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‘This is a clearly written and beautifully presented text. The style is ideal for those
Statistics
who are new or nervous about statistics, as it supports their understanding in a SEVENTH EDITION
friendly and easy to follow way.’
Dr Jennifer Murray, Edinburgh Napier University
without Maths
‘In teaching statistics to undergraduates for a number of years, I have found this
textbook provides an accessible yet sophisticated grounding in conceptual and
practical aspects of quantitative psychology. I recommend it without reservation.’
Professor Richard Rowe, University of Sheffield
for Psychology
Statistics without Maths for Psychology

Highly praised for its clear, straightforward approach, Statistics without Maths for Psychology,
7th edition, provides a comprehensive and accessible introduction to statistics and SPSS. This
widely used and trusted textbook is packed with examples, activities and questions to help you
test your learning and deepen your understanding in a practical and manageable way.
Statistics without Maths for Psychology, 7th edition, will help you gain the confidence to
apply statistical concepts and use SPSS to analyse data within your studies and future
independent research.
This new edition has been fully revised and is suitable for use with SPSS version 23 and earlier. Christine Dancey
and John Reidy
Key features:
• Full-colour design and screenshots of the steps you need to take when using SPSS to
help build an understanding of and confidence in analysing data.
• Up-to-date examples from the literature to keep you informed of current research.
• Activities related to the literature help you learn how to understand and interpret
research findings.
• Interviews with researchers bring statistics to life showing their important role in
psychological discoveries.
• Multiple choice questions at the end of each chapter enable you to check your
understanding and progress.
Suitable for students taking a course in psychology, applied psychology, social science and other
related fields.
Christine P. Dancey is Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the University of East London.

SEVENTH
John Reidy is Head of Academic Operations in the Department of Psychology, Sociology and
EDITION
Politics at Sheffield Hallam University.
and Reidy
Dancey
www.pearson-books.com
Front cover image © Miyoung Han / EyeEm / Getty Images
CVR_DANCE_07_28856.indd 1 20/03/2017 09:38

Brief contents
Preface xvi
Guided tour xx
Acknowledgements xxii
1 Variables and research design 1

2 Introduction to SPSS 25
3 Descriptive statistics 42
4 Probability, sampling and distributions 97
5 Hypothesis testing and statistical significance 134
6 Correlational analysis: Pearson’s r 174
7 Analyses of differences between two conditions: the t-test 217
8 Issues of significance 246
9 Measures of association 265
10 Analysis of differences between three or more conditions 298
11 Analysis of variance with more than one IV 328
12 Regression analysis 377
13 Analysis of three or more groups partialling out effects of a covariate 414
14 Introduction to factor analysis 446
15 Introduction to multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) 481
16 Non-parametric statistics 516
Answers to activities and SPSS exercises 551

Appendix 1: Table of z-scores and the proportion of the standard normal
distribution falling above and below each score 592
Appendix 2: Table r to zr 595
Index 597
F00 Statistics Without Maths for P 28856 Contents.indd 7 30/03/2017 21:26

Contents
Preface xvi
Guided tour xx
Acknowledgements xxii
1 Variables and research design 1

Chapter overview 1
1.1 Why teach statistics without mathematical formulae? 1
1.2 Variables 3
1.3 Levels of measurement 7
1.4 Research designs 8
1.5 Between-participants and within-participants designs 16
Summary 20
Multiple choice questions 21
References 24
Answers to multiple choice questions 24
2 Introduction to SPSS 25
Chapter overview 25
2.1 Basics 25
2.2 Starting SPSS 25
2.3 Working with data 30
2.4 Data entry 31
2.5 Saving your data 34
2.6 Inputting data for between-participants and within-participants designs 36
2.7 Within-participants designs 39
Summary 40
SPSS exercises 40
3 Descriptive statistics 42
Chapter overview 42
3.1 Samples and populations 42
3.2 Measures of central tendency 45

x Contents
3.3 Sampling error 50

SPSS: obtaining measures of central tendency 53
3.4 Graphically describing data 56
SPSS: generating graphical descriptives 66
3.5 Scattergrams 68
SPSS: generating scattergrams 70
3.6 Sampling error and relationships between variables 71
3.7 The normal distribution 73
3.8 Variation or spread of distributions 76
SPSS: obtaining measures of variation 80
3.9 Other characteristics of distributions 81
3.10 Non-normal distributions 82
SPSS: displaying the normal curve on histograms 88
3.11 Writing up your descriptive statistics 90
Summary 90
SPSS exercises 91
References 95
4 Probability, sampling and distributions 97

Chapter overview 97
4.1 Probability 97
4.2 The standard normal distribution 101
4.3 Applying probability to research 108
4.4 Sampling distributions 108
4.5 Confidence intervals and the standard error 111
SPSS: obtaining confidence intervals 120
4.6 Error bar charts 121
4.7 Overlapping confidence intervals 122
SPSS: generating error bar charts 124
4.8 Confidence intervals around other statistics 127
Summary 127
SPSS exercises 128
References 133
5 Hypothesis testing and statistical significance 134

Chapter overview 134
5.1 Another way of applying probabilities to research: hypothesis testing 134
5.2 Null hypothesis 139
5.3 Logic of null hypothesis testing 140
5.4 The significance level 142
5.5 Statistical significance 144
5.6 The correct interpretation of the p-value 146
5.7 Statistical tests 147

Contents xi
5.8 Type I error 148

5.9 Type II error 150
5.10 Why set α at 0.05? 151
5.11 One-tailed and two-tailed hypotheses 151
5.12 Assumptions underlying the use of statistical tests 156
SPSS: Statistics Coach 163
Summary 167
SPSS exercises 167
References 172
6 Correlational analysis: Pearson’s r 174

6.1 Bivariate correlations 175
SPSS: bivariate correlations – Pearson’s r 188
SPSS: obtaining a scattergram matrix 197
6.2 First- and second-order correlations 200
SPSS: partial correlations – Pearson’s r 201
6.3 Patterns of correlations 208
Summary 209
SPSS exercise 210
Multiple choice question 211
References 215
7 Analyses of differences between two

conditions: the t-test 217
7.1 Analysis of two conditions 218
SPSS: for an independent t-test 228
SPSS: two samples repeated-measures design – paired t-test 234
Summary 239
SPSS exercise 240
References 245
8 Issues of significance 246

8.1 Criterion significance levels 246
8.2 Effect size 251
8.3 Power 251
8.4 Factors influencing power 252

xii Contents
8.5 Calculating power 256

8.6 Confidence intervals 258
Summary 259
References 263
9 Measures of association 265

9.1 Frequency (categorical) data 265
9.2 One-variable x2 or goodness-of-fit test 267
SPSS: one-variable x2 269
SPSS: one-variable x2 – using frequencies different from those expected
under the null hypothesis 273
9.3 x2 test for independence: 2 * 2 276
SPSS: 2 * 2 x2 279
9.4 x2 test of independence: r * c 285
Summary 290
SPSS exercises 290
References 297
10 Analysis of differences between three

or more conditions 298
10.1 Visualising the design 299
10.2 Meaning of analysis of variance 300
SPSS: performing a one-way ANOVA 305
10.3 Descriptive statistics 307
10.4 Planned comparisons 308
10.5 Controlling for multiple testing 309
10.6 Post-hoc tests 309
10.7 Repeated-measures ANOVA 312
SPSS: instructions for repeated-measures ANOVA 313
Summary 319
SPSS exercises 320
References 327
11 Analysis of variance with more than one IV 328

11.1 Introduction 328
11.2 Sources of variance 329
11.3 Designs suitable for factorial ANOVA 331

Contents xiii
11.4 ANOVA terminology 332

11.5 Two between-participants independent variables 333
SPSS: analysis of two between-participants factors 346
11.6 Two within-participants variables 351
SPSS: ANOVA with two within-participants factors 359
11.7 One between- and one within-participants variable 362
SPSS: ANOVA with one between-participants factor and one within-participants factor 368
Summary 370
SPSS exercises 370
References 376
12 Regression analysis 377

12.1 The purpose of linear regression 377
SPSS: drawing the line of best fit 380
SPSS: linear regression analysis 391
12.2 Multiple regression 398
Summary 407
SPSS exercises 407
References 413
13 Analysis of three or more groups partialling

out effects of a covariate 414
SPSS: obtaining a chart of regression lines 416
13.1 Pre-existing groups 422
13.2 Pretest–posttest designs 428
SPSS: obtaining output for an ANCOVA 432
Summary 440
SPSS exercise 440
References 445
14 Introduction to factor analysis 446

14.1 What is the purpose of factor analysis? 446
14.2 The two main types of factor analysis 448
14.3 Use of factor analysis in psychometrics 448
14.4 Visualising factors 449
14.5 Conceptualising factor analysis 450

xiv Contents
14.6 Naming the factors 452

14.7 Loadings of variables on factors 453
14.8 The correlational matrix 455
14.9 The unrotated and rotated matrices 456
14.10 Plotting the variables in factor space 457
14.11 Rotating the matrix 459
14.12 Steps taken in performing a factor analysis 462
14.13 Use of factors or components in further analyses 466
14.14 The meaning of negative loadings 467
SPSS: factor analysis – principal components analysis 468
Summary 476
References 480
15 Introduction to multivariate analysis of

variance (MANOVA) 481
15.1 Multivariate statistics 481
15.2 Why use multivariate analyses of variance? 482
15.3 Multivariate analysis of variance 482
15.4 Logic of MANOVA 483
15.5 Assumptions of MANOVA 485
15.6 Which F-value? 489
15.7 Post-hoc analyses of individual DVs 490
15.8 Correlated DVs 492
15.9 How to write up these analyses 493
SPSS: conducting MANOVA with one between-participants IV and two DVs 494
15.10 Within-participants designs 496
SPSS: one within-participants IV and two DVs 503
Summary 506
SPSS exercises 506
References 515
Recommended texts 515
16 Non-parametric statistics 516

16.1 Alternative to Pearson’s r: Spearman’s rho 517
SPSS: correlational analysis – Spearman’s rho 517
SPSS exercise 521
16.2 Alternatives to the t-test: Mann–Whitney and Wilcoxon 521
SPSS: two-sample test for independent groups – Mann–Whitney 523
SPSS exercise 527
SPSS: two-sample test for repeated measures – Wilcoxon 530
SPSS exercise 535

Contents xv
16.3 Alternatives to ANOVA 535

SPSS: independent samples test for more than two conditions – Kruskal–Wallis 536
SPSS exercise 540
SPSS: repeated-measures test for more than two conditions – Friedman’s test 542
SPSS exercise 544
Summary 545
References 550
Answers to activities and SPSS exercises 551

Appendix 1: Table of z-scores and the proportion of the standard normal
distribution falling above and below each score 592
Appendix 2: Table r to zr 595
Index 597
Companion Website ON THE

WEBSITE
For open-access student resources specifically written
to complement this textbook and support your learning,
please visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/dancey
Lecturer Resources
For password-protected online resources tailored to support the
use of this textbook in teaching, please visit
www.pearsoned.co.uk/dancey

Preface
It seems incredible to us that it is now 18 years since our book was first published. We have
been amazed at how well the book has been received and thankful for the kind words tutors and
students alike have said about it. In this seventh edition of the book we have kept true to our
vision for the book to provide conceptual explanations of statistical concepts without making
you suffer through the formulae. We have built upon the strengths of the previous editions and
updated our examples from the literature, updated some of the practical exercises, provided
reflections from authors of published research and responded, with revised explanations, to a
number of reviewers who kindly provided feedback on the sixth edition.
We wrote this book primarily for our students, most of whom disliked mathematics, and could
not understand why they had to learn mathematical formulae when their computer software
performed the calculations for them. They were not convinced by the argument that working
through calculations gave them an understanding of the test – neither were we. We wanted them
to have a conceptual understanding of statistics and to enjoy data analysis. Over the past 20 years
we have had to adapt our teaching to large groups of students, many of whom have no formal
training in mathematics. We found it was difficult to recommend some of the traditional statistics
textbooks – either they were full of mathematical formulae, and perceived by the students as dull
or boring, or they were simple, statistical cookbook recipes, which showed them how to perform
calculations, but gave them no real understanding of what the statistics meant. We therefore
decided to write this book, which seeks to give students a conceptual understanding of statistics
while avoiding the distraction of formulae and calculations.
Another problem we found with recommending statistics textbooks was the over-reliance on
the probability value in the interpretation of results. We found it difficult to convince them to
take effect size, and confidence intervals, into consideration when the textbooks that were
available made no mention of the debates around hypothesis testing, but simply instructed
students to say p 6 0.05 is significant and p 7 0.05 is not significant! We hope in writing this
book that students will become more aware of such issues.
We also wanted to show students how to incorporate the results of their analysis into
laboratory reports, and how to interpret results sections of journal articles. Until recently,
statistics books ignored this aspect of data analysis. Of course, we realise that the way we have
written our example ‘results sections’ will be different from the way that other psychologists
would write them. Students can use these sections to gain confidence in writing their own
results, and hopefully they will build on them, as they progress through their course.
We have tried to simplify complex, sometimes very complex, concepts. In simplifying, there
is a trade-off in accuracy. We were aware of this when writing the book, and have tried to be as
accurate as possible, while giving the simplest explanation. We are also aware that some students
do not use SPSS (an IBM company*) for their data analysis. IBM® SPSS® Statistics, however,
*
SPSS was acquired by IBM in October 2009.

Preface xvii
is the most commonly used statistical package for the social sciences, and this is why the text
is tied so closely to SPSS. Students not using this package should find the book useful anyway.
This edition of the book has been updated for use with SPSS version 23 and earlier.
As with the sixth edition of the book we have included information about the authors of
articles which we have drawn upon in the writing of this book – and have included photos of
them where possible – strictly with their permission, of course. We also asked them why they
had chosen their particular research topic, and whether they had encountered any problems in
the running of the experiment/study. We thought this would enrich the text. Although we have
updated many examples from the literature, we have left in some early studies because they
illustrate exactly the points made in the text. Some reviewers thought there should be more
challenging activities and/or multiple choice questions. Therefore, we have added activities
which are based on examples from the literature, and require students to interpret the material,
in their own words. They can then compare their interpretation with the authors’
interpretation.
We hope that students who read the book will not only learn from it, but also enjoy our
explanations and examples. We also hope that as a result of reading this book students will feel
confident in their ability to perform their own statistical analyses.
How to use this book

To help you get the most from this book we thought that it would be useful to provide a brief
overview of the book and of the structure of the chapters. The best way to use the book if you
are new to statistics in psychology or if you have been away from statistics for a long while is
to work your way through the chapters from Chapter 1 onwards. The most important chapters
to read and ensure that you understand fully are the first five chapters as these provide you with
the core concepts for comprehending the main statistical techniques covered later in the book.
If you spend the time and effort on these opening chapters then you will be rewarded by having
a better understanding of what the statistical tests are able to tell us about our data. We cannot
stress enough the importance of such an understanding for appropriate use of statistical
techniques and for your ability to understand and critique others’ use of such techniques.
The chapters that follow these opening chapters generally explain the concepts underlying
specific types of tests as well as how to conduct and interpret the findings from these. We start
off with the more basic tests which look at the fewest possible variables (‘variables’ will be
explained in Chapter 1) and then using these as a basis we move on to the more complex tests
later in the book. In some ways it might be better to read about a basic type of test, say simple
correlations (see Chapter 6), and then move on to the more complex versions of these tests, say
regression and multiple regression (see Chapter 12). As another example, start with simple tests
of differences between two groups (in Chapter 7) and then move on to tests of differences
between more than two groups (Chapters 10 and 11). However, often statistics modules don’t
follow this sort of pattern but rather cover all of the basic tests first and only then move on to
the complex tests. In such a learning pattern there is the danger that to some extent some of the
links between the simple and complex tests may get lost.
Rather disappointingly we have read some reviews of the book which focus entirely on the
step-by-step guides we give to conducting the statistical analyses with SPSS for Windows (now
called SPSS Statistics). We would like to stress that this book is not simply a ‘cookbook’ for
how to run statistical tests. If used appropriately you should come out with a good understanding
of the statistical concepts covered in the book as well as the skills necessary to conduct the
analyses using SPSS Statistics. If you already have a conceptual understanding of the statistical
techniques covered in the book then by all means simply follow the step-by-step guide to
carrying out the analyses, but if you are relatively new to statistics you should ensure that you
read the text so that you understand what the statistical analyses are telling you.

xviii Preface
There are a number of features in this book to help you learn the concepts being covered
(in technical terms these are called ‘pedagogic’ features). These are explained below, but before
we explain these we will give you a general overview of what to expect in each chapter.
In each chapter we will highlight what is to come and then we will explain the statistical
concepts underlying the particular topics for that chapter. Once we have covered the statistical
concepts you will be given step-by-step guides to conducting analyses using SPSS Statistics.
Towards the end of each chapter you will be provided with a means of testing your knowledge,
followed by some pointers to further reading. We will now describe some of the features found
in the chapters in more detail.
At the beginning of every chapter there is a Chapter overview. These overviews provide you
with information about what is contained in each chapter and what you should have achieved
from working through it. Sometimes we will also highlight what you need to know beforehand
to be able to get the most from the chapter. You should make sure that you read these (it is very
easy to get into the habit of not doing this) as they will set the scene for you and prepare your
mind for the concepts coming up in the book.
At the end of each chapter there are Summaries which outline the main concepts that were
covered. These are important for consolidating what you have learnt and help put the concepts
learnt later in the chapter back in the context of the earlier concepts. You will also find SPSS
Statistics exercises, activities and multiple choice questions. We cannot stress enough the
importance of working through these when you finish each chapter. They are designed to test
your knowledge and to help you actively work with the information that you have learnt.
The best way to learn about things is to do them. The answers to the multiple choice questions
are also provided at the very end of each chapter so that you can check your progress. If you
have answered questions incorrectly go back and read the relevant part of the chapter to ensure
that you have a good understanding of the material. The answers to the SPSS Statistics exercises
are provided at the end of the book. Check these and if you have different answers go back and
try to work out where you might have gone wrong. Often it might be that you have input the
data incorrectly into SPSS Statistics. There are additional multiple choice questions and SPSS
Statistics exercises on the companion website and so please do make use of these also.
Within each chapter there are a number of features designed to get you thinking about what
you have been reading. There are Discussion points which help you to explore different ideas
or theories in more detail. There are also a number of Activity boxes which provide additional
opportunities for you to test your understanding of the theories and ideas being discussed. It is
important to complete the activities as we have placed these to ensure that you are actively
engaging with the material. Our experience has shown that actively working with material helps
learning (and makes reading more enjoyable). You will also find a number of Example boxes
where we provide a concrete example of what we are discussing. Providing such concrete
examples helps students understand the concepts more easily. There are also lots of examples
from the psychological literature which show how active psychology researchers use the
statistical techniques which have been covered in the chapters.
Where appropriate we have included as many diagrams and pictures as we can as these
will help you to understand (and remember) the text more easily. The thought of giving you
endless pages of text without breaking it up is not worth thinking about. This would probably
lead to a lot of Zzzzzz. On a serious note though, remember that the pictures are not there to
be pretty nor just to break up the text. Please consult these along with reading the text and this
will help you learn and understand the concept under discussion. Occasionally in the book you
will come across Caution boxes. These are there to warn you of possible problems or issues
related to certain techniques or statistical concepts. These are useful in many ways as they are
designed to help you to understand some of the limits of statistical tests and they serve as a
reminder that we have to think carefully about how we analyse our data.
Where in a chapter we want to show you how to use SPSS Statistics we provide annotated
screenshots. These will show you which buttons to click in SPSS Statistics as well as how and
where to move information around to get the analyses that you want. Finally, at the end of each

Preface xix
chapter there is a Reference section. In this we will provide details of all the other authors’
works that we have mentioned within the chapter. This is pretty much what you should do when
writing up your own research. Some of the references will provide the details of the examples
from the literature that we have presented and some will be examples of potentially useful
further reading. You can follow up these as and when you choose to. Sometimes it is good to
follow up the examples from the research literature as you can then see the context to the exam-
ple analyses that we present. Also, by looking at how the experts present their research you can
better learn how to present your research.
Companion website
We would urge you to make as much use as possible of the resources available to you on the
companion website. When you get on to the site you will see that it is broken down into
resources for each chapter. For each chapter you will find SPSS Statistics dataset files which
are simply the data for the examples that we provide in each chapter. You can access these to
ensure that you have input data correctly or so that you can carry out the same analyses that we
present in each chapter to make sure that you get the same results. Also, on the website you will
find additional multiple choice questions. If you find that you have made mistakes in the
multiple choice questions provided in the book you should go back through the chapter and try
to make sure that you fully understand the concepts presented. It wouldn’t make sense for you
to then test yourself using the same multiple choice questions and so we have provided the
additional ones on the companion website. As another means of testing yourself and to help
you actively learn we provide additional SPSS Statistics exercises for each chapter and a
step-by-step guide to the analysis to conduct on this data and how to interpret the output.
Finally, you will find links to interesting and useful websites which are relevant to the
concepts being covered in each chapter.

Guided tour
The chapter overview gives you a feel for what Caution boxes highlight possible problems you may
will be covered and what you should have learnt encounter or issues for consideration.
by the end of the topic.
284 Statistics without maths for psychology
The emboldened row shows the probability of obtaining a value of 0.94 when the null
hypothesis is assumed to be true - 66% for a two-tailed hypothesis, and 31% for a one-tailed
hypothesis.
9
CONFIDENTIAL: Uncorrected WIP proof, NOT for circulation or distribution. © Pearson Education.
Symmetric Measures
Approximate
Value
Measures of association
Significance
Nominal by Nominal Phi 2.097 .332
This is the
measure of effect
Cramer’s V .097 .332
N of Valid Cases 100
The textual part of your report might read as follows:

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Since 50% of the cells had an expected frequency of less than 5, the appropriate statistical
test was Fisher’s Exact Probability. This gave p = 0.66 for a two-tailed hypothesis. The value
Earlier, in Chapter 6, you learnt how to analyse the relationship between two variables, using Pearson’s of Cramer’s V was 0.10, showing that the relationship between smoking and drinking was
r. This test was useful in giving a measure of the association between two continuous variables. You almost zero. The conclusion, therefore, is that there is no evidence to suggest an association
have seen how to represent such relationships on scattergrams, or scatterplots. You learnt what was between drinking and smoking.
meant by a correlation coefficient, and that r is a natural effect size. This chapter also discusses A 2 * 2 x2 square is easy to work out by hand once you are used to it, but we will not ask
relationships, or associations, but this time we are going to discuss how to analyse relationships you to do it. The instructions on how to perform a 2 * 2 x2 analysis on SPSS were given earlier
between categorical variables. (see page 301).
The measure of association that we are going to discuss in this chapter, x2 or chi-square (pronounced
kye-square), measures the association between two categorical variables. You also learnt about
categorical variables (in Chapter 1). If, for instance, we classify people into groups based on which
Caution! You cannot tell how many people are going to fall into each category when you start your study,
colour blouse or shirt they are wearing, this is a categorical category. In the same way, if we classify so you need to obtain far more participants than you think you need, to make sure you have
people by ethnic group, religion or the country in which they live, these are all categorical judgements; enough participants in each cell.
it does not make sense to order them numerically. In this chapter then, you will learn how to: x2 is always positive (because a squared number is always positive).
Whereas DF roughly equates to the number of participants in most statistical analyses, it does
■ analyse the association between categorical variables
not in x2, as DF is calculated by number of rows minus 1 (r - 1) multiplied by number of
■ report another measure of effect (Cramer’s V) columns minus 1 (c - 1). In this case, you can see that a 2 * 2 x2 will always have DF = 1
■ report the results of such analyses. because (r - 1) = (c - 1) = (2 - 1) = (2 - 1) = 1.
The analyses of the relationships between categorical variables include the following:
■ Frequency counts shown in the form of a table – explained later in the book.
■ Inferential tests, which show us whether the relationship between the variables is likely to have been due
to sampling error, assuming the null hypothesis is true. Activity 9.5
■ Effect size: x2 can be converted to a statistic called Cramer’s V – this is interpreted in the same way as any
other correlation coefficient. Luckily, this is available through SPSS. Cramer’s V is:
(a) A measure of difference
(b) A correlation coefficient
(c) An equivalent statistic to Fisher’s Exact Probability Test
9.1 Frequency (categorical) data (d) A CV value
The tests you have used so far have involved calculations on sets of scores obtained from par-
ticipants. Sometimes, however, we have categorical data (i.e. data in the form of frequency
counts). For example, let’s imagine that we ask a sample of farmers (actually 544 of them) which
of four pig pictures they prefer for a ‘save our bacon’ campaign. We would simply record how
many chose picture 1, how many chose picture 2, and so on. The data would be frequency
counts. Table 9.1 shows the sort of results we might obtain.
Activity boxes provide you with opportunities to

M09 Statistics Without Maths for P 28856.indd 265 16/12/2016 21:38
Then you need to click on the Statistics button and select the mode from the next dialogue box along
test your understanding as you go along.
with any other measures of central tendency you require – see the screenshot below:
SPSS sections guide you through how to use the

software for each process, with annotated, full-
colour screenshots to demonstrate what should be
happening on screen.
3.4 Graphically describing data
Once you have finished a piece of research, it is important that you get to know your data. One
of the best ways of doing this is through exploratory data analyses (EDA). EDA essentially
consist of exploring your data through graphical techniques. It is used to get a greater under-
standing of how participants in your study have behaved. The importance of such graphical
techniques was highlighted by Tukey in 1977 in a classic text called Exploratory Data Analysis.
Tukey considered exploring data to be so important that he wrote 688 pages about it! Graphi-
cally illustrating your data should, therefore, be one of the first things you do with it once you
have collected it. In this section we will introduce you to the main techniques for exploring your
Definitions explain the key terms you need to
understand statistics.
data, starting with the frequency histogram. We will then go on to explain stem and leaf plots
and box plots.
Definition
Exploratory data analyses are where we explore the data that we have collected in order to describe it
in more detail. These techniques simply describe our data and do not try to draw conclusions about any
underlying populations.
3.4.1 Frequency histogram

The frequency histogram is a useful way of graphically illustrating your data. Often researchers
are interested in the frequency of occurrence of values in their sample data. For example, if you
collected information about individuals’ occupations, you might be interested in finding out how
many people were in each category of employment. To illustrate the histogram, consider a fre-
quency histogram for the set of data collected in a study by Armitage and Reidy (unpublished).

Guided tour xxi
Personal reflection boxes bring statistics to life through Multiple choice questions at the end of each chapter
interviews with researchers, showing their important role allow you to test your knowledge.
in psychological discoveries.
CHAPTER 3 Descriptive statistics 93

5. The standard deviation is equal to:

Personal reflection
(a) The variance

Manna Alma, PhD (b) The square root of the variance
University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Health Sciences, Com- (c) The variance squared
munity and Occupational Medicine, The Netherlands (d) The variance divided by the number of scores
ARTICLE: The effectiveness of a multidisciplinary group rehabilitation program
on the psychosocial functioning of elderly people who are visually impaired 6. What is the relationship between sample size and sampling error?
(a) The larger the sample size, the larger the sampling error
Manna Alma says: (b) The larger the sample size, the smaller the sampling error
(c) Sample size equals sampling error
‘ Vision loss and its consequences on daily functioning require substantial psychosocial adjustment,
a process many visually impaired persons are struggling with. The psychosocial impact of vision loss is
profound, evidenced by deleterious effects on emotional adaptation, an elevated risk for depression, a
(d) None of the above
7. The mode is:

high level of emotional distress, reduced mental health and a decline in life satisfaction. The psychoso-
(a) The frequency of the most common score divided by the total number of scores
cial needs of those who are visually impaired should be part of their rehabilitation. Therefore, we devel-
(b) The middle score after all the scores have been ranked
oped a multidisciplinary group rehabilitation program, Visually Impaired Elderly Persons Participation
(c) The most frequently occurring score
– VIPP, which aims to promote adaptation to vision loss and to improve social functioning. In that paper,
(d) The sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores
we described the results of a pilot study on the impact of VIPP on psychosocial functioning of the visu-
ally impaired elderly. For a convincing estimation of the change in psychosocial functioning a rand-
8. In box plots, an extreme score is defined as:
omized controlled trial is preferable. Since the pilot study was a first step in investigating the
effectiveness of the VIPP-program, we used a single group pretest–posttest design. The results showed (a) A score that falls beyond the inner fence
an increase in psychosocial functioning directly after the program. For some of the outcome measures (b) A score that falls between the hinges and the inner fence
the improvement appeared to be a temporary effect and was followed by a decline during the six (c) A score that falls between the inner fence and the adjacent score
months following the intervention. However, the six-months follow-up measure still indicated positive (d) A score that falls between the two hinges
effects compared to baseline. This pilot study was a first step toward documenting the effect of VIPP
on psychosocial functioning. Although the results are preliminary because of the small sample size and 9. A normal distribution should have which of the following properties?
the research design, the results are promising.
’ (a)
(b)
(c)
Bell-shaped
Symmetrical
The tails of the distribution should meet the x-axis at infinity
(d) All of the above
Example from the literature 10. If you randomly select a sample of 20 pandas (sample A), then select a sample of 300 pandas
(sample B) and calculate the mean weight for each sample, which is likely to give a better estimate of
the population mean weight?
The effectiveness of a multidisciplinary group rehabilitation program on
(a) Sample A
the psychosocial functioning of elderly people who are visually impaired (b) Sample B
Alma et al. (2013) carried out a group rehabilitation programme for visually impaired older people. They (c) Both will give equally good estimates of the population mean
measured 29 people on psychosocial variables before an intervention. The intervention consisted of 20 (d) Neither will give a good estimate of the population mean
weekly meetings which included practical training and education. The participants were measured at
three time-points (baseline, halfway, immediately after the completion of the intervention, and at six- 11. What sort of relationship is indicated by a scattergram where the points cluster around an imaginary
month follow-up). This, then, is a pre-post design, suitable for repeated-measures ANOVA. The authors line that goes from the bottom left-hand corner to the top right-hand corner?
state that they used Eta squared as a measure of effect size (ES). (a) Positive
The table of results is reproduced below. Note that the second column shows whether the overall (b) Negative
ANOVAs are statistically significant. The five columns to the right shows the F values and effect sizes (c) Bimodal
for pairwise comparisons. (d) Flat

Chapter summaries enable you to revise the main points

Examples from the literature highlight a key piece
of the chapter after you’ve read it.
of research in the area.
Numerous examples in each chapter illustrate the 40 Statistics without maths for psychology
key points. You might be wondering why we have to input the data differently for different designs. The
reason is that each row on the data input screen represents the information from one participant.
If you have a between-participants design, you need to let SPSS know what each participant’s
score was and also which group they were in. When you have a within-participants design, each
participant performs under two conditions and therefore has two scores. You need to let SPSS
know what both of these scores are. Because each participant performs in both groups, you do
not need to let SPSS know their group with a grouping variable. You can therefore tell the dif-
ference between within- and between-participants designs by looking for a grouping variable.
If there is one, then it is a between-participants design.
You should notice from the screenshot that we have set up two variables, one for the dog
condition and one for the no-dog condition. Also, because we do not have a grouping variable,
we do not have to give group ‘value’ labels for any variables in the Variable View screen. Setting
up the variables with such a design is therefore more straightforward than with between-
participants designs.
CHAPTER 15 Introduction to multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) 487
example
Summary
Let us assume that we have conducted the well-being study described earlier in this chapter but we have In this chapter we have introduced you to the SPSS • about using Labels and Value Labels to make the
decided to use only two indices of well-being, Happiness and Optimism. We have then obtained the statistical package. You have learnt: output clearer.
appropriate data (see Table 15.1) from 12 people who are regular churchgoers and 12 who are atheists. • how to input data for correlational, within-
• how to use the tutorials participants and between-participants designs.
• how to set up variables in the Variable View part • that the use of a grouping variable is important
table 15.1 Data for the well-being experiment of the interface. for between-participants designs.
Churchgoers atheists
happiness Optimism happiness Optimism

Discover the website at www.pearsoned.co.uk/dancey where you can test your knowledge with multiple
4.00 3.00 5.00 3.00 choice questions and activities, discover more about topics using the links to relevant websites, and
5.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 explore the interactive flowchart designed to help you find the right method of analysis.
5.00 8.00 8.00 5.00

6.00 7.00 9.00 4.00 SPSS exercises
6.00 6.00 7.00 2.00
6.00 5.00 6.00 3.00 The answers to all exercises in the book can be found in the Answers section at the end of the book.
7.00 6.00 7.00 4.00
7.00 6.00 5.00 3.00 Exercise 1
7.00 5.00 6.00 2.00 Dr Genius has conducted a study comparing memory for adjectives with that for nouns. She randomly
8.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 allocates 20 participants to two conditions. She then presents to one of the groups of 10 participants a
list of 20 adjectives and to the other group a list of 20 nouns. Following this, she asks each group to try
8.00 7.00 5.00 5.00
to remember as many of the words they were presented with as possible. She collects the following data:
9.00 4.00 6.00 3.00
Adjectives: 10, 6, 7, 9, 11, 9, 8, 6, 9, 8
X = 6.50 X = 5.5 X = 6.00 X = 3.50 Nouns: 12, 13, 16, 15, 9, 7, 14, 12, 11, 13
SD = 1.45 SD = 1.45 SD = 1.54 SD = 1.00 1. What is the IV in this study?
95% CI = 5.58–7.42 95% CI = 4.58–6.42 95% CI = 5.02–6.98 95% CI = 2.86–4.14 2. What is the DV?
Before we conduct the MANOVA we need to look at descriptive statistics in order to ensure that the
assumptions for MANOVA are not violated.
We should initially establish that the data for each DV for each sample are normally distributed. For
this we can get SPSS to produce box plots, histograms or stem and leaf plots. The box plots for the data M02 Statistics Without Maths for P 28856.indd 40 30/11/2016 16:02
in Table 15.1 are presented in Figure 15.1.

You can see from these box plots that for both DVs in both conditions the distributions are approxi-
mately normal. These findings, along with the fact that we have equal numbers of participants in each
condition, mean that we can continue with our MANOVA with some confidence that we do not have
serious violations of the assumption of multivariate normality.
The second assumption, that of homogeneity of variance–covariance matrices, is assessed by looking
at the MANOVA printout, and therefore we will go through this shortly.
Before we conduct the MANOVA it is instructive to look at the plots of the means and 95% confidence SPSS exercises at the end of each chapter give you an
intervals around the means for the two DVs separately (see Figure 15.2).
opportunity to test yourself using real data.

Acknowledgements
Our grateful thanks go to the reviewers of this seventh edition of the book for their time and
valuable help:
Paul Warren - University of Manchester

Richard Rowe - Sheffield University
Jennifer Murray - Edinburgh Napier University
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:
Screenshots
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229, 234, 235, 235, 269, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275, 279, 280, 305, 306, 313, 314, 315, 346, 347,
348, 349, 350, 351, 359, 360, 361, 368, 369, 380, 381, 382, 391, 392, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420,
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Tables
Table on page 259 from Health complaints and unemployment: the role of self-efficacy in a
prospective cohort study, Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32, 97–115 (Zenger, M.,
Berth, H., Brähler, E. and Stöbel-Richter, Y. 2013), republished with permission of Guilford
Press, permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.; Table on page 289
adapted from Everyday memory in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD),
Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34, pp. 687–94 (Chen, I. C., Tsai, P. L., Hsu, Y. W.,
Ma, H. I. and Lai, H. A. 2013), Copyright © 2013, with permission from Elsevier; Table on
page 311 from Differential effects of age on involuntary and voluntary autobiographical
memory, Psychology and Aging, 24, pp. 397–411 (Schlagman, S., Kliegel, M., Schulz, J. and
Kvavilashvili, L. 2009), Copyright © 2009 American Psychological Association.

Acknowledgements xxiii
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Trust, page 38, © Crown copyright. Contains public sector information licensed under the Open
Government Licence (OGL) v3.0. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-
licence/version/3/; Extract on page 15 from Perceptual biases in relation to paranormal and
conspiracy beliefs, PLoS ONE, 10 (van Elk M. 2015), reproduced with permission; Extract on
page 101 from No regrets? Measuring the career benefits of a psychology placement year,
Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 37, Iss. 5 (Moores, E. and Reddy, P. 2012),
reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com, Copyright ©
2012 Routledge; Quote on page 141 from Geoffrey R. Loftus reproduced with permission;
Extract on page 149 from Politicians and trustworthiness: acting contrary to self-interest
enhances trustworthiness, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 32, pp. 328–39 (Combs, D. J.
and Keller, P. S. 2010), Copyright © 2010 Routledge. Reprinted by permission of Taylor &
Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com; Extract on page 204 from Evaluation of a new meas-
ure of mood intolerance, the Tolerance of Mood States Scale (TOMS): Psychometric properties
and associations with eating disorder symptoms, Eating Behaviors, 13, Iss. 4 (Allen, K.L.,
Mclean, N.J. and Byrne, S.M. 2012), Copyright © 2012, with permission from Elsevier; Extract
on page 207 from Age-related differences in recognition memory for items and associations:
contribution of individual differences in working memory and metamemory, Psychology &
Aging, 27 (Bender, R. and Raz, N 2012), reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd,
http://www.tandfonline.com; Extract on pages 203–04 from Sexting as an intervention: relation-
ship, satisfaction and motivation considerations, The American Journal of Family Therapy, 41
(Parker, T.S. Blackburn, K.M., Perry, M.S. and Hawks, J.M. 2013), Copyright © 2013 Rout-
ledge, reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com; Extract
on page 233 from A comparative study on the attitudes and uses of music by adults with visual
impairments and those who are sighted — JVIB Abstract, Journal of Visual Impairment &
Blindness, 109 (Park, H.Y., Chong, H.J. and Kim, S.J. 2015), republished with permission of
American Foundation for the Blind; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center,
Inc.; Extract on page 247 from Beyond the null ritual: Formal modeling of psychological pro-
cesses, Journal of Psychology, 217 (Marewski, J. N., and Olsson, H. 2009), Copyright © 2009
American Psychological Association; Quote on page 247 from Statistical procedures and the
justification of knowledge in psychological science, American Psychologist, 44 (Rosnow, R.J.
and Rosenthal, R. 1989), Copyright © 1989 American Psychological Association; Extract on
page 247 from On statistical testing in psychology, British Journal of Psychology, 88
(Macdonald, R.R. 1997), British journal of psychology by BRITISH PSYCHOLOGICAL
SOCIETY Reproduced with permission of CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. in the format
Book via Copyright Clearance Center; Extract on page 288 from Collectivism and the meaning of
suffering, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103 (Sullivan, D., Landau, M. J., Kay, A. C.
and Rothschild, Z. K. 2012), Copyright © 2012 American Psychological Association; Extract on
page 358 from A quick eye to anger: An investigation of a differential effect of facial features in
detecting angry and happy expressions, International Journal of Psychology (Lo, L. Y., and
Cheng, M. Y. 2015), International journal of psychology by INTERNATIONAL UNION OF
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format Book via Copyright Clearance Center; Extract on page 367 from Smartphone applica-
tions utilizing biofeedback can aid stress reduction, Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 832 (Dillon, A.,
Kelly, M., Robertson, I. H., & Robertson, D. A. 2016), Copyright © 2016 Dillon, Kelly,
Robertson and Robertson.

xxiv Acknowledgements
Picture Credits
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Reddy: 100r; Robert Rosenthal: 249br; Sarah Partington: 84b; Daniel Sullivan: 287tr.
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consequence secured in your bill of rights, concerning which that
proposal is silent. Is that the language of the bill of rights in
England? Is it the language of the American bill of rights, that these
three rights, and these only, are valuable? Is it the language of men
going into a new government? Is it not necessary to speak of those
things before you go into a compact? How do these three things
stand? As one of the parties, we declare we do not mean to give them
up. This is very dictatorial; much more so than the conduct which
proposes alterations as the condition of adoption. In a compact,
there are two parties—one accepting, and another proposing. As a
party, we propose that we shall secure these three things; and before
we have the assent of the other contracting party, we go into the
compact, and leave these things at their mercy. What will be the
consequence? Suppose the other states will call this dictatorial: they
will say, Virginia has gone into the government, and carried with her
certain propositions, which, she says, ought to be concurred in by the
other states. They will declare, that she has no right to dictate to
other states the conditions on which they shall come into the union.
According to the honorable member’s proposal, the ratification will
cease to be obligatory unless they accede to these amendments. We
have ratified it. You have committed a violation, they will say. They
have not violated it. We say we will go out of it. You are then reduced
to a sad dilemma—to give up these three rights, or leave the
government. This is worse than our present confederation, to which
we have hitherto adhered honestly and faithfully. We shall be told we
have violated it, because we have left it for the infringement and
violation of conditions, which they never agreed to be a part of the
ratification. The ratification will be complete. The proposal is made
by one party. We, as the other, accede to it, and propose the security
of these three great rights; for it is only a proposal. In order to secure
them, you are left in that state of fatal hostility, which I shall as much
deplore as the honorable gentleman. I exhort gentlemen to think
seriously before they ratify this constitution, and persuade
themselves that they will succeed in making a feeble effort to get
amendments after adoption. With respect to that part of the proposal
which says that every power not granted remains with the people, it
must be previous to adoption, or it will involve this country in
inevitable destruction. To talk of it is a thing subsequent, not as one
of your inalienable rights, is leaving it to the casual opinion of the
congress who shall take up the consideration of the matter. They will
not reason with you about the effect of this constitution. They will
not take the opinion of this committee concerning its operation. They
will construe it as they please. If you place it subsequently, let me ask
the consequences. Among ten thousand implied powers which they
may assume, they may, if we be engaged in war, liberate every one of
your slaves, if they please. And this must and will be done by men, a
majority of whom have not a common interest with you. They will,
therefore, have no feeling for your interests.
It has been repeatedly said here that the great object of a national
government is national defence. That power which is said to be
intended for security and safety, may be rendered detestable and
oppressive. If you give power to the general government to provide
for the general defence, the means must be commensurate to the
end. All the means in the possession of the people must be given to
the government which is intrusted with the public defence. In this
state there are two hundred and thirty-six thousand blacks, and there
are many in several other states; but there are few or none in the
Northern States; and yet, if the Northern States shall be of opinion
that our numbers are numberless, they may call forth every national
resource. May congress not say, that every black man must fight? Did
we not see a little of this in the last war? We were not so hard pushed
as to make emancipation general: but acts of assembly passed, that
every slave who would go to the army should be free. Another thing
will contribute to bring this event about: slavery is detested; we feel
its fatal effects; we deplore it with all the pity of humanity. Let all
these considerations, at some future period, press with full force on
the minds of congress. Let that urbanity, which I trust will
distinguish America, and the necessity of national defence—let all
these things operate on their minds, and they will search that paper,
and see if they have power of manumission. And have they not, sir?
Have they not power to provide for the general defence and welfare?
May they not think that these call for the abolition of slavery? May
they not pronounce all slaves free, and will they not be warranted by
that power? There is no ambiguous implication, or logical deduction.
The paper speaks to the point. They have the power in clear,
unequivocal terms, and will clearly and certainly exercise it. As much
as I deplore slavery, I see that prudence forbids its abolition. I deny
that the general government ought to set them free, because a
decided majority of the states have not the ties of sympathy and
fellow-feeling for those whose interest would be affected by their
emancipation. The majority of congress is to the north, and the
slaves are to the south. In this situation, I see a great deal of the
property of the people of Virginia in jeopardy, and their peace and
tranquillity gone away. I repeat it again, that it would rejoice my very
soul that every one of my fellow-beings was emancipated. As we
ought with gratitude to admire that decree of Heaven which has
numbered us among the free, we ought to lament and deplore the
necessity of holding our fellow-men in bondage. But is it practicable,
by any human means, to liberate them, without producing the most
dreadful and ruinous consequences? We ought to possess them in
the manner we have inherited them from our ancestors, as their
manumission is incompatible with the felicity of the country. But we
ought to soften, as much as possible, the rigor of their unhappy fate.
I know that in a variety of particular instances, the legislature,
listening to complaints, have admitted their emancipation. Let me
not dwell on this subject. I will only add, that this, as well as every
other property of the people of Virginia, is in jeopardy, and put in the
hands of those who have no similarity of situation with us. This is a
local matter, and I can see no propriety in subjecting it to congress.
[Here Mr. Henry informed the committee, that he had a resolution
prepared, to refer a declaration of rights, with certain amendments
to the most exceptionable parts of the constitution, to the other
states in the confederacy, for their consideration, previous to its
ratification. The clerk then read the resolution, the declaration of
rights, and amendments, which were nearly the same as those
ultimately proposed by the convention, for the consideration of
congress. He then resumed the subject.] I have thus candidly
submitted to you, Mr. Chairman, and this committee, what occurred
to me as proper amendments to the constitution, and the declaration
of rights containing those fundamental, inalienable privileges, which
I conceive to be essential to liberty and happiness. I believe, that, on
a review of these amendments, it will still be found, that the arm of
power will be sufficiently strong for national purposes, when these
restrictions shall be a part of the government. I believe no
gentleman, who opposes me in sentiments, will be able to discover
that any one feature of a strong government is altered; and at the
same time your inalienable rights are secured by them. The
government unaltered may be terrible to America, but can never be
loved, till it be amended. You find all the resources of the continent
may be drawn to a point. In danger, the president may concentre to a
point every effort of the continent. If the government be constructed
to satisfy the people and remove their apprehensions, the wealth and
strength of the continent will go where public utility shall direct. This
government, with these restrictions, will be a strong government
united with the privileges of the people. In my weak judgment, a
government is strong, when it applies to the most important end of
all governments—the rights and privileges of the people. In the
honorable member’s proposal, jury trial, the press, and religion, and
other essential rights, are not to be given up. Other essential rights—
what are they? The world will say, that you intended to give them up.
When you go into an enumeration of your rights, and stop that
enumeration, the inevitable conclusion is, that what is omitted is
intended to be surrendered.
Anxious as I am to be as little troublesome as possible, I cannot
leave this part of the subject without adverting to one remark of the
honorable gentleman. He says, that, rather than bring the union into
danger, he will adopt it with its imperfections. A great deal is said
about disunion, and consequent dangers. I have no claim to a greater
share of fortitude than others; but I can see no kind of danger. I form
my judgment on a single fact alone, that we are at peace with all the
world; nor is there any apparent cause of a rupture with any nation
in the world. Is it among the American states that the cause of
disunion is to be feared? Are not the states using all their efforts for
the promotion of union? New England sacrifices local prejudices for
the purposes of union. We hear the necessity of the union, and
predilection for the union, re-echoed from all parts of the continent;
and all at once disunion is to follow! If gentlemen dread disunion,
the very thing they advocate will inevitably produce it. A previous
ratification will raise insurmountable obstacles to union. New York is
an insurmountable obstacle to it, and North Carolina also. They will
never accede to it till it be amended. A great part of Virginia is
opposed, most decidedly, to it, as it stands. This very spirit which will
govern us in these three states, will find a kindred spirit in the
adopting states. Give me leave to say, that it is very problematical
whether the adopting states can stand on their own legs. I hear only
on one side, but as far as my information goes, there are heart-
burnings and animosities among them. Will these animosities be
cured by subsequent amendments?
Turn away from American, and consider European politics. The
nations there, which can trouble us, are France, England, and Spain.
But at present we know for a certainty, that those nations are
engaged in a very different pursuit from American conquests. We are
told by our intelligent ambassador, that there is no such danger as
has been apprehended. Give me leave then to say, that dangers from
beyond the Atlantic are imaginary. From these premises, then, it may
be concluded, that, from the creation of the world to this time, there
never was a more fair and proper opportunity than we have at this
day to establish such a government as will permanently establish the
most transcendent political felicity. Since the revolution there has
not been so much experience. Since then, the general interests of
America have not been better understood, nor the union more
ardently loved, than at this present moment. I acknowledge the
weakness of the old confederation. Every man says, that something
must be done. Where is the moment more favorable than this?
During the war, when ten thousand dangers surrounded us, America
was magnanimous. What was the language of the little state of
Maryland? “I will have time to consider. I will hold out three years.
Let what may come I will have time to reflect.” Magnanimity
appeared everywhere. What was the upshot?—America triumphed. Is
there any thing to forbid us to offer these amendments to the other
states? If this moment goes away unimproved, we shall never see its
return. We now act under a happy system, which says, that a
majority may alter the government when necessary. But by the paper
proposed, a majority will forever endeavor in vain to alter it. Three-
fourths may. Is not this the most promising time for securing the
necessary alterations? Will you go into that government, where it is a
principle, that a contemptible minority may prevent an alteration?
What will be the language of the majority?—Change the government
—Nay, seven eighths of the people of America may wish the change;
but the minority may come with a Roman Veto, and object to the
alteration. The language of a magnanimous country and of freemen
is, Till you remove the defects, we will not accede. It would be in vain
for me to show, that there is no danger to prevent our obtaining
those amendments, if you are not convinced already. If the other
states will not agree to them, it is not an inducement to union. The
language of this paper is not dictatorial, but merely a proposition for
amendments. The proposition of Virginia met with a favorable
reception before. We proposed that convention which met at
Annapolis. It was not called dictatorial. We proposed that at
Philadelphia. Was Virginia thought dictatorial? But Virginia is now
to lose her pre-eminence. Those rights of equality, to which the
meanest individual in the community is entitled, are to bring us
down infinitely below the Delaware people. Have we not a right to
say, Hear our propositions? Why, sir, your slaves have a right to
make their humble requests. Those who are in the meanest
occupations of human life, have a right to complain. What do we
require? Not pre-eminence, but safety; that our citizens may be able
to sit down in peace and security under their own fig-trees. I am
confident that sentiments like these will meet with unison in every
state; for they will wish to banish discord from the American soil. I
am certain that the warmest friend of the constitution wishes to have
fewer enemies—fewer of those who pester and plague him with
opposition. I could not withhold from my fellow-citizens anything so
reasonable. I fear you will have no union, unless you remove the
cause of opposition. Will you sit down contented with the name of
union without any solid foundation?
Speech of John Randolph
Against the Tariff Bill, delivered in the House of Representatives of

the United States, April 15, 1824.
I am, Mr. Speaker, practising no deception upon myself, much less
upon the house, when I say, that if I had consulted my own feelings
and inclinations, I should not have troubled the house, exhausted as
it is, and as I am, with any further remarks upon this subject. I come
to the discharge of this task, not merely with reluctance, but with
disgust; jaded, worn down, abraded, I may say, as I am by long
attendance upon this body, and continued stretch of the attention
upon this subject. I come to it, however, at the suggestion, and in
pursuance of the wishes of those, whose wishes are to me, in all
matters touching my public duty, paramount law; I speak with those
reservations, of course, which every moral agent must be supposed to
make to himself.
It was not more to my surprise, than to my disappointment, that
on my return to the house, after a necessary absence of a few days,
on indispensable business, I found it engaged in discussing the
general principle of the bill, when its details were under
consideration. If I had expected such a turn in the debate, I would, at
any private sacrifice, however great, have remained a spectator and
auditor of that discussion. With the exception of the speech, already
published, of my worthy colleague on my right (Mr. P. P. Barbour), I
have been nearly deprived of the benefit of the discussion which has
taken place. Many weeks have been occupied with this bill (I hope
the house will pardon me for saying so) before I took the slightest
part in the deliberations of the details; and I now sincerely regret
that I had not firmness enough to adhere to the resolution which I
had laid down to myself, in the early stage of the debate, not to take
any part in the discussion of the details of the measure. But, as I
trust, what I now have to say upon this subject, although more and
better things have been said by others, may not be the same that they
have said, or may not be said in the same manner. I here borrow the
language of a man who has been heretofore conspicuous in the
councils of the country; of one who was unrivalled for readiness and
dexterity in debate; who was long without an equal on the floor of
this body; who contributed as much to the revolution of 1801, as any
man in this nation, and derived as little benefit from it; as, to use the
words of that celebrated man, what I have to say is not that which
has been said by others, and will not be said in their manner, the
house will, I trust, have patience with me during the time that my
strength will allow me to occupy their attention. And I beg them to
understand, that the notes which I hold in my hand are not the notes
on which I mean to speak, but of what others have spoken, and from
which I will make the smallest selection in my power.
Sir, when are we to have enough of this tariff question? In 1816 it

was supposed to be settled. Only three years thereafter, another
proposition for increasing it was sent from this house to the senate,
baited with a tax of four cents per pound on brown sugar. It was
fortunately rejected in that body. In what manner this bill is baited, it
does not become me to say; but I have too distinct a recollection of
the vote in committee of the whole, on the duty upon molasses, and
afterwards of the vote in the house on the same question; of the votes
of more than one of the states on that question, not to mark it well. I
do not say that the change of the vote on that question was affected
by any man’s voting against his own motion; but I do not hesitate to
say that it was effected by one man’s electioneering against his own
motion. I am very glad, Mr. Speaker, that old Massachusetts Bay,
and the province of Maine and Sagadahock, by whom we stood in the
days of the revolution, now stand by the south, and will not aid in
fixing on us this system of taxation, compared with which the
taxation of Mr. Grenville and Lord North was as nothing. I speak
with knowledge of what I say, when I declare, that this bill is an
attempt to reduce the country, south of Mason and Dixon’s line and
east of the Alleghany mountains, to a state of worse than colonial
bondage; a state to which the domination of Great Britain was, in my
judgment, far preferable; and I trust I shall always have the fearless
integrity to utter any political sentiment which the head sanctions
and the heart ratifies; for the British parliament never would have
dared to lay such duties on our imports, or their exports to us, either
“at home” or here, as is now proposed to be laid upon the imports
from abroad. At that time we had the command of the market of the
vast dominions then subject, and we should have had those which
have since been subjected, to the British empire; we enjoyed a free
trade eminently superior to any thing that we can enjoy, if this bill
shall go into operation. It is a sacrifice of the interests of a part of this
nation to the ideal benefit of the rest. It marks us out as the victims
of a worse than Egyptian bondage. It is a barter of so much of our
rights, of so much of the fruits of our labor, for political power to be
transferred to other hands. It ought to be met, and I trust it will be
met, in the southern country, as was the stamp act, and by all those
measures, which I will not detain the house by recapitulating, which
succeeded the stamp act, and produced the final breach with the
mother country, which it took about ten years to bring about, as I
trust, in my conscience, it will not take as long to bring about similar
results from this measure, should it become a law.
Sir, events now passing elsewhere, which plant a thorn in my
pillow and a dagger in my heart, admonish me of the difficulty of
governing with sobriety any people who are over head and ears in
debt. That state of things begets a temper which sets at nought every
thing like reason and common sense. This country is unquestionably
laboring under great distress; but we cannot legislate it out of that
distress. We may, by your legislation, reduce all the country south
and east of Mason and Dixon’s line, the whites as well as the blacks,
to the condition of Helots: you can do no more. We have had placed
before us, in the course of this discussion, foreign examples and
authorities; and among other things, we have been told, as an
argument in favor of this measure, of the prosperity of Great Britain.
Have gentlemen taken into consideration the peculiar advantages of
Great Britain? Have they taken into consideration that, not excepting
Mexico, and that fine country which lies between the Orinoco and
Caribbean sea, England is decidedly superior, in point of physical
advantages, to every country under the sun? This is unquestionably
true. I will enumerate some of those advantages. First, there is her
climate. In England, such is the temperature of the air, that a man
can there do more days’ work in the year, and more hours’ work in
the day, than in any other climate in the world; of course I include
Scotland and Ireland in this description. It is in such a climate only,
that the human animal can bear without extirpation the corrupted
air, the noisome exhalations, the incessant labor of these accursed
manufactories. Yes, sir, accursed; for I say it is an accursed thing,
which I will neither taste, nor touch, nor handle. If we were to act
here on the English system, we should have the yellow fever at
Philadelphia and New York, not in August merely, but from June to
January, and from January to June. The climate of this country
alone, were there no other natural obstacle to it, says aloud, You shall
not manufacture! Even our tobacco factories, admitted to be the
most wholesome of any sort of factories, are known to be, where
extensive, the very nidus (if I may use the expression) of yellow fever
and other fevers of similar type. In another of the advantages of
Great Britain, so important to her prosperity, we are almost on a par
with her, if we know how properly to use it. Fortunatos nimium sua
si bona norint—for, as regards defence, we are, to all intents and
purposes, almost as much an island as England herself. But one of
her insular advantages we can never acquire. Every part of that
country is accessible from the sea. There, as you recede from the sea,
you do not get further from the sea. I know that a great deal will be
said of our majestic rivers, about the father of floods, and his
tributary streams; but, with the Ohio, frozen up all the winter and
dry all the summer, with a long tortuous, difficult, and dangerous
navigation thence to the ocean, the gentlemen of the west may rest
assured that they will never derive one particle of advantage from
even a total prohibition of foreign manufactures. You may succeed in
reducing us to your own level of misery; but if we were to agree to
become your slaves, you never can derive one farthing of advantage
from this bill. What parts of this country can derive any advantage
from it? Those parts only, where there is a water power in immediate
contact with navigation, such as the vicinities of Boston, Providence,
Baltimore, and Richmond. Petersburg is the last of these as you
travel south. You take a bag of cotton up the river to Pittsburg, or to
Zanesville, to have it manufactured and sent down to New Orleans
for a market, and before your bag of cotton has got to the place of
manufacture, the manufacturer of Providence has received his
returns for the goods made from his bag of cotton purchased at the
same time that you purchased yours. No, sir, gentlemen may as well
insist that because the Chesapeake bay, mare nostrum, our
Mediterranean sea, gives us every advantage of navigation, we shall
exclude from it every thing but steam-boats and those boats called
κατ’ ἐξοχὴν, per emphasin, par excellence, Kentucky boats—a sort
of huge square, clumsy, wooden box. And why not insist upon it?
Hav’n’t you “the power to REGULATE COMMERCE”? Would not that too
be a “REGULATION OF COMMERCE?” It would, indeed, and a pretty
regulation it is; and so is this bill. And, sir, I marvel that the
representation from the great commercial state of New York should
be in favor of this bill. If operative—and if inoperative why talk of it?
—if operative, it must, like the embargo of 1807–1809, transfer no
small portion of the wealth of the London of America, as New York
has been called, to Quebec and Montreal. She will receive the most of
her imports from abroad, down the river. I do not know any bill that
could be better calculated for Vermont than this bill; because,
through Vermont, from Quebec, Montreal, and other positions on
the St. Lawrence, we are, if it passes, unquestionably to receive our
supplies of foreign goods. It will, no doubt, suit the Niagara frontier.
But, sir, I must not suffer myself to be led too far astray from the
topic of the peculiar advantages of England as a manufacturing
country. Her vast beds of coal are inexhaustible; there are daily
discoveries of quantities of it, greater than ages past have yet
consumed; to which beds of coal her manufacturing establishments
have been transferred, as any man may see who will compare the
present population of her towns with what it was formerly. It is to
these beds of coal that Birmingham, Manchester, Wolverhampton,
Sheffield, Leeds, and other manufacturing towns, owe their growth.
If you could destroy her coal in one day, you would cut at once the
sinews of her power. Then, there are her metals, and particularly tin,
of which she has the exclusive monopoly. Tin, I know, is to be found
in Japan, and perhaps elsewhere; but, in practice, England has now
the monopoly of that article. I might go further, and I might say, that
England possesses an advantage, quoad hoc, in her institutions; for
there men are compelled to pay their debts. But here, men are not
only not compelled to pay their debts, but they are protected in the
refusal to pay them, in the scandalous evasion of their legal
obligations; and, after being convicted of embezzling the public
money, and the money of others, of which they were appointed
guardians and trustees, they have the impudence to obtrude their
unblushing fronts into society, and elbow honest men out of their
way. There, though all men are on a footing of equality on the high
way, and in the courts of law, at will and at market, yet the castes in
Hindoostan are not more distinctly separated, one from the other,
than the different classes of society are in England. It is true that it is
practicable for a wealthy merchant or manufacturer, or his
descendants, after having, through two or three generations, washed
out, what is considered the stain of their original occupation, to
emerge, by slow degrees, into the higher ranks of society; but this
rarely happens. Can you find men of vast fortune, in this country,
content to move in the lower circles—content as the ox under the
daily drudgery of the yoke? It is true that, in England, some of these
wealthy people take it into their heads to buy seats in parliament.
But, when they get there, unless they possess great talents, they are
mere nonentities; their existence is only to be found in the red book
which contains a list of the members of parliament. Now, sir, I wish
to know if, in the western country, where any man may get beastly
drunk for three pence sterling—in England, you cannot get a small
wine-glass of spirits under twenty-five cents; one such drink of grog
as I have seen swallowed in this country, would there cost a dollar—
in the western country, where every man can get as much meat and
bread as he can consume, and yet spend the best part of his days, and
nights too, perhaps, on the tavern benches, or loitering at the cross
roads asking the news, can you expect the people of such a country,
with countless millions of wild land and wild animals besides, can be
cooped up in manufacturing establishments, and made to work
sixteen hours a day, under the superintendence of a driver, yes, a
driver, compared with whom a southern overseer is a gentleman and
man of refinement; for, if they do not work, these work people in the
manufactories, they cannot eat; and, among all the punishments that
can be devised (put death even among the number), I defy you to get
as much work out of a man by any of them, as when he knows that he
must work before he can eat.
In the course of this discussion, I have heard, I will not say with
surprise, because nil admirari is my motto—no doctrine that can be
broached on this floor, can ever, hereafter, excite surprise in my
mind—I have heard the names of Say, Ganilh, Adam Smith, and
Ricardo, pronounced not only in terms, but in a tone of sneering
contempt, visionary theorists, destitute of practical wisdom, and the
whole clan of Scotch and Quarterly Reviewers lugged in to boot. This,
sir, is a sweeping clause of proscription. With the names of Say,
Smith, and Ganilh, I profess to be acquainted, for I, too, am versed in
title-pages; but I did not expect to hear, in this house, a name, with
which I am a little further acquainted, treated with so little
ceremony; and by whom? I leave Adam Smith to the simplicity, the
majesty, and strength of his own native genius, which has canonized
his name—a name which will be pronounced with veneration, when
not one in this house will be remembered. But one word as to
Ricardo, the last mentioned of these writers—a new authority,
though the grave has already closed upon him, and set its seal upon
his reputation. I shall speak of him in the language of a man of as
great a genius as this, or perhaps any, age has ever produced; a man
remarkable for the depth of his reflections and the acumen of his
penetration. “I had been led,” says this man, “to look into loads of
books—my understanding had for too many years been intimate with
severe thinkers, with logic, and the great masters of knowledge, not
to be aware of the utter feebleness of the herd of modern economists.
I sometimes read chapters from more recent works, or part of
parliamentary debates. I saw that these [ominous words!] were
generally the very dregs and rinsings of the human intellect.” [I am
very glad, sir, he did not read our debates. What would he have said
of ours?] “At length a friend sent me Mr. Ricardo’s book, and,
recurring to my own prophetic anticipation of the advent of some
legislator on this science, I said, Thou art the man. Wonder and
curiosity had long been dead in me; yet I wondered once more. Had
this profound work been really written in England during the 19th
century? Could it be that an Englishman, and he not in academic
bowers, but oppressed by mercantile and senatorial cares, had
accomplished what all the universities and a century of thought had
failed to advance by one hair’s breadth? All other writers had been
crushed and overlaid by the enormous weight of facts and
documents: Mr. Ricardo had deduced, a priori, from the
understanding itself, laws which first gave a ray of light into the
unwieldy chaos of materials, and had constructed what had been but
a collection of tentative discussions, into a science of regular
proportions, now first standing on an eternal basis.”
I pronounce no opinion of my own on Ricardo; I recur rather to
the opinion of a man inferior, in point of original and native genius,
and that highly cultivated, too, to none of the moderns, and few of
the ancients. Upon this subject, what shall we say to the following
fact? Butler, who is known to gentlemen of the profession of the law,
as the annotator, with Hargrave, on lord Coke, speaking with Fox as
to political economy—that most extraordinary man, unrivalled for
his powers of debate, excelled by no man that ever lived, or probably
ever will live, as a public debater, and of the deepest political
erudition, fairly confessed that he had never read Adam Smith.
Butler said to Mr. Fox, “that he had never read Adam Smith’s work
on the Wealth of Nations.” “To tell you the truth,” replied Mr. Fox,
“nor I neither. There is something in all these subjects that passes my
comprehension—something so wide that I could never embrace them
myself, or find any one who did.” And yet we see how we, with our
little dividers, undertake to lay off the scale, and with our pack-
thread to take the soundings, and speak with a confidence peculiar to
quacks (in which the regular-bred professor never indulges) on this
abstruse and perplexing subject. Confidence is one thing, knowledge
another; of the want of which, overweening confidence is notoriously
the indication. What of that? Let Ganilh, Say, Ricardo, Smith, all
Greek and Roman fame be against us; we appeal to Dionysius in
support of our doctrines; and to him, not on the throne of Syracuse,
but at Corinth—not in absolute possession of the most wonderful and
enigmatical city, as difficult to comprehend as the abstrusest
problem of political economy which furnished not only the means
but the men for supporting the greatest wars—a kingdom within
itself, under whose ascendant the genius of Athens, in her most high
and palmy state, quailed, and stood rebuked. No; we follow the
pedagogue to the schools—dictating in the classic shades of
Longwood—(lucus a non lucendo)—to his disciples. * * *
But it is said, a measure of this sort is necessary to create
employment for the people. Why, sir, where are the handles of the
plough? Are they unfit for young gentlemen to touch? Or will they
rather choose to enter your military academies, where the sons of the
rich are educated at the expense of the poor, and where so many
political janissaries are every year turned out, always ready for war,
and to support the powers that be—equal to the strelitzes of Moscow
or St. Petersburg. I do not speak now of individuals, of course, but of
the tendency of the system—the hounds follow the huntsman
because he feeds them, and bears the whip. I speak of the system. I
concur most heartily, sir, in the censure which has been passed upon
the greediness of office, which stands a stigma on the present
generation. Men from whom we might expect, and from whom I did
expect, better things, crowd the ante-chamber of the palace, for every
vacant office; nay, even before men are dead, their shoes are wanted
for some barefooted office-seeker. How mistaken was the old
Roman, the old consul, who, whilst he held the plough by one hand,
and death held the other, exclaimed, “Diis immortalibus sero!”
Our fathers, how did they acquire their property? By
straightforward industry, rectitude, and frugality. How did they
become dispossessed of their property? By indulging in speculative
hopes and designs; seeking the shadow whilst they lost the
substance; and now, instead of being, as they were, men of
respectability, men of substance, men capable and willing to live
independently and honestly, and hospitably too—for who so
parsimonious as the prodigal who has nothing to give?—what have
we become? A nation of sharks, preying on one another through the
instrumentality of this paper system, which, if Lycurgus had known
of it, he would unquestionably have adopted, in preference to his
iron money, if his object had been to make the Spartans the most
accomplished knaves as well as to keep them poor.
The manufacturer of the east may carry his woolens or his cottons,
or his coffins, to what market he pleases—I do not buy of him. Self-
defence is the first law of nature. You drive us into it. You create
heats and animosities among this great family, who ought to live like
brothers; and, after you have got this temper of mind roused among
the southern people, do you expect to come among us to trade, and
expect us to buy your wares? Sir, not only shall we not buy them, but
we shall take such measures (I will not enter into the detail of them
now) as shall render it impossible for you to sell them. Whatever may
be said here of the “misguided counsels,” as they have been termed,
“of the theorists of Virginia,” they have, so far as regards this
question, the confidence of united Virginia. We are asked—Does the
south lose any thing by this bill—why do you cry out? I put it, sir, to
any man from any part of the country, from the gulf of Mexico, from
the Balize, to the eastern shore of Maryland—which, I thank Heaven,
is not yet under the government of Baltimore, and will not be, unless
certain theories should come into play in that state, which we have
lately heard of, and a majority of men, told by the head, should
govern—whether the whole country between the points I have
named, is not unanimous in opposition to this bill. Would it not be
unexampled, that we should thus complain, protest, resist, and that
all the while nothing should be the matter? Are our understandings
(however low mine may be rated, much sounder than mine are
engaged in this resistance), to be rated so low, as that we are to be
made to believe that we are children affrighted by a bugbear? We are
asked, however, why do you cry out? it is all for your good. Sir, this
reminds me of the mistresses of George II., who, when they were
insulted by the populace on arriving in London (as all such creatures
deserve to be, by every mob), put their heads out of the window, and
said to them in their broken English, “Goot people, we be come for
your goots;” to which one of the mob rejoined—“Yes, and for our
chattels too, I fancy.” Just so it is with the oppressive exactions
proposed and advocated by the supporters of this bill, on the plea of
the good of those who are its victims. * * *
I had more to say, Mr. Speaker, could I have said it, on this subject.
But I cannot sit down without asking those, who were once my
brethren of the church, the elders of the young family of this good old
republic of the thirteen states, if they can consent to rivet upon us
this system, from which no benefit can possibly result to themselves.
I put it to them as descendants of the renowned colony of Virginia; as
children sprung from her loins; if for the sake of all the benefits, with
which this bill is pretended to be freighted to them, granting such to
be the fact for argument’s sake, they could consent to do such an act
of violence to the unanimous opinion, feelings, prejudices, if you will,
of the whole Southern States, as to pass it? I go farther. I ask of them
what is there in the condition of the nation at this time, that calls for
the immediate adoption of this measure? Are the Gauls at the gate of
the capitol? If they are, the cacklings of the Capitoline geese will
hardly save it. What is there to induce us to plunge into the vortex of
those evils so severely felt in Europe from this very manufacturing
and paper policy? For it is evident that, if we go into this system of
policy, we must adopt the European institutions also. We have very
good materials to work with; we have only to make our elective king
president for life, in the first place, and then to make the succession
hereditary in the family of the first that shall happen to have a
promising son. For a king we can be at no loss—ex quovis ligno—any
block will do for him. The senate may, perhaps, be transmuted into a
house of peers, although we should meet with more difficulty than in
the other case; for Bonaparte himself was not more hardly put to it,
to recruit the ranks of his mushroom nobility, than we should be to
furnish a house of peers. As for us, we are the faithful commons,
ready made to hand; but with all our loyalty, I congratulate the house
—I congratulate the nation—that, although this body is daily
degraded by the sight of members of Congress manufactured into
placemen, we have not yet reached such a point of degradation as to
suffer executive minions to be manufactured into members of
congress. We have shut that door; I wish we could shut the other
also. I wish we could have a perpetual call of the house in this view,
and suffer no one to get out from its closed doors. The time is
peculiarly inauspicious for the change in our policy which is
proposed by this bill. We are on the eve of an election that promises
to be the most distracted that this nation has ever yet undergone. It
may turn out to be a Polish election. At such a time, ought any
measure to be brought forward which is supposed to be capable of
being demonstrated to be extremely injurious to one great portion of
this country, and beneficial in proportion to another? Sufficient for
the day is the evil thereof. There are firebrands enough in the land,
without this apple of discord being cast into this assembly. Suppose
this measure is not what it is represented to be; that the fears of the
south are altogether illusory and visionary; that it will produce all the
good predicted of it—an honorable gentleman from Kentucky said
yesterday—and I was sorry to hear it, for I have great respect for that
gentleman, and for other gentlemen from that state—that the
question was not whether a bare majority should pass the bill, but
whether the majority or the minority should rule. The gentleman is
wrong, and, if he will consider the matter rightly, he will see it. Is
there no difference between the patient and the actor? We are
passive: we do not call them to act or to suffer, but we call upon them
not so to act as that we must necessarily suffer; and I venture to say,
that in any government, properly constituted, this very consideration
would operate conclusively, that if the burden is to be laid on 102, it
ought not to be laid by 105. We are the eel that is being flayed, while
the cook-maid pats us on the head, and cries, with the clown in King
Lear, “Down, wantons, down.” There is but one portion of the
country which can profit by this bill, and from that portion of the
country comes this bare majority in favor of it. I bless God that
Massachusetts and old Virginia are once again rallying under the
same banner, against oppressive and unconstitutional taxation; for,
if all the blood be drawn from out the body, I care not whether it be
by the British parliament or the American congress; by an emperor
or a king abroad, or by a president at home.
Under these views, and with feelings of mortification and shame at
the very weak opposition I have been able to make to this bill, I
entreat gentlemen to consent that it may lie over, at least, until the
next session of congress. We have other business to attend to, and
our families and affairs need our attention at home; and indeed I, sir,
would not give one farthing for any man who prefers being here to
being at home; who is a good public man and a bad private one. With
these views and feelings, I move you, sir, that the bill be indefinitely
postponed.
Edward Everett.
The example of the Northern to the Southern Republics of America.

The great triumphs of constitutional freedom, to which our
independence has furnished the example, have been witnessed in the
southern portion of our hemisphere. Sunk to the last point of
colonial degradation, they have risen at once into the organization of
three republics. Their struggle has been arduous; and eighteen years
of checkered fortune have not yet brought it to a close. But we must
not infer, from their prolonged agitation, that their independence is
uncertain; that they have prematurely put on the toga virilis of
freedom. They have not begun too soon; they have more to do. Our
war of independence was shorter;—happily we were contending with
a government, that could not, like that of Spain, pursue an
interminable and hopeless contest, in defiance of the people’s will.
Our transition to a mature and well adjusted constitution was more
prompt than that of our sister republics; for the foundations had long
been settled, the preparation long made. And when we consider that
it is our example, which has aroused the spirit of independence from
California to Cape Horn; that the experiment of liberty, if it had
failed with us, most surely would not have been attempted by them;
that even now our counsels and acts will operate as powerful
precedents in this great family of republics, we learn the importance
of the post which Providence has assigned us in the world. A wise
and harmonious administration of the public affairs,—a faithful,
liberal, and patriotic exercise of the private duties of the citizen,—
while they secure our happiness at home, will diffuse a healthful
influence through the channels of national communication, and
serve the cause of liberty beyond the Equator and the Andes. When
we show a united, conciliatory, and imposing front to their rising
states we show them, better than sounding eulogies can do, the true
aspect of an independent republic; we give them a living example
that the fireside policy of a people is like that of the individual man.
As the one, commencing in the prudence, order, and industry of the
private circle, extends itself to all the duties of social life, of the
family, the neighborhood, the country; so the true domestic policy of
the republic, beginning in the wise organization of its own
institutions, pervades its territories with a vigilant, prudent,
temperate administration; and extends the hand of cordial interest to
all the friendly nations, especially to those which are of the
household of liberty.
It is in this way that we are to fulfil our destiny in the world. The
greatest engine of moral power, which human nature knows, is an
organized, prosperous state. All that man, in his individual capacity,
can do—all that he can effect by his fraternities—by his ingenious
discoveries and wonders of art,—or by his influence over others—is
as nothing, compared with the collective, perpetuated influence on
human affairs and human happiness of a well constituted, powerful
commonwealth. It blesses generations with its sweet influence;—
even the barren earth seems to pour out its fruits under a system
where property is secure, while her fairest gardens are blighted by
despotism;—men, thinking, reasoning men, abound beneath its
benignant sway;—nature enters into a beautiful accord, a better,
purer asiento with man, and guides an industrious citizen to every
rood of her smiling wastes;—and we see, at length, that what has
been called a state of nature, has been most falsely, calumniously so
denominated; that the nature of man is neither that of a savage, a
hermit, nor a slave; but that of a member of a well-ordered family,
that of a good neighbor, a free citizen, a well informed, good man,
acting with others like him. This is the lesson which is taught in the
charter of our independence; this is the lesson which our example is
to teach the world.
The epic poet of Rome—the faithful subject of an absolute prince—
in unfolding the duties and destinies of his countrymen, bids them
look down with disdain on the polished and intellectual arts of
Greece, and deem their arts to be
To rule the nations with imperial sway;
To spare the tribes that yield; fight down the proud;
And force the mood of peace upon the world.

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for Psychology 7th

Statistics without Maths for Psychology

Christine P. Dancey is Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the University of East London.

Front cover image © Miyoung Han / EyeEm / Getty Images

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1 Variables and research design 1

Answers to activities and SPSS exercises 551

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1 Variables and research design 1

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3.3 Sampling error 50

4 Probability, sampling and distributions 97

5 Hypothesis testing and statistical significance 134

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5.8 Type I error 148

6 Correlational analysis: Pearson’s r 174

7 Analyses of differences between two

8 Issues of significance 246

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8.5 Calculating power 256

9 Measures of association 265

10 Analysis of differences between three

11 Analysis of variance with more than one IV 328

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11.4 ANOVA terminology 332

12 Regression analysis 377

13 Analysis of three or more groups partialling

14 Introduction to factor analysis 446

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14.6 Naming the factors 452

15 Introduction to multivariate analysis of

16 Non-parametric statistics 516

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16.3 Alternatives to ANOVA 535

Answers to activities and SPSS exercises 551

Companion Website ON THE

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How to use this book

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284 Statistics without maths for psychology

N of Valid Cases 100

The textual part of your report might read as follows:

Activity boxes provide you with opportunities to

56 Statistics without maths for psychology

SPSS sections guide you through how to use the

3.4.1 Frequency histogram

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CHAPTER 3 Descriptive statistics 93

5. The standard deviation is equal to:

(a) The variance

7. The mode is:

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Chapter summaries enable you to revise the main points

happiness Optimism happiness Optimism

5.00 8.00 8.00 5.00

in Table 15.1 are presented in Figure 15.1.

opportunity to test yourself using real data.

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