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Digital Modulation
Techniques
Main difference between the analog
modulation and digital modulation:
A digital demodulator:
it outputs a decided symbol.
An analog demodulator:
it produces an output that approximately
equals to the message signal.
5.1 Baseband Pulse Transmission
Fig. 5.1-1(a):
the pulse is a rectangular pulse, and the
binary information stream of “1001101”
is transformed onto a baseband signal in
where Tb is assumed to be 1 sec.
Fig. 5.1-1 Signals for baseband pulse transmission. (a)
baseband pulse signal, (b) the received signal corrupted by
noise and the sampled points, (c) the output of the correlator
and the corresponding sampling points.
Let m be the transmitted symbol,
i.e., m ∈ {0 ,1}
transmitted signal denoted as:
⎧ + A if m = 1
s(t ) = ⎨
⎩− A if m = 0 (5.1-1)
for 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb .
Parseval’s theorem:
T /2 2 ∞ 2
∫
−T / 2
s(t ) dt = ∫ ST ( f ) df
−∞
(5.1-7)
1 T /2
P s = lim ∫
2
s ( t ) dt
T → ∞ T −T / 2
2
1 ∞
= lim
T → ∞ T ∫ −∞
S T ( f ) df
(5.1-8)
∞ ⎛ S ( t )
2
⎞
= ∫ ⎜ lim ⎟ df
T
−∞ ⎜ T → ∞ T ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Ps ( f ) = Tb sinc ( fTb )
2
(5.1-13)
Data rate:
defined as the number of bits transmitted
per second.
For example:
a data rate of 1 Mbits/sec means that the
system is capable of transmitting 1 Mega
bits every second.
Signal bandwidth:
defined as the bandwidth for which most of
the signal power is concentrate on.
define 1:
the width of the spectrum for which 99% of
the power of the signal is concentrated on.
or define 2:
simply use the null-to-null bandwidth.
Bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate.
(5.2-2) is equal to Eb .
The transmitted signal s(t) can be
expressed as
⎧s1(t) for symbol"1"
s(t) = ⎨ (5.2-3)
⎩s2 (t) for symbol"0"
for 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb .
2 / Tb cos(2π f ct )
y (t ) = s (t ) × cos (2π f c t )
2
(5.2-4)
Tb
we have
8 Eb
y (t ) = cos 2 (2π f c t ) (5.2-6)
Tb
8 E b ⎛ Tb 1 Tb 1 ⎛ nc ⎞ ⎞
x=
Tb ⎝
⎜
⎜ ∫0 2
dt + ∫
0 2
cos ⎜⎜ 4π
⎝
t ⎟⎟ dt ⎟⎟
Tb ⎠ ⎠
8 E b ⎛ 1 Tb 1 1 ⎛ nc ⎞ Tb⎞ (5.2-8)
= ⎜ t + sin ⎜⎜ 4π t ⎟⎟ ⎟
T b ⎜⎝ 2 0 2 4π (n c T b ) ⎝ Tb ⎠ 0 ⎟
⎠
= 2Eb .
In summary:
⎧⎪ 2Eb if 1 is transmitted
x=⎨
⎪⎩ 0 if 0 is transmitted (5.2-9)
Fig. 5.2-1(c):
gives the resulting signal from the
integrator and the corresponding
sampled points.
φ 1 (t ) = cos (2π f c t )
2
(5.2-10)
Tb
which is a unit energy signal over (0, Tb).
All the possible signal si(t) for i = 1, 2, can
be represented as
s (t ) = s φ (t )
i i1 1
(5.2-11)
φ
λ
0 2 Eb
Fig. 5.2-4
Geometric representation of binary ASK signals.
And
⎧1 i = j
φi ( t ) φ j ( t ) dt = ⎨
T
∫
0
⎩0 i ≠ j (5.2-13)
We may plot the signal vector
si = ⎡⎣si1, si2,", siN⎤⎦ as a point in the
N-dimensional signal space to represent
the time-domain signal si (t) .
5.3 Binary Phase-Shift Keying
(BPSK)
In a BPSK system, we use a pair of
signals s1(t) and s2(t) to represent binary
symbols 1 and 0, respectively, as follows:
2Eb
s1 ( t ) = cos ( 2π fct ) (5.3-1)
Tb
2Eb 2Eb
s2 ( t ) = cos ( 2π fct + π ) = − cos ( 2π fct ) (5.3 − 2)
Tb Tb
where 0 < t < Tb , Eb is the transmitted
energy per bit, and fc is the carrier
frequency which is chosen to be equal to
nc Tb for some fixed integer nc.
0.5∫ s ( t ) dt + 0.5∫ s ( t ) dt = Eb
Tb Tb
2 2
0 1 0 2
A pair of sinusoidal waves that differ on
in a relative phase shift of 180 degrees
are referred to as antipodal signals.
Fig. 5.3-1(a):
A transmitted signal when the binary
stream is “1001101” where Eb = 1, fc = 5
Hz, and Tb = 1 sec.
Fig. 5.3-1 Signals of BPSK, (a) the transmitted
signal, (b) the signal r (t ) 1 2 cos(2π f c t ), (c) the
output of the correlator and the corresponding
sampling points.
Fig. 5.3-2:
An optimal detector for BPSK system.
2 / Tb cos(2π f ct )
φ1
λ =0
− Eb Eb
t
0 Tb
⎡ ⎛ t −Tb /2 ⎞⎤
H( f ) = Eb F ⎢Π⎜ ⎟⎥ * F[cos(2π fct)] (5.3-11)
⎣ ⎝ Tb ⎠⎦
From Equation (3.3-19), the Fourier
transform of the rectangular function is:
⎡ ⎛ t − Tb / 2 ⎞ ⎤ − jπ Tb f
F ⎢Π ⎜ ⎟⎥ b= T sinc(Tb f )e (5.3-12)
⎣ ⎝ Tb ⎠ ⎦
(5.3-14)
4 4
(5.3-15)
The PSD is:
1
Ps ( f ) = | H ( f ) |2
Tb
Eb Eb
= Tb sinc (Tb ( f - fc )) +
2
Tb sinc2 (Tb ( f + fc )) (5.3-16)
4 4
s1 (t ) = cos (2 π f 1t )
2 Eb
Tb
s 2 (t ) = cos (2 π f 2 t )
2 Eb
Tb
(5.4-1)
and i = 1, 2. (5.4-2)
Note: f2 − f1 = 1 Tb
s1(t) Å symbol 1
s2(t) Å symbol 0
s1(t) and s2(t) are orthogonal.
Define: φ i (t ) = cos(2π f i t )
2
Tb
for i = 1, 2 and 0 ≤ t < Tb (5.4-3)
2 ⎛ Tb 1 ⎞
cos (4π f i t )dt ⎟
Tb 1
= ⎜ ∫0 dt + ∫
Tb ⎝ 2 0 2 ⎠
⎛t Tb Tb ⎞
sin (4π f i t ) ⎟⎟.
2 1
= ⎜⎜ + (5.4-4)
Tb ⎝2 0 8π f i 0 ⎠
Substituting f i = (nc + i ) Tb into the above
equation, we have:
2 ⎛⎜ ⎛ Tb ⎞ ⎛ ⎛ nc + i ⎞ ⎞ ⎞
φ (t )dt =
Tb 1 ⎟⎟
∫ ⎜ − 0⎟ + ⎜ sin⎜ 4π ⎟ −
2
⎜ T ⎟ ⎟⎟0
Tb ⎜⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 8π (nc + i ) Tb ⎜⎝ ⎝
i b
0 Tb ⎠ ⎠⎠
2 ⎛ Tb ⎞
sin(4(nc + i )π )⎟⎟
1
= ⎜⎜ +
Tb ⎝ 2 8π (nc + i ) Tb ⎠
= 1. (5.4-5)
(5.4-6)
φ1 ( t ) φ2 ( t ) dt = 0.
Tb
∴ ∫
0
(5.4-8)
Let f 0 = 1/ Tb .
φ1 (t ) = 2 / Tb cos(2π f1t )
∑
s (t )
m(t )
φ2 (t ) = 2 / Tb cos(2π f 2t )
y
r (t ) φ1 (t ) ∑
Tb x2
∫
0
(•)dt
φ2 (t )
Fig. 5.4-2(c):
The received signal multiplied by carrier
with f2 = 4 Hz and the result is
z2 ( t ) = s ( t ) × 2 Tb cos ( 2π f 2t )
The decision device based on the
sampled values makes a decision of
“1001101” which is exactly the same as
the transmitted sequence.
Detect signals:
use the inner product.
Ex: When we perform an inner product of
the received signal with (1,0):
ÆIf the transmitted signal is (1,0),
the resulting inner product is 1.
If the transmitted signal is (0,1),
the resulting inner product is 0.
In Equation (5.4-3),φ1(t ) and φ2 (t ) are two
orthonormal basis functions.
Region Eb s2
Z2
s1
φ1
Eb
2 Eb Region
Z1
s (t ) = a 1 cos (2 π f c t ) + a 2 sin (2 π f c t )
2 2
T T
(5.5-1)
(m1 , m 2 ) ( a1 , a 2 )
⎛⎜ E , E ⎞⎟
(1 , 1 ) ⎝ 2 2⎠
⎛⎜ E , − E ⎞⎟
(1, 0 ) ⎝ 2 2⎠
( 0 , 1) ⎛⎜ − E , E ⎞⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠
(0, 0 ) ⎛⎜ − E ,− E ⎞⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠
In Equation (5.5-1), we can easily show
that
2
s(t ) = r cos(2πf c t − θ ) (5.5-2)
T
a2
where r = a + a and θ
1
2
2
2
= tan −1
a1
E
a1 = a2 = , r = E .
2
θ is related to the values of si1 and si2 .
There are four possible values of θ ,
corresponding to four distinct
combinations of a 1 and a2 .
Ex: m1 = 1 and m2 = 0
E E
Æ i = 1, a 1= and a 2=−
2 2
E
∴ s1 (t ) = (cos(2π f ct ) − sin(2π f c t ))
T
E 2 2
= ( 2( cos(2π f ct ) − sin(2π f ct ))
T 2 2
2E π π
= (cos( ) cos(2π f ct ) − sin( )sin(2π f ct )) (5.5-4)
T 4 4
2E π
= cos(2π f ct + ).
T 4
Input Digit
Phase a1 a2 si(t)
(m1m2)
2 / T cos(2π f ct )
T x2
∫0
(•)dt
t =T
⎛ ⎞ 2
cos(2π f c t ) + a2 sin(2π f c t )⎟⎟ × cos(2π f c t )dt
T 2 2
x1 = ∫ ⎜⎜ a1
⎝ T T ⎠ T
0
2⎛ t 1 ⎛ nc ⎞⎞ T 2⎛ 1 ⎛ nc ⎞⎞ T
x1 = a1 ⎜⎜ + sin⎜4π t ⎟⎟⎟ +a2 ⎜⎜− cos⎜4π t ⎟⎟⎟
T ⎝ 2 8π(nc ) T ⎝ T ⎠⎠ 0 T ⎝ 8π(nc ) T ⎝ T ⎠⎠ 0
2 ⎛⎛T ⎞ ⎞ 2⎛ 1 ⎞
= a1 ⎜⎜⎜ +0⎟ −(0+0)⎟⎟ +a2 ⎜⎜−
1
+ ⎟⎟.
T ⎝⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠ T ⎝ 8π(nc T) 8π(nc T) ⎠
(5.5-8)
sin(4π nc ) = 0 and cos(4π nc ) = 1 for any
positive integer nc .
Æ x1 = a 1 (5.5-9)
Similarly,
⎛ 2 ⎞
x2 = ∫ ⎜⎜ a1 cos(2π fct ) + a2 sin(2π fct )⎟⎟× 2 T sin(2π fct )dt = a2.
T 2
⎝ T T ⎠
0
(5.5-10)
The original messages a1 and a 2 can be
separated at the receiver and can be
detected independently.
Decision devices:
for upper channel:
If x1 > 0 , decide m 1 = 1 .
If x1 < 0 , decide m 1 = 0 .
for lower channel:
If x2 > 0 , decide m2 = 1 .
If x2 < 0 , decide m2 = 0 .
2E π
s (t ) = cos( 2π t + ).
T 4
Thus,
2E π 2
y1 (t ) = cos( 2π t + ) cos( 2π t )
T 4 T
2 E 1 π π
= ( )(cos( 4π t + ) + cos( ))
T 2 4 4
E π π
= (cos( 4π t + ) + cos( ))
T 4 4
E π 2
= ( 2 cos 2 ( 2π t + ) − 1 + )
T 8 2
E π
= ( 2 cos ( 2π t + ) − 1 + 0 .707 )
2
T 8
E π
= ( 2 cos ( 2π t + ) − 0 .293 ).
2
T 8
For this case, y1 (t )is positive for most time,
as shown in Fig. 5.5-4(b).
φ 2 (t ) = sin (2π f c t )
2
0 ≤ t ≤ T. (5.5-11)
T
∫ φ ( t ) φ ( t ) dt = 0
T
0 1 2 (5.5-12)
and
φ (t )dt = 1 for i=1,2. (5.5-13)
T
∫
2
i
0
The transmitted signal can be expressed
as:
si (t ) = si1φ1 (t ) + si 2φ2 (t ) (5.5-14)
Equation (5.5-14) :
Demodulation of the QPSK system can
be done by multiplying si (t) by φ1 (t ) and
φ2 (t) and integrating over [0, T ] .
In the QPSK system, there are four vectors
si = (si1, si2 ) for i = 1,2,3,4 which can be
represented as signal points in the signal
space diagram as shown in Fig. 5.5-5.
s3 s4
E/2
E
φ1
− E/2 E/2
− E/2
s2 s1
s6
s5 s7
E/2
E
s4 s8
φ1
− E/2 E/2
s3
s3 − E/2
s1
s2
Fig. 5.6-1:
BPSK, QPSK and 8PSK systems can be
viewed as special cases of a more general
class of digital modulation system, called
the PSK.
s6
s3 s5 s7
E/2
s4 E/2
E E
s4 s8
− E E
φ1 φ1 φ1
− E/2 E/2 − E/2 E/2
s3
− E/2 s3 − E/2
s2 s1 s1
s2
Fig. 5.6-1
The Signal-space diagrams for BPSK, QPSK and 8PSK
BPSK: the phase difference is π .
π
QPSK: the phase difference is 2 .
8PSK: the phase difference is π 4 .
(m1 , m2 , m3 ) i
(0,0,0) 1
(0,0,1) 2
(0,1,0) 3
(0,1,1) 4
(1,0,0) 5
(1,0,1) 6
(1,1,0) 7
(1,1,1) 8
The modulating algorithm for the 8PSK
system is as follows:
Step 1: For the particular transmitted
bits (m1 , m2 , m3 ) , find its corresponding
index i from the table relating (m1 , m2 , m3 )’s
to i’s.
Step 2: Send the signal out according to
Equation (5.6-1) by using the determined
i.
The received signal is in the form of
Equations (5.6-2) and (5.6-3).
2 2
φ1 (t ) = T
cos( 2π f c t )
and φ 2 (t ) =
T
sin( 2π f c t )
are
orthogonal, s i1 and s i 2 can be obtained by
the concept of inner product.
M-QAM system:
The constraint expressed in Equation
(5.6-1) is removed, and the components
s i 1 and si 2 are modulated independently.
An M-ary QAM signal can be expressed:
si (t ) = si1φ1 (t ) + si 2φ2 (t )
for i = 1, 2 , ..., M (5.6-5)
where φ1 ( t ) and φ2 ( t ) are orthogonal.
si1
(b1, b2 ) s i1 (b3 , b4 ) si 2
(0,0) -3 (0,0) -3
(0,1) -1 (0,1) -1
(1,1) 1 (1,1) 1
(1,1) 3 (1,1) 3
Extend the signal constellation to 64-QAM
or even higher level of signal constellation,
e.g., 256-QAM.