermost mantle metamorphism in subducting Blanca, Peru. Geology, 26, 827 –830.
1226 slabs. In: B EBOUT , G. E., S CHOLL , D. W., K IRBY , M ELNICK , D., B OOKHAGEN , B., E CHTLER , H. &
1227 S. H. & P LATT , J. P. (eds) Subduction Top to S TREICKER , M. 2006a. Coastal deformation and
1228 Bottom. Geophysical Monograph Series, 96, 195–214. great subduction earthquakes, Isla Santa Marı́a, Chile
1229 K OUKHARSKY , M., T ASSINARI , C., B RODTKORB , M. & (378S). Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 118,
1230 L EAL , P. 2001. Basaltos del Neopaleozoico-Triásico 1463– 1480.
1231 temprano? en las sierras del norte de Córdoba y de M ELNICK , D., C HARLET , F., E CHTLER , H. & B ATIST , M.
Ambargasta, Sierras Pampeanas Orientales: Petrograı́a 2006b. Incipient axial collapse of the main cordillera
1232 y edades K/Ar. Revista de la Asociación Geológica and strain partitioning gradient between the central
1233 Argentina, 56, 400 –403. and Patagonian Andes, Lago Laja, Chile. Tectonics,
1234 K OZLOWSKI , E., M ANCEDA , R. & R AMOS , V. A. 1993. 25, TC 5004, doi: 10.1029/2005TC001918: 1 –22.
1235 Estructura. In: R AMOS , V. A. (ed.) Geologı́a y Recur- M ÉNDEZ F AJURY , R. A. 1989. Catálogo de volcanes
1236 sos Naturales de Mendoza. XII8 Congreso Geológico activos de Colombia. Boletı́n Geológico Ingeominas,
1237 Argentino y II8 Congreso de Exploración de Hidrocar- 30(3), 1 –75.
1238 buros, Relatorio, 235–256, Buenos Aires. M PODOZIS , C. & K AY , S. 1990. Provincias magmáticas
1239 L ITVAK , V. D., P OMA , S. & M AHLBURG K AY , S. 2007. ácidas y evolución tectónica del Gondwana: Andes
1240 Paleogene and Neogene magmatism in the Valle del Chilenos (288 –318S). Revista Geológica de Chile,
Cura region: new perspective on the evolution of the 17, 153– 180.
1241 Pampean flat-slab, San Juan province, Argentina. M PODOZIS , C. & R AMOS , V. A. 1989. The Andes of Chile
1242 Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 24, and Argentina. In: E RICKSEN , G. E., C AÑAS P INO-
1243 Q8 117– 137. CHET , M. T. & R EINEMUD , J. A. (eds) Geology of
1244 L LAMBÍAS , E., K LEIMAN , L. & S ALVARREDI , J. 1993. the Andes and its relation to Hydrocarbon and
1245 El magmatismo gondwánico. In: R AMOS , V. A. (ed.) Mineral Resources. Circumpacific Council for
1246 Geologı́a y Recursos Naturales de Mendoza. XII8 Energy and Mineral Resources, Earth Sciences
1247 Congreso Geológico Argentino y II8 Congreso de Series, 11, 59–90.
1248 Exploración de Hidrocarburos, Relatorio, 53– 64, M PODOZIS , C., C ORNEJO , P., K AY , S. M. & T ITTLER , A.
1249 Buenos Aires. 1995. La franja de Maricunga: sı́ntesis de la evolución
M ACHARÉ , J., S EBRIER , M., H UAMÁN , D. & M ERCER , del frente volcánico Oligoceno-Mioceno de la zona sur
1250 J. L. 1986. Tectónica cenozoica de la margen de los Andes Centrales. Revista Geológica de Chile,
1251 peruana. Boletı́n de la Sociedad Geológica del Perú, 22, 273– 313.
1252 76, 45– 77. N ULLO , F., S TEPHENS , G., O TAMENDI , J. & B ALDAUF ,
1253 M ANCEDA , R. & F IGUEROA , D. 1995. Inversion of the P. 2002. El volcanismo del Terciario superior del sur
1254 Mesozoic Neuquén rift in the Malargüe fold-thrust de Mendoza. Revista de la Asociación Geológica
1255 belt, Mendoza, Argentina. In: T ANKARD , A. J., Argentina, 57, 119–132.
1256 S UÁREZ , R. & W ELSINK , H. J. (eds) Petroleum O NCKEN , O., C HONG , G. ET AL . (eds) 2006. The Andes –
1257 Basins of South America. American Association of Active Subduction Orogeny. Frontiers in Earth
1258 Petroleum Geologists, Memoir, 62, 369– 382. Sciences Series, Springer, Berlin.
M ARSHALL , L., D RAKE , R. & C URTISS , G. 1986. O TTONE , E. G. 1987. Estudios Bioestratigráficos y
1259 40
K– 40Ar calibration of Late Miocene-Pliocene Paleoambientales de la Formación Santa Máxima,
1260 Mammal-bearing Hayquerı́as and Tunuyán For- Paleozoico Superior, provincia de Mendoza, Repúb-
1261 mations, Mendoza Province, Argentina. Journal of lica Argentina. PhD Thesis, Universidad de Buenos
1262 Paleontology, 60, 448 –457. Aires.
1263 M ARTÍNEZ , A. 2004. Secuencias volcánicas permo- P ARDO , M., C OMTE , D. & M ONFRET , T. 2002. Seismo-
1264 triásicas de los cordones del Portillo y del Plata, Cor- tectonic and stress distribution in the central Chile sub-
1265 dillera Frontal, Mendoza: su interpretación tectónica. duction zone. Journal of South American Earth
1266 PhD Thesis, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Sciences, 15, 11–22.
1267 M ARTÍNEZ , A., R ODRÍGUEZ B LANCO , L. & R AMOS , P ENNINGTON , W. D. 1981. Subduction of the Eastern
V. A. 2006. Permo-Triassic magmatism of the Panama Basin and seismotectonics of Northwest
1268 Choiyoi Group in the cordillera Frontal of Mendoza, South America. Journal of Geophysical Research,
1269 Argentina: geological variations associated with 86, 10753–10770.
1270 changes in Paleo-Benioff zone. Backbone of the P ILGER , R. H. 1981. Plate reconstructions, aseismic
1271 Americas, Asociación Geológica Argentina – ridges, and low angle subduction beneath the
1272 Geological Society of America Symposium, Abstract Andes. Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 92,
1273 with Programs. Mendoza, 1 –77. 448–456.
1274 M ARTINEZ , J. A. 2006. Structural evolution of the Llanos P ILGER , R. H. 1984. Cenozoic plate kinematics, subduc-
1275 foothills, Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. Journal of tion and magmatism: South American Andes.
1276 South American Earth Sciences, 21, 510– 520. Journal Geological Society of London, 141, 793– 802.
1277 P OLANSKI , J. 1958. El bloque varı́scico de la Cordillera America determined and dated by paleomagnetism.
1278 Frontal de Mendoza. Revista de la Asociación Geoló- Geophysical Journal International, 107, 333–351.
1279 gica Argentina, 12, 165 –196. R EGNIER , M., C HATELAIN , J. L., S MALLEY , R., M ING
1280 P OLANSKI , J. 1964. Descripción geológica de la Hoja 26c, C HIU , J., I SACKS , B. L. & P UEBLA , N. 1992.
La Tosca (Prov. de Mendoza). Dirección Nacional de Seismotectonic of the Sierra Pie de Palo, a basement
1281 Geologı́a y Minerı́a, Boletı́n, 101, 1 –86. block uplift in the Andean foreland, Argentina.
1282 R AMOS , V. A. 1988. Tectonics of the Late Proterozoic – Bulletin of Seismological Society of America, 82,
1283 Early Paleozoic: a collisional history of Southern 2549– 2571.
1284 South America. Episodes, 11(3), 168– 174. R EYNOLDS , J. H., J ORDAN , T. E., J OHNSON , N. M.,
1285 R AMOS , V. A. 1999a. Plate tectonic setting of the Andean D AMANTI , J. F. & T ABBUTT , K. D. 1990. Neogene
1286 Cordillera. Episodes, 22(3), 183–190. deformation on the flat-subduction segment of the
1287 R AMOS , V. A. 1999b. Los depósitos terciarios sinorogén- Argentine-Chilean Andes: magneteostratigraphic con-
1288 icos de la región andina. In: C AMINOS , R. (ed.) Geolo- straints from Las Juntas, La Rioja Province, Argentina.
1289 gı́a Argentina. Instituto de Geologı́a y Recursos Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 102,
Minerales, Anales, 29, 651–682. 1607– 1622.
1290 R AMOS , V. A. 2004. Cuyania, an exotic block to Gond- R ODRÍGUEZ B LANCO , L. 2004. Geologı́a, estructura y
1291 wana: review of a historical success and the present volcanismo permotriásico entre los los Cerros
1292 problems. Gondwana Research, 7, 1009–1026. Puntudo y Colorado, San Juan. Trabajo Final de
1293 R AMOS , V. A. & F OLGUERA , A. 2005. Tectonic evolution Licenciatura, Universidad de Buenos Aires, unpub-
1294 of the Andes of Neuquén: constraints derived from the lished, Buenos Aires.
1295 magmatic arc and foreland deformation. In: V EIGA , G. R ODRÍGUEZ F ERNÁNDEZ , L., H EREDIA , N., E SPINA , R.
1296 ET AL . (eds) The Neuquén Basin: A case study in & C EGARRA , M. 1997. Estratigrafı́a y estructura de
1297 sequence stratigraphy and basin dynamics. The Geo- los Andes Centrales Argentinos entre los 308 y 318
1298 logical Society, Special Publications, 252, 15–35. de latitud sur. Acta Geológica Hispánica, 32, 51–75.
R AMOS , V. A. & F OLGUERA , A. 2007. Evidence of flat R OSSELLO , E., C OBBOLD , P., D IRAISON , M. & A RNAUD ,
1299 and steep subduction on the Andes: geological pro- N. 2002. Auca Mahuida (Neuquén Basin, Argentina): a
1300 cesses and tectonic inferences. 208 Colloquium on Lati- Quaternary shield volcano on a hydrocarbon-
1301 noamerican Earth Sciences, Abstracts, 17–18, Kiel. producing substrate. 58 International Symposium on
1302 R AMOS , V. A. & M ORENO , M. 2006. Tectonic evolution Andean Geodynamics, Extended Abstracts, 549 –552.
1303 of the Colombian Andes, Editorial. Journal of South R UBINSTEIN , N. & K OUKHARSKY , M. 1995. Edades K/
1304 American Earth Sciences, 21, 319– 321. Ar del volcanismo neopaleozoico en la Precordillera
1305 R AMOS , V. A., A GUIRRE U RRETA , M. B. ET AL . 1996a. noroccidental sanjuanina (308S; 698030 W). Revista de
1306 Geologı́a de la Región del Aconcagua, Provincias de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, 50, 270– 272.
1307 San Juan y Mendoza. Dirección Nacional del Servicio S AMANIEGO , P., M ARTIN , H., R OBIN , C. & M ONZIER ,
Geológico, Anales, 24, 1– 510. M. 2002. Transition from calc-alkalic to adakitic mag-
1308 R AMOS , V. A., C EGARRA , M. & C RISTALLINI , E. 1996b. matism at Cayambe volcano, Ecuador: insights into
1309 Cenozoic tectonics of the High Andes of west-central slab melts andmantle wedge interactions. Geology,
1310 Argentina, (308 –368S latitude). Tectonophysics, 259, 30: 967–990.
1311 185–200. S ANDEMAN , H. A., C LARK , A. H. & F ARRAR , E. 1995.
1312 R AMOS , V. A., C RISTALLINI , E. & P ÉREZ , D. J. 2002. An integrated tectono-magmatic model for the evol-
1313 The Pampean flat-slab of the Central Andes. Journal ution of the Southern Peruvian Andes (138– 208S)
1314 of South American Earth Sciences, 15, 59–78. since 55 Ma. International Geology Review, 37,
1315 R AMOS , V. A., J ORDAN , T. E., A LLMENDINGER , R. W., 1039– 1073.
1316 K AY , S. M., C ORTÉS , J. M. & P ALMA , M. A. 1984. S ARMIENTO -R OJAS , L. F., V AN W ESS , J. D. & C LOE-
Chilenia: Un terreno alóctono en la evolución paleo- TINGH , S. 2006. Mesozoic transtensional basin
1317 zoica de los Andes Centrales. 98 Congreso Geológico history of the Eastern Cordillera, Colombian Andes:
1318 Argentino, Actas, 2, 84– 106. inferences from tectonic models. Journal of South
1319 R AMOS , V. A., K AY , S. M., P AGE , R. N. & M UNIZAGA , F. American Earth Sciences, 21, 383 –411.
1320 1989. La Ignimbrita Vacas Heladas y el cese del volca- S ATO , A. & L LAMBÍAS , E. 1993. El Grupo Choiyoi, pro-
1321 nismo en el Valle del Cura, provincia de San Juan. vincia de San Juan: equivalente efusivo del Batolito de
1322 Revista de la Asociación Geológica Argentina, 44, Colangüil. 128 Congreso Geológico Argentino y 28
1323 336–352. Congreso de Exploración de Hidrocarburos, Actas,
1324 R AMOS , V., M UNIZAGA , F. & M ARÍN , G. 1988. Las 4, 156– 165.
1325 riolitas neopaleozoicas de la sierra de la Huerta (pro- S ÉBRIER , M., M ERCIER , J., M ACHARÉ , D., B ONNOT , J.
vincia de San Juan): evidencias de una metalogénesis & C ABRERA Y , J. L. BLANC . 1988. The state of
1326 aurı́fera gondwánica en Sierras Pampeanas. 38 Con- stress in an overriding plate situated above a flat-slab:
1327 greso Nacional de Geologı́a Económica, Actas, 1, the Andes of central Peru. Tectonics, 7, 895 –928.
1328 149–159. S IAME , L. L., B ELLIER , O. & S EBRIER , M. 2006a. Active
1329 R APALINI , A. E. & A STINI , R. A. 2005. La remagnetiza- tectonics in the Argentine Precordillera and Western
1330 ción sanrafaélica de la Precordillera en el Pérmico: Sierras Pampeanas. Revista de la Asociación Geoló-
1331 nuevas evidencias. Revista de la Asociación Geológica gica Argentina, 61, 604–619.
1332 Argentina, Revista, 60, 290 –300. S IAME , L. L., S ÉBRIER , M., B ELLIER , O. & B OURLES , D.
1333 R APALINI , A. & V ILAS , J. 1991. Tectonic rotations in the 2006b. Can cosmic ray exposure dating reveal the
1334 Late Paleozoic continental margin of southern South normal faulting activity of the Cordillera Blanca
1335 Fault, Peru? Revista de la Asociación Geológica formaciones asignadas al Paleozoico tardı́o-Mesozoico
1336 Argentina, 61, 536 –544. temprano del centro-oeste Argentino. 58 Congreso
1337 S ORIA , M. F. 1984. Vertebrados fósiles y edad de la For- Latinoamericano de Geologı́a, Actas, 3, 743–758.
1338 mación Aisol, provincia de Mendoza. Revista de la W HITMAN , D., I SACKS , B. & K AY , S. M. 1996.
Asociación Geológica Argentina, 38, 299– 306. Lithospheric structure and along-strike segmentation
1339 S OTARELLO , G., B ELVIDERI , I., DE M ACHUCA , B., of the central Andean plateau. Tectonophysics, 259,
1340 F ERNÁNDEZ , G., M ACHUCA , E. & M C G UINTY , W. 29–40.
1341 2005. Avances en el conocimiento y exploración del Y AÑEZ , G., R ANERO , G. R., VON H UENE , R. & D IAZ , J.
1342 depósito epitermal de oro y plata ‘Casposo’, Departa- 2001. Magnetic anomaly interpretation across a
1343 mento de Calingasta, Provincia de San Juan. 88 Con- segment of the southern Central Andes (32– 348S):
1344 greso Argentino de Geologı́a Económica, Actas, implications on the role of the Juan Fernández ridge
1345 299– 305. in the tectonic evolution of the margin during the
1346 S PIKINGS , R. A., W INKLER , W. & S EWARD , D. 2001. Upper Tertiary. Journal of Geophysical Research,
1347 Along-strike variations in the thermal and tectonic 106, 6325–6345.
response of the continental Ecuadorian Andes to the Y RIGOYEN , M. 1993. Los depósitos sinorogénicos terciar-
1348 collision with heterogeneous oceanic crust. Earth and ios. In: R AMOS , V. A. (ed.) Geologı́a y Recursos Nat-
1349 Planetary Science Letters, 186, 57–73. urales de Mendoza. XII8 Congreso Geológico
1350 T ABOADA , A., R IVERA , L. A. ET AL . 2000. Geodynamics Argentino y II8 Congreso de Exploración de Hidrocar-
1351 of the northern Andes: subductions and intracontinen- buros, Relatorio, 123– 148, Buenos Aires.
1352 tal deformation (Colombia). Tectonics, 19, 787–813. Y RIGOYEN , M. 1994. Revisión estratigráfica del Neógeno
1353 V ARELA , R., C INGOLANI , C., D ALLA S ALDA , L., de las Huayquerı́as de Mendoza septentrional,
1354 A RAGÓN , E. & T EIXEIRA , W. 1993. Las monzodiori- Argentina. Ameghiniana, 31, 125– 138.
1355 tas y monzogabros de Cacheuta, Mendoza: edad, Y UAN , X., A SCH , G. ET AL . 2006. Deep seismic images of
1356 petrografı́a e implicancias tectónicas. 128 Congreso the Southern Andes. In: K AY , S. M. & R AMOS , V. A.
Geológico Argentino y 28 Congreso de Exploración (eds) Late Cretaceous to Recent Magmatism and Tec-
1357 de Hidrocarburos, Actas, 4, 75– 80. tonism of the Southern Andean Margin at the Latitude
1358 V ERGÉS , J., R AMOS , E., S EWARD , D., B USQUETS , P. & of the Neuquen Basin (36–398S). Geological Society
1359 C OLOMBO , F. 2001. Miocene sedimentary and tec- of America, Special Paper, 407, 61– 72.
1360 tonic evolution of the Andean Precordillera at 318S, Z APATA , T. R. & A LLMENDINGER , R. W. 1996. The
1361 Argentina. Journal of South Americn Earth Sciences, thrust front zone of the Precordillera thrust belt,
1362 14, 735–750. Argentina: a thick-skinned triangle zone. American
1363 V ILAS , J. & V ALENCIO , D. 1982. Implicancias geo- Association of Petroleum Geologists, Bulletin, 80,
1364 dinámicas de los resultados paleomagnéticos de 359–381.
1365
1366
1367
1368
1369
1370
1371
1372
1373
1374
1375
1376
1377
1378
1379
1380
1381
1382
1383
1384
1385
1386
1387
1388
1389
1390
1391
1392
View publication stats

2009 Ramosy Folguera SP Pub 327

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2009 Ramosy Folguera SP Pub 327

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Andean ﬂat-slab subduction through time

Article in Geological Society London Special Publications · December 2009

Victor A. Ramos Andres Folguera

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

View publication stats

You might also like