HOMEWORK 1. FIBERS AND REINFORCEMENTS.
Abdiel Edilberto Peña Barrios 1957477
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica, Ingeniería en Aeronáutica,
Materiales Compuestos I y laboratorio, 002, Ing. Israel de Santiago Talavera, 03/03/2024.
RESUME
In this document a summary about the fibers
and reinforcements used in composite materials is
presented.
OBJECTIVE
Discover the importance of knowing the
properties of reinforcements, so does to recognize the
advantages and disadvantages of the different
reinforcements available.
INTRODUCTION
Is well known the definition of a composite
material, which can be defined as a combination of
two or more materials that results in better properties
than those of the individual components used alone.
The reinforcing phase provides strength and stiffness.
In most cases, the reinforcement is harder, stronger,
and stiffer than the matrix. The reinforcement is
usually fiber or particulate. Particulate composites
have dimensions that are approximately equal in all
directions.
TYPES OF REINFORCEMENTS
The type and quantity of the reinforcement determine
the final properties. There is a practical limit of about
70 volume percent reinforcement that can be added
to form a composite. At higher percentages, there is
too little matrix to support the fibers effectively.
In summary, reinforcements can be continuous and
discontinuous. A fiber has a length that is much
greater than its diameter. The length-to-diameter (l/d)
ratio is known as the aspect ratio and can vary greatly.
Continuous fibers have long aspect ratios, while
discontinuous fibers have short aspect ratios.
Continuous-fiber composites normally have a
preferred orientation, while discontinuous fibers
generally have a random orientation. Examples of
continuous reinforcements include unidirectional,
woven cloth, and helical winding, while examples of
discontinuous reinforcements are chopped fibers and
random mat.
Fig. 1 Typical reinforcement types.
Discontinuous-fiber composites are normally
somewhat random in alignment, which dramatically
reduces their strength and modulus. However,
discontinuous-fiber composites are generally much
less costly than continuous-fiber composites.
Therefore, continuous-fiber composites are used
where higher strength and stiffness are required (but
at a higher cost), and discontinuous-fiber composites
are used where cost is the main driver and strength,
and stiffness is less important.
STRENGTH OF FIBERS.
Fibers generally exhibit much higher strengths than
the bulk form of the same material. The probability
of a flaw per unit length present in a sample is an
inverse function of the volume of the material.
On the other hand, because a bulk material has a
much higher content of weakening flaws, it exhibits
much lower variability in strength. Thus, the smaller
the fiber diameter and the shorter its length, the
higher the average and maximum strength but the
greater the variability.
GLASS FIBERS
Due to their low cost, high tensile strength, high
impact resistance, and good chemical resistance,
glass fibers are used extensively in commercial
composite applications. However, their properties do
not match those of carbon fibers in high-performance
composite applications. Compared to carbon fibers,
they have a relatively low modulus and inferior
fatigue properties. Although there are many types of
glass fibers, the three most used in composites are E-
glass, S-2 glass, and quartz. E-glass is the most
common and least expensive, providing a good
combination of tensile strength 500 ksi (3.5 GPa) and
modulus 10.0 msi (70 GPa). S-glass, which has a
tensile strength of 650 ksi (4.5 GPa) and a modulus
of 12.6 msi (87 GPa), is more expensive, but is 40
percent stronger than E-glass and retains a greater
percentage of its strength at elevated temperatures.
ARAMID FIBERS
Aramid fibers are organic fibers with stiffness and
strength intermediate between those of glass and
carbon. Dupont’s Kevlar fiber is the most prevalent.
These aromatic polyamides are part of the nylon
family. Aramid fibers are based on the amide linkage
formed by the reaction between carboxylic acid and
the amine group.
Fig. 2 Chemical structure of para-aramid.
Due to their extreme toughness, aramid fibers are
often used for ballistic protection. A major
advantage of aramid fibers is their ability to
absorb large amounts of energy during fracturing,
which results from their high strain-to-failure
values, their ability to undergo plastic
deformation in compression, and their ability to
defibrillate during tensile fracture. The Kevlar
fibrillar structure and compressive behavior
contribute to composites that are less notch
sensitive and that fail in a ductile, nonbrittle, or
non-catastrophic manner, as opposed to glass
and carbon.
CARBON AND GRAPHITE FIBERS
Carbon and graphite fibers are the most prevalent
fiber forms used in high-performance composite
structures. They can be produced with a wide
range of properties. They generally exhibit
superior tensile and compressive strength, have
high moduli, have excellent fatigue properties,
and do not corrode. Although the terms are often
used interchangeably, graphite fibers are
subjected to heat treatments above 3000 ºF
(1650 °C), have three-dimensional ordering of
their atoms, have carbon contents greater than
99 percent, and have elastic moduli (E) greater
than 50 msi (345 GPa). Carbon fibers have lower
carbon contents (93 to 95 percent) and are heat
treated at lower temperatures.
Carbon and graphite fibers can be made from rayon,
polyacrylonitrile (PAN), and petroleum-based pitch
precursors. Although PAN fibers are more expensive
than rayon fibers, PAN is used extensively for
structural carbon fibers because the carbon yield is
almost double that of rayon fibers. The pitch process
produces fibers that have lower strength than those
produced from PAN, but it can produce high-
modulus fibers 50 to 145 msi (345 to 1000 GPa).
Fig. 3 Structure of graphite crystals.
WOVEN FABRICS
Two dimensional woven products are usually
offered as a 0º, 90º construction. However, bias
weaves (45º, 45º) can be made by twisting the
basic 0º, 90º construction. Weaves are made on
a loom by interlacing two orthogonal (mutually
perpendicular) sets of yarns (warp and fill). The
warp direction is parallel to the length of the roll,
while the fill, weft, or woof direction is
perpendicular to the length of the roll. Textile
looms produce woven cloth by separation of the
warp yarns and insertion of the fill yarns. Most
weaves contain similar numbers of fibers and use
the same material in both the warp and fill
directions.
 Fig. 4 Weaving glass cloth on a textile loom

CONCLUSIONS
To correct design in a composite material it is
important to have a previous knowledge about the
reinforcements, so do matrixes, but in this case the
content was reinforcements only. Depending on the
mission of the material to manufacture, will be the
type of reinforcement. There are many factors to
consider, especially when the material is toughened
to be essential in a critical part or piece. This is the
reason for there being many types of reinforcements,
it reaches into the necessity of the process.
REFERENCES
[1] F.C. Campbell, “Structural composite materials”,
retrieved 03/03/24