07 Lecture 2023

Chapter 7
Periodic Properties
of the Elements
James F. Kirby
Quinnipiac University
Hamden, CT
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Development of the Periodic Table Learn about the discovery and key
moments in the development of the periodic table.
2. Effective Nuclear Charge Understand the concept of effective
nuclear charge, the force between the outer or valence electrons and
the nucleus, and how it varies throughout the periodic table.
3. Sizes of Atoms and Ions Explore the relative sizes of atoms and ions,
both of which follow trends that are related to their placement in the
periodic table and the trends in effective nuclear charge.
4. Ionization Energy Learn that ionization energy is the energy required
to remove one or more electrons from an atom. The periodic trends in
ionization energy depend on variations in effective nuclear charge and
atomic radii.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
5. Electron Affinity Learn that electron affinity is the energy released
when an electron is added to an atom and understand its periodic trends.
6. Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Differentiate the physical and
chemical properties of metals from those of nonmetals. The differences in
properties arise from the fundamental characteristics of atoms,
particularly ionization energy. Metalloids display properties that are
intermediate between those of metals and those of nonmetals.
7. Trends for Group 1 and Group 2 Metals Examine some periodic trends
in the chemical and physical properties of metals belonging to groups 1 and
8. Trends for Selected Nonmetals Investigate some of the periodic
trends in the chemical and physical properties of hydrogen and the
elements in groups 16, 17, and 18.
1 | Development of the Periodic Table
The discovery of chemical elements: since ancient times Gold (Au):
appear in nature in elemental form and were thus discovered
thousands of years ago.
Technetium (Tc): are radioactive and intrinsically unstable are known

thank to the technology.
The majority of elements: readily form compounds and not found in
nature in their elemental form.
Early nineteenth century: advances in chemistry made it easier to

isolate elements from their compounds. The number of known
elements more than doubled from 31 in 1800 to 63 by 1865.

Classification of Elements
▪ In 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev in Russia & Lothar Meyer in Germany in
Russia
▪ Similar chemical & physical properties recur periodically, when the

elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight without
knowing atomic numbers
▪ Atomic weights generally increase with increasing atomic number:

Mendeleev & Meyer arranged the elements in nearly the proper
sequence.

Mendeleev
▪ Leave blank spaces in his table for elements with similar
characteristics be listed in the same column.
▪ Gallium (Ga) and Germanium (Ge) were unknown to Mendeleev.
▪ Predicted existence of Ga and Ge eka-aluminum (“under”

aluminum) and eka-silicon (“under” silicon)


Atomic Numbers
In 1913: 2 years after nuclear model of atom by Rutherford
English physicist Henry Moseley (1887–1915) developed the

concept of atomic numbers.
▪ bombarded different elements with high-energy electrons

▪ each element produced X rays of a unique frequency
▪ frequency increased as the atomic mass increased

Atomic Numbers
▪ atomic number clarified some problems in the periodic table of based
on atomic weights
▪ the atomic weight of Ar (atomic number 18) is greater than that of K

(atomic number 19), yet the chemical and physical properties of Ar are
much more like those of Ne and Kr than like those of Na and Rb.
▪ some “holes” in the periodic table are identified, which led to the
discovery of new elements.

2 | Effective Nuclear Charge X
Properties of Atoms
▪ electronic configuration
▪ how strongly the outer electrons in the atoms are attracted to the
nucleus.
Coulomb’s Law
strength of interaction between electron and nucleus
▪ magnitudes of the charges
▪ distance between them

Hydrogen: interaction is due to one electron and one proton
In many electron-atom:
▪ Attraction between electrons and protons in the nucleus
▪ Repulsion between electrons: cancels attraction by nucleus
▪ Net attraction: nuclear attraction decreased by the electron-
electron repulsions.
▪ Effective nuclear charge, Zeff
Zeff < Z Zeff = Z - S S : screening constant

▪ for a valence electron, most of the shielding is due to the core
electrons
▪ the value of S is usually close to the number of core electrons in the

atom
▪ electrons in the same valence shell do not screen one another very
effectively, but they do affect the value of S slightly

Na: [Ne]3s1
The nuclear charge is Z = 11, and there are 10 core electrons
(1s22s22p6), which screen the nuclear charge “seen” by the 3s
electron.
Zeff = 11 - 10 = 1+
A many-electron atom
the energies of orbitals l for the same n
Carbon Atom: 1s22s22p2

the energy of the 2p orbital (l = 1) is higher than that of the 2s orbital
(l = 0)

2 | Effective Nuclear Charge
▪ 1s is closer to the nucleus and
shades 2s
▪ 2s probability function has a

small peak close to the nucleus
▪ 2s electron is not screened as

much as 2p electrons by core
orbitals
▪ The greater attraction between the 2s electron and the nucleus leads
to a lower energy for the 2s orbital than for the 2p orbital
General trend in orbital energies: ns < np < nd

▪ Zeff increases from left to right across any period of the periodic
table.
Although the number of core electrons stays the same across the
period, the number of protons increases ↑, which increases the
attraction ↑
Lithium (1s22s1) : 2 core electrons screen the electrons in 2s from 3+

nucleus and Zeff: 3 - 2 = +1
Beryllium (1s22s2) : 2 core electrons screen the electrons in 2s from

4+ nucleus and Zeff : 4 - 2 : +2
Going down a column, the effective nuclear charge experienced by
valence electrons changes far less than it does across a period.
Zeff = 3 - 2 = 1+ for Li
Zeff = 11 - 10 = 1+ for Na
▪ Zeff increases slightly ↑ as going down a column ↓, because the more

diffuse core electron cloud is less able to screen the valence electrons
from the nuclear charge.
Zeff for alkali metals

1.3+ for Li
2.5+ for Na
3.5+ for K

3 | Sizes of Atoms and Ions X
▪ Quantum mechanical model: atoms do not
have sharply defined boundaries
▪ Atomic size is defined based on the

distances between atoms in various situations.
The shortest distance separating the two nuclei

during collisions is twice the radii of the atoms.
▪ Non-bonding atomic radius

▪ van der Waals radius

3 | Sizes of Atoms and Ions X
▪ Chemical Bond: the attractive interaction between any two adjacent
atoms.
▪ Atomic Radius: based on the distance between the nuclei when two
atoms are bonded to each other
▪ The bonding atomic radius is also known as the covalent radius
▪ Unless otherwise noted, we mean the bonding atomic radius, when

we speak of the “size” of an atom.

Atomic Radii X
Techniques for measuring the distances separating nuclei in molecules:
▪ I2 molecule, the distance separating the nuclei is observed to be 2.66 Å
The bonding atomic radius of an iodine atom 2.66 Ao / 2 = 1.33 Å
▪ The distance separating adjacent carbon nuclei in diamond (a three-
dimensional solid network of carbon atoms): 1.54 Å
The bonding atomic radius of carbon in diamond is 0.77 Å
The Atomic Radii: estimate bond lengths in molecules

▪ the bonding atomic radii for C: 1.02 Å
▪ the bonding atomic radii for Cl: 0.76 Å
▪ In CCl4 the measured length of the C-Cl bond is 1.77 Å, very close to
the sum (1.02 + 0.76 Å)

Atomic Radii of Elements X

X

X
1. Within each group: bonding atomic radius tends to increase

from top to bottom.
▪ This trend results primarily from the increase in the principal

quantum number (n) of the outer electrons.
▪ As we go down a column, the outer electrons have a greater

probability of being farther from the nucleus, causing the atomic
radius to increase.

2. Within each period, bonding atomic radius tends to decrease X
from left to right
➢ minor exceptions : Cl to Ar
As to Se
▪ due to an increase in effective nuclear charge Zeff across a period.

The increasing effective nuclear charge steadily draws the valence
electrons closer to the nucleus, causing the bonding atomic radius to
decrease.

Trends of Atomic Size in Periodic Table X
Atomic size increases

X

X

X
Bonding atomic radii: inter-atomic distances in molecules
Ionic radii: inter-atomic distances in ionic compounds
The size of an ion depends on:

▪ its nuclear charge: Zeff
▪ the number of electrons
▪ the orbitals

X
CATIONS : Electron-electron repulsions ↓ Zeff ↑ M+ < M
i. Electron electron repulsion decrease so that

electron occupy less space
ii. Nuclear charge per electron increases so that

attractive force per electron will increase
Cations are smaller than their parent atoms

X
ANIONS : Electron-electron repulsions ↑ Zeff ↓ M- > M
i. Electron electron repulsion increases so that

electrons spread to more space
ii. Protons will have to attract more electrons so

attraction per electron will decrease
Anions are larger than their parent atoms

X

X
Isoelectronic Series: ions with same number of electrons
O2– 10 electrons 8 protons ▪ Nuclear charge increases

F- 10 electrons 9 protons ▪ Zeff increases
Na+ 10 electrons 11 protons ▪ So the atomic radius decreases
Mg2+ 10 electrons 12 protons
Al3+ 10 electrons 13 protons
Compare number of protons per electron

X

X

4 | Ionization Energy X
The ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an
electron from the ground state of a gaseous atom or ion.
The first ionization energy is that energy required to remove the first
electron.
The second ionization energy is that energy required to remove the

second electron, etc.

X
1. It requires more energy to remove each successive electron
with each successive removal, an electron is being pulled away from an

increasingly more positive ion, requiring increasingly more energy.
2. When all valence electrons have been removed, it takes a great deal
more energy to remove the next electron.
sharp increase in ionization energy occurs when an inner-shell electron

is removed

X
Shorter wavelenght E = hc/ : Higher energy

So eq 7.3 require more energy

X
5th electron
Si :
valence electrons
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
X
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
There is a large increase in ionization energy when the first inner- X
shell electrons is removed.
Outermost electrons: electron share or transfer in chemical bonds
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
X
1 valence electron 6 valence electrons

2 valence electrons
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
X
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
X
1. IE1 (first ionization energy) generally increases across a
period.
In the same period
alkali metals : lowest ionization energy ↓
slight trends are possible
noble gases : highest ionization energy ↑

!!!
2. IE1 (first ionization energy) generally decreases going down any

column
3. The s- and p-block elements : larger range of values for IE1
In the same period

d-block elements : increases slowly
Periodic
f-block elements : show only small variations Properties
of the
Elements
X
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Factors that Influence Ionization Energy X
Factors influencing atomic size also influence ionization energies
▪ Attraction between the electron and the nucleus increases by

increasing the effective nuclear charge or average distance.
▪ As attraction increases it will be difficult to withdraw an electron and

more energy will be required
Smaller atoms: higher IE values

IE values depend on:
• effective nuclear charge

Periodic
• average distance of the electron from the nucleus Properties
of the
Elements
Across a period
Zeff ↑
atomic radius↓
ionization energy ↑
Down a coloumn
atomic radius ↑ (more dominant)
Zeff ↑ (gradually)
attraction between the nucleus and the electron ↓
IE ↓
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
irregularities in the same period
ionization energy of Be is higher than B
(We expect opposite !!)
More stable electronic configuration:

One electron may not be removed easily
because all electrons are paired
Less stable electronic configuration :

1 unpaired electron which will be lost easily to have more stablePeriodic
Properties
configuration of the
Elements
Ionization energy of O is slightly higher than N
We except more increase since across a period ionization energies
increases !
Electrons in the same orbital: more

electron repulsion: Zeff will be low
Half-filled orbitals : electrons less

repulsion: Zeff will be high
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Factors that Influence Ionization Energy
X
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
X
Forming Cations: electrons are removed from higher energy levels
Forming Anions: Electrons are added to the empty or partially filled

orbital having the value of n.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
The electrons are first removed from the orbital with the highest value of l
(subshell) for the n (shell)
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
5 | Electron Affinity
▪ All ionization energies for atoms are positive

▪ Energy must be absorbed to remove an electron
Ionization Energy: energy change when an atom gains electron

Electron Affinity: the energy change that occurs when an electron
is added to a gaseous atom
Periodic
for most atoms, energy is released when an electronProperties
is
added of the
Elements
The greater the attraction between an atom and an added electron, the
more negative the atom’s electron affinity.
Positive electron affinity : noble gases & some elements

electron will not attach itself to an Ar atom; the Ar- ion is unstable and
does not form.
Noble Gas
Addition of electron cause higher energy subshell, which is not preferred
because occupying a higher-energy shell is energetically unfavorablePe,ritohdiec
Properties
electron affinity is highly positive. of the
Elements
Trends are not as evident as ionization energies
Periodic
Properties
Across a period, electron affinity generally increases. of the
Elements
Halogens
Most negative electron affinities: 1 electron far from filled p shell:
Noble Gas Configuration
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Exceptions across a period : 2A & 5 A group elements
Be & Mg
Positive electron affinities because added electron would reside
previously empty orbital that is higher in energy
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
5A Group Elements
Half-filled p subshells: the added electron is put to the already
occupied orbital: electron-electron repulsion will occur.
Electron affinities positive or less negative than those of their neighbors

to the left (P, As, Sb).
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Going down group there is not much change in electron affinities
➢ Going down group electron - nucleus attraction ↓ affinity ↓
➢ Electron - electron repulsion due to spread of the electrons in
bigger radius ↓
The reduction in the electron–nucleus attraction is counterbalanced

by the reduction in electron–electron repulsions.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
6 | Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Metallic Character
When elements exhibits more physical and chemical properties
▪ Metallic character : ↑ going down a group ↓ across a period
▪ Have a shiny luster

▪ Solids are malleable and ductile
▪ Good conductors of heat and electricity
▪ Solids at room temperature except mercury : melting point: -39 0C
liquid at room temperature
▪ Most metal oxides are solids that are basic

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
▪ Tend to form aqueous solutions
▪ Cs and Ga melt above 29.8 0C: many metals melt at very high
temperatures. Tungsten used as filament of light melts at 3400 0C
▪ Low ionization energies: form cations readily

▪ Oxidized in chemical reactions
Ionization energy: best indicator of metallic character

▪ atomic radii
▪ electronic configuration
▪ electron affinity Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Oxidation States of Metals and Nonmetals
▪ Metals: cations
▪ Nonmetals: anions
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Oxidation States of Metals
▪ s electrons are easily lost to adapt noble gas configuration

Alkali metals: 1+
Alkaline earth metal: 2+
▪ Metals with partially occupied p orbitals: 3A – 7A groups:

outer p orbitals (Sn2+) or s orbitals (Sn4+)
▪ Transition metals: no obvious pattern: can form more than one

cation: Fe2+ & Fe3+
▪ Compounds formed between metals and nonmetals tend to Pbereiodic

Properties
ionic. of the
Elements
▪ Most metal oxides tend to be basic. Metal oxides are basic due to
the interaction of oxide ion with water.
▪ Metal oxides dissolve in water to form metal hydroxides.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
▪ Metal oxides insoluble in water are basic and react with acid to
form salt and water
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Nonmetals: solids, liquids, gas
▪ Not shiny
▪ Poor conductor of heat and electricity
▪ Melting points are lower than those of
carbons
Noble gases
Diatomic non-metals: H2, N2, O2, F2 and Cl2
(gases), Br2: liquid and I2: volatile solid
Rest of the nonmetals: solids are as hard as diamond

Periodic
or soft as sulfur Properties
of the
Elements
▪ Large and negative electron affinity: tend to gain electrons when
reacting with metals.
▪ Gain electrons to fill the its outermost orbitals occupied p shells: to

adapt noble gas configuration
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
▪ Compounds composed of entirely nonmetals: molecular substances:
gases, liquids or low-melting point substances
CH4, C3H8, C8H18 : hydrocarbons

HCl, NH3, H2S: gases
Pharmaceuticals are composed of C, H, N, O and other nonmetals
Drug Celebrex: C17H14F3N3O2S
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
▪ Most non-metal oxides are acidic
▪ Most non-metal oxides dissolve in basic solutions to form salt and

water
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
▪ intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals
▪ they have some metallic characteristics
Silicon: Circuts and computer chips: intermediate electrical conductivity

between metals and metalloids
Pure silicon: does not conduct electricity

Silicon with dopants: conduct electricity: control electrical conductiviPtyeriodic
Properties
of the
Elements
7 | Trends for Group 1A and Group 2A Metals
▪ Soft metallic solids

▪ Silvery
▪ Metallic luster
▪ High thermal and electrical conductivity
▪ Low densities
▪ Low melting points
▪ Lowest ionization energy in a group
▪ Alkali metals are very reactive
▪ Lose one electron to form ions carrying a 1+ charge Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
▪ Exist in nature as compounds

▪ Sodium and Potassium: abundant in seawater, biological
systems as the cations of ionic compounds
▪ All alkali metals combine directly with most non-metals
▪ M: alkali metal
▪ H- hydride ion: hydrogen atom has gained electron
▪ Different from H+ when hydrogen atom loses electron Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
▪ Reacts with water as follows:
▪ Reaction is more violent for Rb and Cs because ionization

energies are lower
very exothermic rxn ! & cause explosion of H2 (g)
▪ Alkali metals react with O2- to form metal oxides
Li2O + H2O (l) → 2LiOH + H2(g)
▪ Reactions of O2- with metal oxides

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
▪ Reactions of other alkali metals with O2- is even more complex
▪ 2Na(s) + O2 → Na2O2(s) contains O22- ions

sodium peroxide
▪ K, Rb and Cs react with O2-
contains O2- ions
▪ Alkali metals are extremely reactive toward water and oxygen so

they are stored submerged in a liquid hydrocarbon such as oil or
kerosene Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Alkali metals: colorless: emits characteristic color when placed in a flame
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
More reactive with water : lower ionization energy : and as going Periodic
Properties
down group metallic character increases of the
Elements
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
▪ Solids at room temperature and have typical metallic properties
▪ Harder and denser than alkali metals and melt at higher temperatures
▪ Low ionization energy but not as low as alkali metals
(Ease of losing electron increases going down a group and decreases
across a period: Be and Mg are less reactive)
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
▪ The reactivities of alkaline earth metals are tested
in presence of water.
▪ Be does not react with water or steam and Mg

reacts very slowly
▪ Ca reacts readily with water at room temperature

but less slowly than alkali metals
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Group 6A—Increasing in Metallic
Character down the Group
• Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium : nonmetals.

• Tellurium : metalloid.
• The radioactive polonium : metal. Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Group 7A—Halogens
▪ The halogens are typical nonmetals

▪ They have highly negative electron affinities, so they exist as anions
in nature
▪ They react directly with metals to form metal halides Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
Group 8A—Noble Gases
▪ The noble gases have very large ionization energies.

▪ Their electron affinities are positive (can’t form stable anions).
▪ Therefore, they are relatively un-reactive.
Periodic
▪ They are found as monatomic gases. Properties
of the
Elements
Periodicity
Periodicity is the repetitive pattern of a property for elements based on
atomic number.
The following properties are discussed in this chapter:
▪ Sizes of atoms and ions

▪ Ionization energy
▪ Electron affinity
▪ Some group chemical property trends
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements

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Chapter 7

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Technetium (Tc): are radioactive and intrinsically unstable are known

Early nineteenth century: advances in chemistry made it easier to

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

▪ Similar chemical & physical properties recur periodically, when the

▪ Atomic weights generally increase with increasing atomic number:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

▪ Gallium (Ga) and Germanium (Ge) were unknown to Mendeleev.

▪ Predicted existence of Ga and Ge eka-aluminum (“under”

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

English physicist Henry Moseley (1887–1915) developed the

▪ bombarded different elements with high-energy electrons

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

▪ the atomic weight of Ar (atomic number 18) is greater than that of K

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Hydrogen: interaction is due to one electron and one proton

Zeff < Z Zeff = Z - S S : screening constant

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

▪ the value of S is usually close to the number of core electrons in the

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

the energies of orbitals l for the same n

Carbon Atom: 1s22s22p2

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

▪ 2s probability function has a

▪ 2s electron is not screened as

General trend in orbital energies: ns < np < nd

Lithium (1s22s1) : 2 core electrons screen the electrons in 2s from 3+

Beryllium (1s22s2) : 2 core electrons screen the electrons in 2s from

▪ Zeff increases slightly ↑ as going down a column ↓, because the more

Zeff for alkali metals

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

▪ Atomic size is defined based on the

The shortest distance separating the two nuclei

▪ Non-bonding atomic radius

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

▪ The bonding atomic radius is also known as the covalent radius

▪ Unless otherwise noted, we mean the bonding atomic radius, when

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Atomic Radii: estimate bond lengths in molecules

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

1. Within each group: bonding atomic radius tends to increase

▪ This trend results primarily from the increase in the principal

▪ As we go down a column, the outer electrons have a greater

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

▪ due to an increase in effective nuclear charge Zeff across a period.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Atomic size increases

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

The size of an ion depends on:

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

i. Electron electron repulsion decrease so that

ii. Nuclear charge per electron increases so that

Cations are smaller than their parent atoms

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

i. Electron electron repulsion increases so that