A study on 3D Carbon Braided Composite

Abstract

In the present work, influence of braid type, braid angle and resin treatment on carbon
braided composites have been studied. Two types of 3D biaxial and tri-axial braids were
produced with three different braid angles (70 o/68o, 56o/62o, 53o/53o) respectively. Both types
of braids biaxial and tri-axial were treated with epoxy resin by using a different approach of
dosing pump to prepare their composites.

The results as obtained for both types of carbon braids and their composites with different
braid angles during study a considerable difference is found in their tensile and bending
behaviour. All type of tri-axial carbon braids and their composite rods show higher tensile
strength and bending stiffness than their biaxial counterparts. It is noticed that the treatment
of epoxy resin highly influence the performance characteristics of carbon braids, after resin
treatment the breaking strength is increased with 150 to 180% in both type of braids.
However, with increase in braid angle results in reduction of tensile strength and bending
rigidity in both types of 3D braids and carbon composite rods due to obliquity effect.
 Chapter – 1

Introduction
 Introduction
Today the textile is being used not only for covering purposes but it is playing an extremely
roles in every field by performing some extra ordinary jobs. Demands of textile vary from
year to year with the changing technology; the consumer’s first choice influences the demand
for different types of fibres and material. Therefore, the focus of fibre researchers has been
shifted towards the discovery of the new fibres and their combinations with different
materials and fibres.

Thus the high performance fibres such as carbon, aramid (Nomax, Kevlar etc.), Ultra high
molecular weight polyethylene (Spectra, Dyneema) highly ordered polymer PBO, basalt and
glass fibres have been introduced commercially. Among of these the discovery of carbon
fibres has been a great achievement in the development of high performance fibres. Thomas
Edison's first introduced the carbon fibre as lamp filament in later 1800. The term carbon
fibre refers to material consisting of at least 92% (mass fraction) of carbon or in other words
composed mainly of carbon atoms. It possesses very high breaking length, having tensile
strength 5 times more than steel, good thermal resistance, chemical and biological inertness,
high tensile modulus, good electrical conductivity.

These textile fibres are used to obtain desirable properties, and the reinforcement of these
fibres with the resin, well known as the composite material. The composites are engineered
materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different
mechanical and chemical properties and which remain separate and distinct within the
finished structure. Composite manufacturing helps to convert textile material into a specialty
material used for various engineering applications. Graphite, aramid and glass fibres have a
great modulus. The composites made from these materials have an ability to replace strong
steel, light aluminium with better performance, corrosion resistance, better strength-to-weight
ratio, good fatigue and toughness, light weight and flexible design.

The composites made from carbon fibre have the more number of applications due to its very
impressive mechanical and chemical properties, tensile strength, light weight, chemical
inertness and thermal resistance. Carbon composites are of two types – thermo-set or thermo-
plastic. In thermo-set epoxy resin is used and in thermo-plastic Polyester or poly propylene is
used, better result is achieved with epoxy resin. These are manufactured by many processes
like woven, knitted, nonwoven, braided 2D & 3D. Braided composites have superior
toughness and fatigue strength in comparison to filament wound composites. Woven fabrics
have orthogonal interlacement while the braids can be constructed over a wide range of
angles, from 10 to 85 0. [1]. Braided composites are also known to greatly improve inter
laminar shear properties and depict no delaminating as observed when braided composites are
subjected to fatigue loadings [1]. The braid has a natural mechanism that evenly distributes
load throughout the structure. This efficient distribution of load also makes braid structure
very impact resistant [2].

Braiding is an ancient technique to produce textile structures by the intertwining of three or

more strands at a defined angle, each strand passes over and under another set of strand in
such a manner that no adjacent strands are twisted around one another or a simple textile
performing technique that offers increased transverse module, transverse strength, damage
tolerance, dimensional stability and near net shape manufacturing capabilities [3]. The fibre
orientation with respect to the mandrel axis is known as braid angle. The structural properties
of braided composites tube depend on fibre orientation. In previous studies it has been
observed that braid angle highly influence the performance of braid, as the braid angle
increases the tensile strength, modulus, and Poisson’s ratio decreases significantly. The braid
angle varies from100 to 850 and depends upon the take up speed; the angle can be
manipulated by changing the rotational speed or linear take up speed for a given diameter of
the mandrel.

First the reinforce structure is made according to its end use by braiding technique then for
better result it is treated with epoxy resin. The 3D carbon braided composite has been widely
used in aeronautics and astronautics, civil engineering and dynamic protection area due to its
excellent mechanical properties. Hence numerous studies have been carried out on the
performance of the braided composites. The most important factors that determines the
performing quality of braided composite is the angle of braid, Type of braiding and its
structure. Sun et al. [4, 5] studied the compressive and uniaxial tensile behaviour of 4-step 3D
braided composite at high strain rates and obtained the rate dependent properties. Among
various braiding techniques the May Pole braiding machine is very popular for producing
braiding tubes. . A 3D circular biaxial-braided structure can be formed by the May Pole
technique, which consists of two sets of yarn, warp (axial) and braid. Triaxial-braided fabric
has basically three sets of yarns: warp (axial) and 2 braids.

Although considerable research work has been carried out for the various applications of
braided composites but few literatures available on 3D carbon braided tubes with different
parameters like braid architecture, resin molding. Therefore, in present study, an attempt has
been made to compare the 3D biaxial and triaxial carbon braided tubes with varying braid
angles and diameter and analyzed without resin and composite with epoxy resin.
Objective of the study is as follows:
1. To study the effect of braid type and braid angle on the tensile and bending
behaviour of 3D carbon braids and their composites.
2. To study the effect of resin treatment on the performance of both type biaxial
&triaxial3D carbon braids, using a different approach of dosing pump principle for
the resin transfer to the 3D carbon braid rods.

Chapter - 2
Review of Literature

Review of literature
2.1 Carbon Fibre
The term carbon fibre refers to the materials (filaments, yarns, roving) which consists of at least
92% (mass fraction) carbon, usually in the nongraphitic state (mainly composed of carbon
atoms). Carbon fibre is composed mainly of carbon atoms. The development of carbon fibres has
been a distinct achievement in the progress of high performance fibres. Thomas Edison first
introduces the carbon fibre as the filament of the lamp in 1877, Union Care Today. Bide
Corporation (UCC) of the United States started the commercial production of carbon fibres from
a Viscose Rayon precursor, composites, which initiated the history of modern carbon fiber
industry. in 1962, Japan‘s Nippon Carbon started the world's first commercial production of
polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon fibres on the basis of Shindo‘s basic patent”. This was
followed by an active development and commercialization of high-strength PAN-based carbon
fibres mainly in Britain, the United States and Japan, which has brought about today's state of the
industry. On the basis of Ohtani’s research”, Kureha Japan based chemical industry undertake the
commercial production of carbon fibres using the isotropic pitch precursor as raw material in
1969. Vapour-grown fibres are entering commercial production, and carbon nanotubes are full of
promise for the future.

2.1.1 Raw material

The raw material of carbon is known as precursor. On the basis of precursor the carbon fibre is
produced by following methods –
1. Viscose Rayon - based carbon fibres
2. Pitch – based carbon fibres (coal tar and petroleum products)
3. PAN (polyacrylonitrile) - based carbon fibres.
4. Gas - phase - grown carbon fibres

A good precursor should have following characteristics.

 Sufficient strength and handling properties so that it can hold together fibres during
 Carbon fiber production process.
 Should not melt during production process.
 Should not be completely volatile, as it will drastically reduce yield of carbon fiber.
 Carbon atoms should self‐align in graphite structure during pyrolysis, as this will
 Enhance fibre’s mechanical properties.
 Inexpensive
The fig no. 2.1 shows the process flow of the production of the both PAN and Pitch-based carbon
fibre.

Fig. 2.1 -The processing sequence for polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and mesophase-pitch-based
precursor fibres.

2.1.2 PAN-based Carbon Fibres

The majority of all carbon fibres used today are made from PAN precursor, which is a form of
acrylic fiber. Precursor manufacture is accomplished by spinning the PAN polymer into
filaments using variants of standard textile fiber manufacturing processes.
The typical manufacturing steps involved in the production of carbon fibres from PAN-based
precursors are listed below:
Precursor- Polymerization of PAN-based precursors and spinning of fiber The PAN polymer
precursor has been widely used as the basic backbone of chemical structure for spinning
precursor fibres, Most carbon companies manufacture their own precursors by using their in-
house technologies. Consequently, the composition of the PAN polymer precursor is not well
known because it can control the properties of the final products. Generally, the PAN polymer
precursors contain polar nitrile groups and have a high melting point, resulting from strong
intermolecular interactions. Therefore, the PAN polymer precursors tend to degrade before the
temperature reaches their melting point. The spinning of PAN fibres in the carbon fiber industry
is performed using traditional manufacturing techniques of acrylic textile fibres. Wet spinning is
used in most of the commercial manufacturing processes of carbon fibres produced from PAN-
based polymer precursors. However, it is gradually being replaced by dry jet wet (air gap)
spinning [6]. The melt spinning of PAN-based polymer precursors has been previously practiced;
however, it has yet to become an acceptable manufacturing process of carbon fibres,
commercially [7- 9].
Thermal stabilization (Oxidation) - This process is critical to obtaining high-quality carbon
fibres and could take up to several hours, depending on the temperature, precursor diameter, and
precursor fiber characteristics [10, 11]. Proper conditions such as heating rate, time, and
temperature of heating should be established for the optimum stabilization of each precursor. The
PAN-based polymer precursor is stabilized by controlled low-temperature heating over the range
200–300 °C in air to convert the precursor to a form, which could be further heat-treated without
either the melting or fusion of the fibres[12]

Carbonization and graphitization - The carbonization and graphitization of thermally

stabilized fibres are carried out in an inert atmosphere containing gases such as nitrogen (N2) or
Ar[13]. Generally, N2 is the preferred gas, but Ar is used despite being eight times more
expensive. This is because Ar provides improved strength to the carbon fiber owing to the higher
density and viscosity of argon. The temperature of carbonization is usually determined by the
type of application of the resulting carbon fibres. For high-strength applications, the
carbonization temperature over the range 1,500–1,600 °C is preferred because at temperatures
above 1,600 °C, a decrease in the tensile strength occurs. On the other hand, an additional heat
treatment above 1,600–1,800 °C and up to 3,000 °C, i.e., graphitization process, is required to
obtain a high modulus in the carbon fibres[14, 15] Nitrogen cannot be used at temperatures above
approximately 2,000 °C owing to its reaction with carbon to form cyanogens. The heating rate
and retention time during carbonization are different depending on the type of the precursor and
stabilization conditions. Figure 2.5shows the typical tensile strength (GPa) of the PAN-based
carbon fibres depending on maximum carbonization temperature. As mentioned above, the
carbonization and graphitization of the thermally stabilized fibres is a two-step process, i.e., low-
temperature carbonization and high-temperature graphitization, depending on the requisite
properties of the carbon fibres. For high-strength applications, the carbonization temperature over
the range 1,500–1,600 °C is preferred because at temperatures above 1,600 °C, a decrease in the
tensile strength occurs. On the other hand, an additional heat treatment above 1,600–1,800 °C
and up to 3,000 °C, i.e., graphitization process, is required to obtain a high modulus in the carbon
fibres[14, 15] Nitrogen cannot be used at temperatures above approximately 2,000 °C owing to
its reaction with carbon to form cyanogen. The heating rate and retention time during
carbonization are different depending on the type of the precursor and stabilization conditions.
High-temperature graphitization, depending on the requisite properties of the carbon fibres.

2.1.3 Surface treatment

Toforms chemical bonds to the carbon surface, to give a bettercohesion to the resin system of the
composite. The surface treatment may be classified under two categories: Oxidative and Non-
oxidative. By these treatments the ILSS (interlaminar shear strength) of carbon fibre 10-15% and
60-100% respectively.
Fig.2.2 – PAN based carbon fibres are classified according to the tensile properties and the heat
treatment temperature asfollows.

Classification based on Properties

 Ultra high modulus, type UHM (modulus >450 Gpa)
 High modulus, type HM (modulus between 350450Gpa)
 Intermediate modulus, type IM (modulus between 200350Gpa)
 Low modulus and high tensile, type HT (modulus < 100 Gpa, tensile strength > 3.0 Gpa)
 Super high tensile, type SHT (tensile strength > 4.5 Gpa)

Classification based on Final Heat Treatment Temperature:

 Type I, high heat treatment carbon fibres (HTT), where final heat treatment temperature
is above 2000 ºC and can be associated with high modulus type fibre.
 Type II, intermediate heat treatment carbon fibres (IHT), where final heat treatment
temperature is around or above 1500 ºC and can be associated with high strength type
fibre.
 Type III, low heat treatment carbon fibres, where final heat treatment temperatures not
greater than 1000 ºC. These are low modulus and low strength materials
2.1.4 Structure and morphology of carbon fibres
The carbon fiber refers the term carbon. Diamond and graphite are the crystalline forms of
carbon. In graphite each carbon atom is linked with the layers being stacked with the typical van
der walls force distance between the layers [16].which allow the carbon layer sliding with respect
to each other.

Irregular stacking regular stacking

Fig. 2.3 – Crystalline forms of carbon

The diameter of carbon fibre is 5-10 µm, ten about ten times finer than human hair. The
layered structure of graphite of graphite has been considered [17] to be in the form of ribbon
or planner type carbon,having straight parts in length in the 60-600Ao. The dimension of
ribbon is depending on heat treatment conditions and the precursor and the width varies
between 50 and 1000Ao . the space between the ribbons creates needle-shaped pores or voids,
interlayer spacing of crystallites in carbon fibres have been found to be around 3.41A o to
3.47Ao (13,21).as compared to graphite having value of 3.35Ao. This arrangement of the layer
affects the transverse and shear properties ( ILSS-inter laminar shear strength ) of fiber.
 Fig. 2.4 - Distance between layers

The PAN-based high modulus carbon fibres have a thin skin of circumferential layer planes and
core with the layer planes along the fibre axis and randomly oriented to each other and described
as turbostratic (turbulent and stratified).
 In mesophase pitch-based fibres exhibits radially oriented layer structure in the core and
circumferential layers planes and described as the graphitic, having well oriented structure.
The greater degree of carbon layers alignment to the fiber axis makes the fiber strong. A
three-dimensional arrangement of the layer has been considered as shown in below fig. on the
basis of comprehensive high resolution electron microscopy [18], which included dark and
bright field analysis. The sheath core structure arrangement is affected by certain precursors
and processing conditions, while some other precursor and processing conditions could as
well result in an isotropic cross-section of the carbon fibres[19].

Fig. 2.5- Structure of carbon fiber [18].

2.1.5 Properties of carbon fibres:-

The pan based carbon fibre is produced in three grades, namely high strength, high modulus,
ultra high modulus. Some of their properties are summarized below in table no. 2.1, in which
these properties are compared with single crystal graphite for the reference.

TABLE – 2.1 COMPARATIVEPHYSICAL PROPERTIESOF PAN-BASEDCARBON FIBRES

 Fibre Type High High Ultra High Single Crystal
Properties Strength Modulus Modulus Graphite
Density (G/Cm3) 1.7 - 1.8 1.8 - 1.9 1.9 - 2.1 2.25
Filament Diameter (µm) 5–8 5–8 6–8 _
Tensile Modulus (Gpa) 220 – 250 340 – 380 520 – 550 1000
Tensile Elongation (%) 1.2 – 1.4 0.6 – 0.7 0.3 – 0.4 2.0
Tensile Strength (Gpa) 2.5 – 7.0 2.2 – 2.4 1.8 – 1.9 _
Carbon Component 92 – 94 >99 >99.9 100
Weight (%)
Electric Resistivity 15 – 18 9 – 10 6–7 0.40
(10-4Ω Cm)

The precursor of carbon fibre like PAN-based, pitch-based and Viscose Rayon based is also a
important factor, which affects the properties of the fibre. It is of interest to compare the
properties of PAN-based carbon fibres with those obtained from pitch and Viscose Rayon. The
table no.2.2 summarizes the properties that are currently available-

TABLE – 2.2COMPARATIVE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PRECURSOR BASED CARBON FIBRES

From
Parameter From Viscose Rayon From PAN
MesophasePitch

Density (G/Cm3) 1.66 1.9 – 2.2 1.81

Tensile Modulus (Gpa) 393 – 524 195 – 900 222 – 533

Tensile Elongation (%) 1.67 – 1.82 0.4 – 0.5 0.5 – 2.4
Tensile Strength (Gpa) 2.2 – 2.65 2.1 1.8 – 7.1
Electric Resistivity
10 1.8 10
(10-4 Ω Cm)

In above tables it is apparent that the density of the carbon is varies between 1.7 – 2.2g cm3 ,
depending on precursor, processing condition and heat treatment temperature. The achievement
of high modulus is at the cost of toughness and the modulus in the fibre axis is highly orientation-
dependent, in PAN-based it increase with increase in graphitization temperature and on other
hand the tensile elongation significantly. The mesophase pitch carbon fibre can be produced with
high modulus. The modulus perpendicular to the fibre axis is in the range of 12 – 20 GPa, as
opposed to the axial modulus 250 – 390 GPa [20]. The other properties such as temperature
resistance, chemical and biological inertness, good vibration damping ability and fatigue
resistance. Apart from this it has some shortcomings also - (1) they have a very low impact
strength, and (2) they are expensive.

2.1.6 Application

The high specific strength and stiffness of carbon fibres are the basic characteristics which
makes the carbon fibre is useful in almost all applications of these fibres. The other properties
such as temperature resistance, chemical and biological inertness, electrical conductivity, good
vibration damping ability, and fatigue resistance may be useful in specific applications. But apart
from this it has some shortcomings also - (1) they have very low impact strength, and (2) they are
expensive. The two main sector of carbon fibre applications are the – high technology sector,
which includes aerospace and nuclear engineering “The first indian self-made fighter jet TEJAS
is made with carbon fibre”. and other is general engineering, transportation and sports sector
which includes bearings, gears, cams, fan blades, automobile bodies and sports equipments [21].
The body of the sports car is made up of carbon fibre for achieving better efficiency and less fuel
consumption. In medical science also carbon fibre has some critical application like ligament and
hip joint replacement, heart valve and other surgical implants. Some of the following application
deserves mention:-
 Aviation
 Wind energy
 Reinforcement
 Sports
 Textile
 Protection.
2.2 Braiding Introduction

Braiding is an ancient technique to produce textile structures by the intertwining together of three
or more strands at a defined angle, each strand passes over and under another set of strand in
such a manner that no adjacent strands twisted around one another, as shown in Figure 2.6.
Plaiting of hairs, or maypole dancing, these were early historical examples of braid forming [22].
 Fig2.6 -Basic principle of braiding

Braiding is experiencing resurgence in interest because of its diverse applications. Braids are
used as laces, wicks, hoses, ropes, insulation covering, pressure vessels, marine, biomedical,
aerospace, automotive, sports, etc., because of manufacturing simplicity, low cost, structural
integrity, durability, design flexibility and precision. Braids can be made in thick hollow,
solid, irregular cross section, curves, integrated elements in a three dimensional form (see
Figure 2.7) with the variety of materials [23].

Fig 2.7 - Irregular three dimensional braided structures

Braiding in comparison with other textile forming technologies

The oldest fibre rope structure consists of strands laid together by twisting process, but strand
laid ropes are not torque free and tend to unwind when suspended vertically. Also because of
twisted structure, it tends to form loops when under no tension. These are undesirable
 consequences of its structure. Since, the braided ropes are torque balanced, they neither rotate nor
form loops. Figure 2.8 shows schematic of rope and braid [24].

Fig 2.8- Schematic of ropes: (a) laid, (b) braided

Table 2.3 shows textile forming technologies classified according to yarn insertion and their
basic formation techniques.

TABLE: 2.3CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FORMING TECHNOLOGIES

Braiding Weaving Knitting Filament winding

Bidirectional Unidirectional Bias unidirectional

Direction of Bias bidirectional
Horizontal
yarn insertion 0°<θ<90° (Clockwise Orthogonal (0/900) 0°<θ<90° winding of
Or
w
and anti clockwise) warp and weft Filaments
vertical (0°/90°)
Interlacing (by selective Inter-looping (by No interlacement
Basic Intertwining
insertion drawing loops of
formation (position Highest level of
of weft yarn yarns over
technique displacement)
into warp yarn previous loop)
filament continuity

The design and fabrication of preforms as reinforcement for advanced composites has received
considerable attention with the advancement of the textile forming technologies as shown in
Figure 2.9. Weaving provides cost effective production, a high degree of yarn packing and
enhanced impact resistance. Knitting provides a high production rate, high degree of formability
and enhanced in-plane shear resistance. The limitations of the weaving and knitting processes
include poor shear resistance, poor dimensional stability, limited strength in the primary loading
direction, and the inability to produce complex shapes. These shortcomings are largely overcome
with the adaptation of braiding process. Highly integrated structure of braid makes it possible to
cover component with sharp curvatures and non circular cross sections, varying along the length
of the component. Braided construction permits assembly in one simple operation causing
elimination of wrapping, trimming and finishing hence significantly reducing manufacturing
costs [25].

Braiding has been compared with the other preforms manufacturing technologies like filament
wound and tape laying and it has been found that braided preforms are better in terms of
versatility, structural integrity, high fibre volume fraction and impact resistance. The braided
structures resemble a hybrid of filament wound and woven material. Tubular braid features
seamless filament continuity similar to that of filament winding. The difference, however, is
interlaminar weakness due to lack of mechanical interlocking. Braided filaments are
mechanically interlocked with one another similar to that of woven fabrics, but because the
filaments are also continuous, braid has a natural mechanism that evenly distributes load
throughout the structure. This efficient distribution of load also makes braid structure very impact
resistant [26].

Fig 2.9- Textile forming technologies: (a) weaving, (b) knitting and (c) filament winding

Braiding process can be classified according to type of construction; structure, weave and type of
machine see Figure 2.10.

2.2.1 Classification of braids

Braids can be classified according to their construction

1. Two dimensional braid

2. Three dimensional braid
Classification of braiding
2.2.2 Fabrication of braided structures

Three dimensional braided structures are produced on either Maypole or Rotary braiding machine.

Maypole braiding machine:

A traditional Maypole braiding machine has very simple mechanism to control as shown in Figure
2.10. It has two sets of carrier rotating on a sinusoidal track, one set rotating in the clockwise
direction and other set rotating in counter clockwise direction [22].

Fig 2.10 - Movement of carriers in Maypole braiding machine

The carriers are propelled through two sinusoidal slots in the track plate with the aid of horn gears
(see Figure 2.11). As the braid is formed it is withdrawn by a take-up mechanism at a constant rate
to produce a uniform structure.

Fig. 2.11a - Horn gear and yarn carrier arrangement

Maypole machines can be divided in two groups as shown in Figure 2.11b on the basis of braid
formation (I) Vertical (II) Horizontal.

Fig.2.11bMaypole braiding machine (a) Vertical, (b) Horizontal [2]

Rotary braiding machine:

In Rotary braiding machine a complex mechanism of two counter rotating tables as shown in Figure
2.12 is used to intertwine instead of moving entire carrier around each other. This reduction of
overall movement allows for high output speeds relative to Maypole braiding machine. However,
rotary machines are somewhat limited because machines capable of handling many yarn packages
are very expensive to produce, and it is not possible to make flat braids [22, 23].
 Fig. 2.12- Rotary
braiding machine [1]

Biaxial braids:

A 2D braided fabric consists of two sets of yarns moving in sinusoidal path causing interlacement
diagonally (wide range of angle 10°-85°) [22, 23].

Triaxial braids:

In order to improve dimensional stability and mechanical properties of braid, additional axial yarns
are inserted parallel to the braid axis (see Figure 2.13). The braiding yarn directions are ±θ and axial
yarn direction is 0 with respect to the braid axis. Figure 1.11 shows braiding yarn carrier moving in
sinusoidal path and axial yarn in the center of horn gear [1,2].

Fig. 2.13- Schematic (a) biaxial braid, (b) triaxial braid

 Fig. 2.14- Triaxial braiding

Two dimensional braids can be further classified by the type of interlacement as shown in the Figure
2.15.

 Diamond braid (1/1): where each yarn passes over and below one other yarn in a repeating
manner (see Figure 1.12a)
 Regular braids (2/2): where each yarn passes over and below two yarns in a repeating manner
(see Figure 1.12b)
 Hercules braids (3/3): where each yarn passes over and below three yarns in a repeating manner
(see Figure 1.12c)

Fig. 2.15 -Braid architecture (a) Diamond (b) Regular (c) Hercules

Three dimensional complex shape braiding is an extension of the two dimensional conventional
Maypole braiding (see Figure 2.16). Three dimensional shapes can be prepared on various three
dimensional mandrel with the help of mechatronics and computer control.
 Fig. 2.16- Three dimensional braid formation on maypole braiding machine [27]

2.2.3 Mechanics of braiding

Braiding is generally used for producing narrow rope-like materials by interlacing diagonally three
or more strands of filaments or yarns. The first systematic illustration on the mechanics of braid
formation, geometry and tensile properties of tubular braid was presented in 1954 by Brunschweiller
[28, 29]. Subsequently, several researchers have presented models to predict tensile properties on the
basis of braid geometry. The geometrical properties of braids have been investigated under two
different aspects: (1) yarn and (2) fabric. Since, the braids are in some ways similar to twisted yarns
and in other ways similar to square woven fabrics [30]. In a tubular woven structure the constituent
filaments follow helical paths, simultaneously forming the interlacements between them. The
mechanical characteristics of such a structure can be predicted by investigating the synergistic
deformation behaviour of both twisted yarns and square woven fabrics.

The tensile behaviour can be determined by considering the material properties of the constituent
filaments, their geometric arrangement including braid angle, diameter and Poisson’s ratio and braid
kinematics. The kinematics of the braided structure is analyzed pertaining to filament locking or
jamming in the braid. The jamming state of filaments in the braided material is indicated either by
the constant braid angle or when the decrease in the braid diameter is almost negligible.
2.2.4 Braid angle (α) -

The braid angle (α) can be defined as the angle between the filament and braid axes, as shown in
Figure 2.17.

Fig. 2.17 - Braid angle

The angle will decrease or increase as the braid is extended or contracted along its axis. Braid angles
of 10 to 85 degrees are achievable. A low braid angle (greater axial contribution) results in a stiffer
product lengthwise; a high braid angle improves radial hoop strength. The ratio of the speed of the
carriers to the take-up device that removes the finished braid determines the ‘braid angle’. Since, the
speed of the yarn carriers is constant the braid angle can be controlled by changing the take-up speed
on the braiding machine. Braid angle is a major factor to be considered while designing braids, since
it has a significant effect on the mechanical properties. If the braid angle is increased then the tensile
strength, modulus and Poisson`s ratio decreases significantly. The following figure wshows the
gearing arrangement which decide the braid angle.

Mechanics of braid formation can be described by simple mathematical relations. Each yarn forms a
helical path around a mandrel. The braid angle (α) with respect to the braid axis is the most
important parameter in the braiding process. Figure 2.18 (a)shows the yarn path that depends on the
rotational speed of the yarn carriers (ω) and the take-up speed (v). The direction vectors are as
shown in Figure 2.18 (b).The braiding angle (α) can be calculated using the relation [27]

2 h R
  tan 1 (2.17)
Nhv
 Fig. 2.18- (a) Yarn path on a mandrel; (b) Direction vectors for take-up and carrier rotations; (c)
Horn gears on the track [27]

2.2.5 Tensile mechanics of braided structures

Hristov et al. [31] analysed the structural geometry and mechanical behaviour of special class of
circular hybrid braided structures without core, which constitutes two or more different types of
yarns. Predictive model based on the constituent yarn properties and machine parameters was
developed to characterise the mechanical response of the braid.

Gu [32] presented an analytical model to predict the uniaxial tensile strength and uniaxial tensile
curve for large strain deformation of three dimensional braided preforms.The tensile properties or
behaviour of braided structure is highly affected by braid angle, cover factor and its architecture etc.

2.2.6 Applications of braided structures

Aerospace engineering: Biomedical engineering:

 Stiffeners  Peripheral nerve repair tubes
 Wing spares  Biodegradable scaffolds
 Floor beams  Dental floss
 Fuselage frames  Catheters
 Ducting  Ligaments, prosthesis
 Rotors  Sutures

Industrial engineering: Sports and recreation:

 Hoses  Frames and chassis of cars
  Wires and cable insulation  Golf, hockey sticks
 Marine ropes  Bungee jumping ropes
 Driving belts  Mountaineering ropes

Tensile properties of braided structure are significantly important for all the applications mentioned
above.

2.3 Resin:-

In the realm of fiber reinforced polymers (plastics), epoxy is used as the resin matrix to efficiently
hold the fiber is place. It is compatible with all common reinforcing fibres including fiberglass,
carbon fiber, aramid, and basalt. Common products and manufacturing methods for fiber reinforced
epoxy include:

 Filament Winding
o Pressure vessels
o Pipes
o Rocket housing
o Recreational equipment
 Pultrusion
o Insulator rods
o Arrow shaft
 Compression Molding
o Aircraft parts
o Skis and snowboards
o Circuit boards
 Prepreg and autoclave
o Aerospace components
o Bicycle frames
o Hockey sticks
 Vacuum Infusion
o Boats
 o Wind turbine blades

When compared to other traditional thermoset or thermoplastic resins, epoxy resins have distinct
advantages, including:

 Low shrink during cure

 Excellent moisture resistance
 Excellent chemical resistance
 Good electrical properties
 Increased mechanical and fatigue strength
 Impact resistant
 No VOCs
 Long shelf life

Epoxy resins are cured with the addition of a curing agent, which is commonly called a hardener.
Perhaps the most common type of curing agent is amine based. Unlike in polyester or vinyl ester
resins where the resin is catalyzed with a small (1-3%) addition of a catalyst, epoxy resins usually
require the addition of the curing agent at a much higher ratio of resin to hardener, often 1:1 or 2:1.

As mentioned, the properties of epoxy can be altered and tweaked to fit the desired need. Epoxy
resin can be "toughened" with the addition of thermoplastic polymers.

2.4 Composites:-

Monolithic metals and their alloys cannot always meet the demands of today`s advanced
technologies, to fulfil these demands composite materials are being used. The composites are
composed of two or more physically or chemically different material components. Composites are
heterogeneous in nature. The composites are categorized in advanced materials like ceramics and
high performance steel. Large scale commercial application of composites started in 1940-1950, II
World War, began with marine applications, confined to military applications. The composites have
the ability to replace strong steel, light weight aluminium with better performance, less weight and
flexible design. The textile material like carbon, glass aramid fibre etc. is also used in composites as
the reinforcement. The carbon fibre is used with resin as a composite material, the resin holds the
structure of carbon fibre and increase its performance.

Fig. 2.19 - Composite made up of carbon and resin

One of the best examples of composites is 3D braided composite. Composites produced using the
braiding technique exhibit superior strengthand crack resistance to broadcloth composites [33].
Braided composites are also known togreatly improve interlaminar shear properties and depict no
delamination as observed whenbraided composites are subjected to fatigue loadings [1].Braided
composites are known to have high specific energy absorption for tubular sections upon axial
crushing when compared with metals [34].

Karbhari et al. [22] studied the effect of fibre type, braid yield, type of braid pattern and number of
layers on the energy absorption characteristics of 2D hybrid braided composite tubes. They indicated
a very effective means of fabrication and the response is comparable to result obtained from
specimens using conventional unidirectional prepreg based techniques.

Patel et al. [35] investigated the dynamic instability oflayered shear deformable composite plates
resting on an elastic foundation by using C1eight-node shear-flexible plate elements. Also using the
higher order plate theory and finite element method.
Yeh and Chen [36] examined the dynamic stability of a sandwich platewith a constraining layer and
electro-rheological fluid core. Three-dimensional braidedcomposites are a class of textile composite
materials with a fully integrated, continuousspatial fiber network, which eliminates the interface
problem by the inter-lacing of the tow in the thickness direction.

Farley et al. [37] studied the advantages of using hybrid graphite-kevlar constructions. Tube
fabricated with graphite -Kevlar fabric have been shown to attain crush stresses equal to those of
graphite/epoxy while retaining post-crushing integrity. Specimens were seen to fail in a folding
mode characteristic of Kevlar with the graphite reinforcement failing in a fracturing mode along the
fold lines.

Hopper et al. [38] studied the mechanics of circular braids with an elastic core. The wok focused on
the impact of the core on the transition between the unjammed and jammed states and on the overall
behavior of the braids. They investigated the level of flexibility of the core on the mechanical
response and strain to failure of the braid/core system. They considered the influences of yarn crimp,
helix angle, and core nonlinearity in the analysis and highlighted them as important elements in the
braid`s mechanical responses.

Hamadaet al. [39] studied that the braided composite tubes offer better energy management
characteristics than laminated composites, because the intertwining fibre architecture preventsgross
delimitation. Laminated composites have low toughness against in-plane splitting and suffer from
delamination between plies. In textile composites, theinter-lacing of the tows in the through
thicknessdirection increases the splitting toughness and largely eliminates the delamination problem.

Louis laberge et al. [40] worked on a blend of reinforcement and matrix filamentswithin the tow
provide a good material arrangement to overcome the high viscosityat melt of thermoplastic
matrices. The main drawback of the thermoplastic composites is the high viscosity of their matrices,
100-1000 times more viscous than the thermoset matrices. The study first characterized the
architecture of acarbon/nylon commingled yarn by microscopy. Then, braiding technology was used
tomanufacture the tubes at various braiding angles. Laminates were then made bycompression
molding with preforms extracted from the braids. The consolidation quality was examined using the
constituent content method and microscopy. Tensile and flexural properties were obtained for a wide
range of angles. Finally, the tensile modulus was predicted using classicallamination theory.
Paul J. et al. [41] studied on the determination of the effect of braid related parameters on the
progressive crush of composite tubes. Parameters studied include the type of fibre, braid yield, type
of 2D braided pattern and number of layers used. The use of hybrids was investigated and it was
shown that the appropriate use of such constructions can lead to very efficient structures in
progressive crush. Three types of fibres (glass, carbon and Kevlar) in combination were used. The
progressive crush response of braided tubes was seen to be significantly affected by hybridization.

Phoenix [42] and Hopper et al. [38] studied the mechanics of circular braids with an elastic core.
Both works focused on the impact of the core on the transition between the unjammed and jammed
states and on overall behavior of the braids. They investigated the level of flexibility of the core on
the mechanical response and strain to failure of the braid/core system. They considered the
influences of yarn crimp, helix angle, and core nonlinearity in the analyses and highlighted them as
important elements in the braids’ mechanical responses.

Kadir et al. [43] studied that themultiaxis 3D woven preform was developed with five yarn sets:
+bias, -bias, warp, filling, and z-yarns. The orientation of the yarns on the five axis have improved
themechanical properties of the preform. The yarns of the preforms, which were made
ofpolyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon fibres, were consolidated with an epoxy resin. These
performs were tested and compared with the 3D orthogonal woven carbon composites. It was found
thatin-plane shear strength and modulus of multiaxis 3D woven composite were higher than that of
the3D orthogonal woven composite. However the bending strength, bending modulus, and
theinterlaminar shear strength of the multiaxis 3D woven composite were slightly lower than that
ofthe 3D orthogonal woven composite because of the orientations of +/- bias yarns on both surfaces
of the multiaxis 3D woven structure.

Ko and Pastore et al. [44] have demonstrated that braided material have the ability to drape over
complex shapes in one piece, where traditional cloth and tape materials would have to be cut and
spliced to confirm to the same shape such as: I- beam, T- section, circular and square tubes,
integrally stiffened panels and toroids with irregular cross sections. As a result the braiding process
is less labor intensive than traditional lamination processes resulting in reduced manufacturing time
and cost for a given structure.
Potluri et al. [45] presented a systematic investigation of flexural and torsional properties of biaxial
and triaxial braided composites, with oneor more layers, at different braid angles. Braided tubes
were impregnated with vacuum infusion process to produce void free samples.Flexural and torsional
tests were conducted using special attachments to an Instron test machine. Assuming a lenticular
geometry forthe tow cross-section, a modified laminate analysis was performed by computing
reduced tow properties due to the presence of tow waviness (crimp).

Sun et al. [4,5,46] studied the compressive and uniaxial tensile behavior of 4-step 3D braided
composite at high strain rates and obtained the rate dependent properties. For the transverse impact
behavior of composite, and also reported the aramid/zylon hybrid composite and obtained the
mechanical response of load vs. displacement of the composite under different impact velocity.

Chapter –3
 Material and Methods

Material& Methods
3.1 Materials:
3.1.1 Fibres
PAN based carbon fibre is used in this study. The specifications of carbon fibre are shown in
table 3.1
TABLE 3.1 - SPECIFICATIONSOF THE CARBON FIBRE
Fiber parameters &properties
Fiber type PAN Based
Linear density (dn) 300
Tensile strength(GPa) 3.2
Density(g/tex) 1.81
Tensile modulus(GPa) 340

3.2 Preparation of the samples

3.2.1 Braiding samplepreparation

The braided samples of carbon fibre were made on Maypole braiding machine with 16 horn
gears or bobbin at textile technology department of IIT Delhi. Braiding is a simple and direct
process for making the braided fabric and any structure. The biaxial and triaxial samples were
made by using different take up rollers 36T, 42T, 50T. These take up rollers decide the braiding
angle of the braiding structure. As the teeth of take - up roller are increased the braiding angle
decreased significantly. Process variables are given below in table 3.2-

TABLE 3.2 - PROCESS VARIABLESFOR BRAIDING SAMPLES

Biaxial Triaxial
Teeth Angle Diameter Angle Diameter
 (A0) (mm) (A0) (mm)

36T 70.19 3.73 68.61 4.65

42T 55.85 3.90 62.35 4.45

50T 53.53 4.05 52.62 4.38

The figure 3.1 shows the carbon braided sample that is prepared for the study. This microscopic
view of sample shows the structure of the braiding.

Fig. 3.1 - Microscopic view of braided sample

3.2.2 Resin molding on the braided samples

The samples were treated with epoxy resin. The resin used for molding was Araldite 230-1 CY
and hardener was Aradur N - 951 HY and these are the thermoset resin. The resin is also known
as reinforced polymer; epoxy is used as the resin matrix to efficiently hold the fiber is place. It is
compatible with all common reinforcing fibres including fiberglass, carbon fiber, aramid, and

basalt.Resin molecule contains one or more epoxies groups .Epoxy resins are cured with the
addition of a curing agent, which is commonly called a hardener. In the earlier studies the
technique used for resin resin transfer were based on VARTM (Vacuum Assist Resin Transfer
Molding) principal. Figure 3.2 shows the working principle of VARTM –

Fig. 3.2- Vacuum assist resin transfer molding

But the samples made for the experimental purposes were three dimensional round shapes and
found not proper transfer of resin by VARTM technique. Because, VARTM mainly used for
molding of woven or two dimensional fabrics are. When the VARTM did not work then another
technique dosing pump was used. With the dosing pump for spotless penetration of resin inside
the braided structure, PVC pipes of 6mm and 8mm diameter were taken for the biaxial and
triaxial respectively.

3.2.3 Procedure for the resin transfer

First the resin solution was prepared in 10:1 ratio (ten parts of resin and one part of hardener) and
then manually stirrer it about 15 to 20 min. continously till the solution got well mixed. Then the
braided samples were passed through the hollow PVC pipe, biaxial from 6mm diameter pipe and
triaxial form 8mm dia. pipe respectively because triaxial have bigger diameter than biaxial. The
samples were tied from one end with high tenacity yarn and drawn specimen through the pipe.
There after the pipes were fixed on the outlet nose of the dosing pump, and the inlet nose of the
pump dipped into the resin solution. Then the pump started and it picked up the resin from the
inlet side and inject at the outlet side.

Fig 3.3 - Sample preparation for resin transfer

The fig 3.3 shows that how specimens were prepared for the resin transfer. For this first the
specimen were tied from one end with thread after this with the help of thread the specimen were
passed through the tube or pipe.

The fig 3.4 shows the cross-sectional view of braid sample after resin treatment-
 Fig-3.4 - Crosssectional view of resin treated braid sample

3.2.4 Working principle of dosing pump

In the dosing pump, a piston moves in too n fro which creates the suction and dosing or injecting,
when it moves in backward direction it creates suction and in forward direction it creates high
pressure dosing. The dosing pressure was kept on trial and error basis 4kg/cm 2, at this pressure
the resin completely impregnated into the specimen. The pressure used for injection in 6mm dia.
pipes was higher than 8mm dia. pipe because with increase in diameter the pressure will
decrease. Fig 3.5 shows the working principle of dosing pump-

Fig 3.5 - Working principle of dosing pump

The fig 3.5 shows the dosing pump that used for the resin transfer. The specifications of the
dosing pump given below-

Make :Initiative Engineering

Model : IMP 104

Supply : A/C 230 V/50 HZ

Pressure : 10LPH AT 4KG/CM2

Fig. 3.6- Instrument used for resin transfer

3.3 Test Methods

3.3.1 Breaking strength

The samples were tested for strength and breaking extension on universal tester according to
ASTM (D2256) standard. Specific information of sample is provided automatically by the
universal tester with load and elongation curve also. The sample is clamped between two jaws
upper and lower jaw, the upper is connected with load cell which traversed upward at constant
rate and lower jaw is fixed. The hydraulic jaw was used because the samples have high strength
and pneumatic jaws may cause slippage so the hydraulic jaws were used. The machine
parameters were used:

Model : Instron universal tester

Principle : constant rate of extension

Full scale load : 5000N

Gauge length : 200mm

Clamp speed : adjustable between 50 to 500 mm/min

Measuring accuracy : Force ± 1 cN, Elongation ± 1

3.3.2 Tensile modulus test

It is describes as the tendency of an object to deform along an axis when opposing forces are
applied along that axis and in words it is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. It’s also
calculated as load applied on a particular area.The diameter of an object is directly affected the
tensile modulus of that object.

Stress - Load ∕ Area = N/m2 (1N/m2 = 1MPa)

Load = Breaking load

Area = Area of the specimen

3.3.3 Three point bending test

A 3 point bending test is performed to measure the bending rigidity according to ASTM
standards (D790) by instron universal tester. The specimen lies on a support span and the load is
applied to the centre by the loading nose producing three point bending at a specified rate. The
test is stopped on sample break. The sample size used in the test is 77mm. The result is
automatically provided by instron tester with stress & strain curve also.

For this test the deflecting nose is made up according to the ASTM standards and then it fixed in
upper jaw of instron tester. The specimen is placed on a platform and then the load is applied to
the center of specimen at constant rate by the compression mode of the instron.

Fig
3.7 - Three point bendingon instron universal tester
 Chapter-4

Results and Discussion

 Results and Discussion

The influence of all experimental factors of carbon braid composites such asbraiding angle,
structure of braid, resin treatment on characteristics like breaking strength, tensile modulus,
flexural rigidity have been analysed and assessed for significance using ANOVA at 99% level of
significance and results are as follows-

4.1 Tensile strength

The influence of variation in braid structure and their angle on tensile strength of untreated and
treated samples of both types of braids have been shown in table 4.1 and fig 4.1. In both types of
braids an increase in no. of teeth of take up roller from 36T to 50T,increases the delivery rate that
ultimately reduces braid angle. As decrease in braid angle in the structure, improves the axial
alignment of all filaments in the structure. This results in enhancement of individual carbon
filament’sstrength contribution to overall strength of both types of carbon braids. The ANOVA
table shows that the reduction in braid angle significantly increases the strength of all braid
samples.

Again the all tri-axial braid samples and their resin composites show significantly higher tensile
strength than their respective biaxial counter parts. It is because of more no. of filaments in tri -
axial braidscross section as compare to biaxial braids.Further, figure 4.1 shows the effect of resin
treatment on tensile strength of carbon braid compositesand about 150 to 180% increase in the
breaking strength is noticed in both types of braids. It is due to holding of the filaments by resin
in their respective position and do not allow to slip, and further the problems associated with
poor ILSS (inter laminar shear stress) of carbon fibre structure get completely disappear because
of presence of resin layer between the filaments. Also according to ANOVA table 4.2 the braid
structure, number of teeth (by which the braid angle is decided) and resin treatment significantly
affects the tensile strength of braid above 99% significance value. In the combined effect of these
variables on tensile strength is also foundsignificance above 99%.
 TABLE 4.1- TENSILE STRENGTH OF CARBON B IAXIAL AND TRIAXIAL BRAID WITH DIFFERENT
BRAID ANGLE AND WITH RESIN TREATMENT
Biaxial Triaxial
Teeth Angle Before After Angle Before After
(Ao) treatment treatment (Ao) treatment treatment
(N) (N) (N) (N)

36T 700 1283 2287 690 1950 3287

42T 570 1750 2900 620 2133 3583

50T 530 2150 3275 530 2200 3925

4000
3500
Tensile strength (N)

3000
2500
2000 Biaxial untreated

1500 Biaxial with resin

Triaxial untreated
1000
Triaxial with resin
500
0
69/70 62/57 53/53
Braid angle

Fig. 4.1 -Tensile strength of carbon biaxial and triaxialbraid with different braid angle and with
resin treatment

TABLE 4.2- ANOVA TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECT OF PROCESS VARIABLE ON TENSILE STRENGTH
 Degr. of
SS MS F P
Effect Freedom
Structure 982124 1 982124 145.16 0.006819 s
Teeth 946366 2 473183 69.94 0.014097 s
Treatment 5058307 1 5058307 747.63 0.001335 s
Structure*Teeth 119187 2 59594 8.81 0.101956
Structure*Treatment 126691 1 136691 18.73 0.049474 s
Teeth*Treatment 32389 2 16194 2.39 0.294676
Error 13531 2 6766
* s – Significance*

4.2 Tensile modulus

It describes as the resistance of an object to deform along an axis when opposing forces are
applied along that axis and in other words it is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain.

TABLE 4.3- INFLUENCEOF RESIN TREATMENT ON TENILE MODULUSOF

CARBONBIAXIALANDTRIAXIALBRAID
Biaxial Triaxial
Teeth Angle Dia. Before After Angle Dia. Before After
(Ao) (mm) treatment treatment (Ao) (mm) treatment treatment
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

36T 690 3.73 118 202 700 4.65 115 188

42T 620 3.90 147 237 570 4.45 138 225

50T 530 4.05 167 249 530 4.38 143 255

TABLE 4.4 - ANOVA TABLE FOR TENSILE MODULUS

 Degr. of
SS MS F P
Effect Freedom
Structure 261.3 1 261.3 2.213 0.275229
Teeth 4695.5 2 2347.8 19.882 0.047888 s
Treatment 23232 1 23232 196.742 0.005044 s
Structure*Teeth 2.2 2 1.1 0.009 0.990909
Structure*Treatment 21.3 1 21.3 0.181 0.712167
Teeth*Treatment 171.5 2 85.8 0.726 0.579313
Error 236.2 2 118.1
* s – Significance*

300
Tensile modulus (MPa)

250

200

Biaxial without resin

150
Biaxial with resin
100 Triaxial without resin
Triaxial with resin
50

0
69/70 62/57 53/53
Braid angle

Fig. 4.2- Tensile modulus of carbon biaxial and triaxialbraid with respect to their diameter with
resin treatment or without resin treatment

In fig - 4.2 it is clear that the diameter directly affect the tensile modulus. The triaxial samples
have higher diameter than their biaxial counterparts and the tensile strength of triaxial rods is
higher than biaxial. With decrease in braid angle, tenacity increases significantly in both types of
braids. From results, it is noticed thatthe braid angle, diameter and the resin treatment have
significant effect on tensile modulus. After resin treatment the diameter of braided tubes
increases slightly due to the resin coated on its surface, but the tensile modulus uplift in a big
amount due to the impregnation of resin inside the braided tubes which lock the filaments in their
respective position in the structure.

4.3 Three point bending test–

TABLE 4.5 -THREE POINT BENDING TEST OF CARBON BIAXIAL

AND TRIAXIALBRAIDWITH VARYING BRAID ANGLE
Biaxial Triaxial

Take up Braid Bending Braid Bending

Roller Angle Load Angle Load
Teeth (Ao) (N) (Ao) (N)
36T
690 75 700 165
42T
620 90 570 185
50T
530 95 530 195

A three point bending test rig was developed as an attachment to an Instron Universal Tester.
The specimen were supported from both side over a span length of 77 mm (ASTM- D790) and
loaded at the centre by the loading nose. The specimen were made of extra length of 110 mm to
ensure that the sample do not slip from the support. The entire tests were conducted with a speed
of 20 mm/min. The bending results were measured until the failure of braid.

TABLE 4.6 - ANOVA TABLE FOR THREE POINT BENDING

Degr. of
SS MS F P
Effect Freedom
Structure 13537.5 1 13537.5 1083 0.000922 s
Teeth 658.32 2 329.2 26.333 0.036585 s
Error 25 2 12.5
* s – Significance*

The fig - 4.4 shows the effect of braid angle of the samples on the three point bending test of the
braided samples.A three point bending test was carried out to know the resistance of 3d carbon
braided composite against the bending. The results of bending load for both types of carbon
braided composite rodsare shown in fig 4.4. Both type of braids exhibit the maximum resistance
to bending for lowest braid angle 53 o, while at higher braid angle both types of braid composites
show the low bending resistance. It can be understand as the increase of braid angle from 53 o to
70o results in low take up speed and it causes higher crimp and also reduction of the alignment of
tows in loading direction. Further, the tri-axial braids show significantly higher bending stiffness
than biaxial braids due to the inclusion of axial filaments in the structure which increases the
fibre volume fraction in structure. Ultimately, the structure and braiding angle significantly
affects the bending load of the braids.

200
Bending load (N)

150

100 Biaxial
Triaxial
50

0
69/70 62/57 53/53

Braid angle

Fig. 4.4 - Three point bending test

Chapter – 5
 Conclusion

Conclusion
 The objective of present work was to better understand the influence of different process
parameters and resin treatment on tensile characteristics 3D biaxial and tri axial braided tubes
ofcarbon.

 As increase in braid angle the tensile strength of both type of carbon braids & their resin
treated composites decreases significantly.
 Further, both untreated and treated tri axial braids depict more tensile strength than their
biaxial counterparts. Again, the resin treated both type of braided rods show 150 to 180%
higher strength than untreated braids because resin treatment freeze the filaments in their
position and do not allow any free movement.
 Tensile modulus of both biaxial and tri-axial braids does not show a significant difference,
biaxial braids have slightly more tensile modulus than their tri-axial counterparts. After resin
treatment the tensile modulus in both type of braids increases about 50 to 70% than untreated
carbon braids.
 Resin treated tri-axial braided structure shows higher resistance to bending than biaxial
braided structure due to extra axial filaments present in their structures.

Scope forFuture work

The study on braided composites rods can be further studied by using different fibres such as
glass, kevlar, basalt etc. Multilayer braids can be produced of different composition of layers like
biaxial on triaxial, triaxial on biaxial, biaxial on biaxial and triaxial on triaxial and also produced
with combination of different fibres.

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