10/17/2017

Highway Engineering

Lecture # 20

Intersection Design - I

Lecturer: Dr. Hardy Kamal Karim

Ph.D in Highway Engineering
University of Sulaimani
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INTERSECTION DESIGN
• Intersections are classified into three general categories:
1) grade separated without ramps,
2) grade-separated with ramps (interchanges), and
3) at-grade.

• Grade-separated intersections usually consist of structures that

provide for traffic to cross at different levels (vertical distances)
without interruption.

• The potential for crashes at grade-separated intersections is reduced

because many potential conflicts between intersecting streams of
traffic are eliminated.

• At-grade intersections do not provide for the flow of traffic at

different levels and therefore there exist conflicts between intersecting
streams of traffic.
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Types of At-Grade Intersections

1) T-Intersections

• The intersection shown in the figure (a) is suitable for minor or

local roads and may be used when minor roads intersect
important highways with an intersection angle less than 30
degrees from the normal.
• This type of intersection is also suitable for use in rural two-lane
highways that carry light traffic. 4

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• At locations with higher speeds and turning volumes, which

increase the potential of rear-end collisions between through
vehicles and turning vehicles, usually an additional area of
surfacing or flaring is provided, as shown in the figure (b).

• In this case, the flare is provided to separate right-turning vehicles

from through vehicles approaching from the east.

• In cases where left-turn volume from a through road onto a

minor road is sufficiently high but does not require a separate
left-turn lane, an auxiliary lane may be provided, as shown in the
figure (c).

• This provides the space needed for through vehicles to maneuver

around left-turning vehicles which have to slow down before
making their turns.

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• Channelization involves the provision of facilities such as pavement

markings and traffic islands to regulate and direct conflicting traffic
streams into specific travel paths.

• The figure (d) shows a channelized T intersection in which the two-

lane through road has been converted into a divided highway
through the intersection.

• The channelized T intersection also provides both a left-turn

storage lane for left-turning vehicles from the through road to
the minor road and a right turn lane on the east approach.

• This type of intersection is suitable for locations where

volumes are high such as high left-turn volumes from the
through road and high right-turn volumes onto the minor
road.

• An intersection of this type probably will be signalized.

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2) Four-Leg Intersections
• The unchannelized intersection shown in the figure (a) is used
mainly at locations where minor or local roads cross, although it
also can be used where a minor road crosses a major highway.

• In these cases, the turning volumes are usually low and the roads
intersect at an angle that is not greater than 30 degrees from the
normal.

• When right-turning movements are frequent, right-turning

roadways, such as those in the figure (b), can be provided. This
type of design is also common in suburban areas where
pedestrians are present.

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• The layout the figure (c) is suitable for a two lane highway that is
not a minor crossroad and that carries moderate volumes at high
speeds or operates near capacity.

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• The figure (d) shows a suitable design for four-lane approaches

carrying high through and turning volumes.

• This type of intersection is usually signalized.

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3) Multileg Intersections

Multileg intersections have five or more approaches, as shown in figures

below

• Whenever possible, this type of intersection should be avoided.

• In order to remove some of the conflicting movements from the major

intersection and thereby increase safety and operation, one or more of
the legs are realigned. 13

• In the figure (a), the diagonal leg of the intersection is realigned to intersect
the upper road at a location some distance away from the main intersection.

• This results in the formation of an additional T intersection but with the

multileg intersection now converted to a four-leg intersection.

• There are two important factors to consider when realigning roads in this
way: the diagonal road should be realigned to the minor road and the distance
between the intersections should be such that they can operate
independently. 14

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• A similar realignment of a six-leg intersection is shown in the figure (b),

resulting in two four-leg intersections.

• In this case, it is also necessary for a realignment to be made to the

minor road.

• Again, the distances between these intersections should be great

enough to allow for the independent operation of each intersection.

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4) Traffic Circles

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• A traffic circle is a circular intersection that provides a circular traffic

pattern with significant reduction in the crossing conflict points.

• The FHA publication, Roundabouts: An Informational Guide,

describes three types of traffic circles: rotaries, neighborhood traffic
circles, and roundabouts.

• Rotaries have large diameters that are usually greater than 90m
(300 ft), thereby allowing speeds exceeding 48 km/h (30 mi/h), with
a minimum horizontal deflection of the path of the through traffic.

• Neighborhood traffic circles have diameters that are much smaller

than rotaries and therefore allow much lower speeds.

• Consequently, they are used mainly at the intersections of local

streets, as a means of traffic calming and/or as an aesthetic device.

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• As a rule, they consist of pavement markings and do not usually

employ raised islands.

• Traffic circles may use stop control or no control at the approaches

and may or may not allow pedestrian access to the central circle.
Parking also may be allowed within the circulatory roadway.

• Roundabouts have specific defining characteristics that separate

them from other circular intersections. These include:
 Yield control at each approach
 Separation of conflicting traffic movements by pavement markings or
raised islands
 Geometric characteristics of the central island that typically allow
travel speeds of less than 48 km/h (30 mi/h)

 Parking not usually allowed within the circulating roadway.

• The next figures show the geometric elements of a single-lane

modern roundabout, and a photograph of an existing roundabout. 18

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• Roundabouts can be further categorized into six classes based on the

size and environment in which they are located. These are shown in the
table below:

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Design Principles for At-Grade Intersections

• The fundamental objective in the design of at-grade intersections
is to minimize the severity of potential conflicts among different
streams of traffic and between pedestrians and turning vehicles.

• At the same time, it is necessary to provide for the smooth flow

of traffic across the intersection.

• The design should therefore incorporate the operating

characteristics of both vehicles and pedestrians using the
intersection.

• The design should also ensure adequate pavement widths of

turning roadways and approach sight distances. This suggests
that at-grade intersections should not be located at or just
beyond sharp crest vertical curves or at sharp horizontal curves.
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• The design of an at-grade intersection involves:

1) the design of the alignment,
2) the design of a suitable channeling system for the traffic pattern,
3) the determination of the minimum required widths of turning
roadways when traffic is expected to make turns at speeds higher
than 25 km/h, and
4) the assurance that the sight distances are adequate for the type
of control at the intersection.

• The sight distance at an approach of an at-grade intersection can

be improved by flattening cut slopes and by lengthening vertical
and horizontal curves.

• Approaches of the intersection should preferably intersect at

angles which are not greater than 30 degrees from the normal.

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Alignment of At-Grade Intersections

• The best alignment for an at-grade intersection is when the intersecting

roads meet at right or nearly right angles.

• Right angle alignment is superior

to acute-angle alignments. Much
less road area is required for
turning at the intersection, there is
a lower exposure time for vehicles
crossing the main traffic flow, and
visibility limitations (particularly
for trucks) are not as serious as
those at acute-angle intersections.

• Figure shows alternative methods

for realigning roads intersecting at
acute angles to obtain a nearly
right-angle intersection.
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• The dashed lines in the figure represent the original minor road as
it intersected the major road at an acute angle. The solid lines that
connect both ends of the dashed lines represent the realignment
of the minor road across the major road.

• The methods illustrated in the figures (a) and (b) have been used
successfully, but care must be taken to ensure that the
realignment provides for a safe operating speed, which, to avoid
hazardous situations, should not be much less than the speeds on
the approaches.

• The methods illustrated in the figures (c) and (d) involve the
creation of a staggered intersection, in that a single curve is placed
at each crossroad leg. This requires a vehicle on the minor road
crossing the intersection to turn first onto the major highway and
then back onto the minor highway.
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• The realignment illustrated in the figure (d) is preferable because

the minor-road vehicle crossing the intersection is required to
make a right turn rather than a left turn from the major road to
reenter the minor road.

• Therefore, the method illustrated in the figure (c) should be used

only when traffic on the minor road is light and when most of this
traffic is turning onto and continuing on the major road rather
than crossing the intersection.

• A major consideration in roadway realignment at intersections is

that every effort should be made to avoid creating short-radii
horizontal curves, since such curves result in the encroachment of
drivers on sections of the opposite lanes.

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Profile of At-Grade Intersections

• In designing the profile (vertical alignment) at the intersection, a

combination of grade lines should be provided to facilitate the
driver’s control of the vehicle. For example, wherever possible, large
changes in grade should be avoided; preferably, grades should not be
greater than 3 %.

• The stopping and accelerating distances for passenger cars on grades

of 3 %, or less are not much different from those of cars on flat
grades; however, significant differences start to occur at grades
higher than 3 %.

• When it is unavoidable to use grades of 3 % or more, design factors

such as stopping distances and accelerating distances should be
adjusted so that conditions equivalent to those on level ground exist.

• In any case, it is not advisable to use grades higher than 6 % at

intersections. 26

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• When it is necessary to adjust the grade lines of the approaches

at an intersection, it is preferable that the grade line of the major
highway be continued across the intersection and that of the
minor road be altered to obtain the desired result.

• However, any adjustment to a grade line of an approach should

be made at a suitable distance from the intersection in order to
provide a smooth junction and proper drainage.

• It always should be remembered that the combination of

alignment and grades at an intersection should produce traffic
lanes that are clearly seen by motorists at all times, without the
sudden appearance of potential hazards.

• Also, motorists should be able to easily understand the path they

should take for any desired direction.

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Curves at At-Grade Intersections

• The angle of turn, turning speed, design vehicle, and traffic volume are
the main factors governing the design of curves at at-grade
intersections.

• When the turning speed at an intersection is assumed to be 25 km/h or

less, three types of design commonly used are the simple curve, the
simple curve with taper, and the three-centered compound curve.

• Next figures show the minimum designs necessary for a passenger car
making a 90-degree right turn.

• The figure (a) shows the minimum design using a simple curve.

• The design shown in the figure (b) is a simple curve with tapers of 1:10
at each end and an offset of 0.75 m.

• The layout of a three-centered compound curve is shown in the figure

(c). 28

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• Similar designs for single-unit (SU) trucks are shown in next figure.

• The minimum design for passenger cars is used only at locations where the
absolute minimum turns will occur, such as the intersections of local roads with
major highways where only occasional turns are made and at intersections of
two minor highways carrying low volumes.

• It is recommended when conditions permit that the minimum design for the SU
truck be used.

• The minimum design layouts for larger design vehicles turning at 90 degrees
are given in A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets.

• Minimum edge-of pavement designs for different angles of turn and design
vehicles for simple curves and simple curves with taper, asymmetric three-
centered curves are given in next tables.

• It is not feasible to have simple curves for large trucks such as WB-40, WB-50
and WB-62 when the angle of turn is 75 degrees or greater.

• When the turning speed at an intersection is greater than 15 mi/h, the expected
turning speed is used to determine the minimum radius. 30

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