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Yoga Psychology and the Samkhya Metaphysic
E U G E N E TAYLOR AND JUDITH G. SUGG
Yoga is experiencing renewed interest in the West, but the philosophy accompanying the actual
techniques appears to be derived more from the Vedantic interpretation of the original Yoga
texts, rather than that of the Samkhya metaphysic. According to Hindu scholars from
Surendranath Dasgupta and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan to Heinrich Zimmer, James Houghton
Woods, and others, Samkhya was Patanjali's original choice for a conceptual framework to
help the adept understand the nature of states of consciousness experienced. But does it really
matter which philosophy it is?
This paper compares the metaphysics of Samkhya and Vedanta with respect to their differing
interpretations of Patanjali's Yoga-Sutras in order to estimate the dependence of Yoga psychology
on the Samkhya metaphysic. The authors argue that the Vedantic interpretation leads to a
monistic conception of consciousness compatible with Western monotheism, hence its
missionary value. Meanwhile, the Samkhya reflects the eventual consequence or fruit of the
state of samadhi as kaivalya, or isolation of pure consciousness from lifeless inert matter.
Described as a more indigenous aspect of Yoga psychology, kaivalya, and much of the Samkhya,
still remain largely incomprehensible to most Westerners.
Yoga is properly understood as one of the six orthodox philosophical systems as well as a
practise for transforming personal consciousness. As such, it is possibly the single most important
contribution of Hindu culture to world mental health. Its efficacy is accepted by virtually all
the other orthodox Hindu schools, it pervades both Buddhism and Jainism, it is the hallmark of
the tantra, and through the proliferation of such strands, an indigenous Chinese Yoga of Taoist
origin notwithstanding, its influence has spread to every corner of Asian culture. Moreover, at
the same time, it is the single most reproduced symbol representing the enigma that Asian
thought has always posed, and continues to pose, to the West.
Yoga first appears in the American literature during the era of the New England
transcendentalists beginning in the 1830s (Taylor, 1996). Emerson had access to Sanskrit
translations of the Hindu texts through correspondents in the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Margaret
Fuller quoted passages from the Upanisads, Puranas and other works in the pages of The Dial.
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Yoga Psychology and the Samkhyd Metaphysic 245
Thoreau declared himself a yogi upon reading the Bhagavad-Glta, and drew from the Hindu
concept of ahimsa for his own writings on civil disobedience.
By the 1880s, waves of Hindu mythology entered the popular literature on mental healing
with the founding of the Theosophical Society under Helena Blavatsky. After wandering
throughout Asia alone by herself, Blavatsky settled in New York in 1873, where her apartment
became a salon for the fashionable. She brought Hindu ideas of reincarnation and discarnate
spirits who had never lived in the body, notions which soon entered the American spiritualists'
lexicon. After she met Col. Henry Steel Olcott, the two moved to Adyar, India and launched
Theosophy as a world-wide movement. Indian members of the society, such as T. Subba Row,
a Vedantin occultist, brought a deep knowledge of Hinduism. Olcott became intensely interested
in Buddhism and supportive of social reform, especially in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). At the same
time, the Society also launched a massive translation project, which put William Q. Judge's
English language translation, in cooperation with Tookaram Tattya, of the Yoga-Sutras into the
hands of the American mental healers as early as 1888 (Patanjali, 1888).
The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, also put Hindu ideas at the
forefront of public attention when the conference was swept off its feet by the charismatic and
articulate presentations of Swami Vivekananda, a disciple of Ramakrishna. Vivekananda's
subsequent tour of the United States resulted in the founding of Vedanta Societies across the
country. For the first time, Westerners could learn Yoga and meditation directly from Asian
teachers (Taylor, 1986). The Vedanta Societies spread worldwide, adding, like the Theosophists,
a publishing house to disseminate translated texts and contemporary commentaries.
Yoga received increased attention in the opening decade of the 1900s through the work of
William Walker Atkinson, an American New Thought practitioner, freemason, theosophist,
member of the bar in Pennsylvania and Illinois, and teacher of magnetism. In addition to his
law practise, Atkinson published works on esoteric healing under his own name and also under
the name of Yogi Ramachakra. His two volumes on yoga, one on Gnani Yoga and the other on
breathing, became enormously popular and remain in print to this day (for instance see,
Ramachakra, 1906).
At the same time, Ella Adelia Fletcher, author of The Woman Beautiful and The Philosophy
of Rest, was writing about The Law of Rhythmic Breath (1906), in which she drew extensively
from the Samkhya philosophy of the tattvas. Mixing occult philosophy, theosophy, and teachings
from yoga on pranayama, she enumerated the traditional conception of the relation between
the structures of consciousness and sense perception in the external world and the means by
which breath can be controlled to alter this relation and guide it toward internal self-realization.
Paramahansa Yogananda followed in the 1920s, promoting meditation and self-realization,
at the same time that Jiddu Krishnamurti was brought to the West as the 'Buddha to come' by
Annie Besant's Order of the Star in the East, an esoteric wing of the Theosophical Society.
Krishnamurti abdicated his assigned role, however, and struck out on his own, becoming an
independent and influential spiritual teacher to thousands of disciples in India and America.
In 1937, Koovor T. Behanan, a graduate student at Yale, was the first to do a scientific study
of Yoga for a doctoral dissertation. Taking leave from his studies, he returned to India to become
a student of an advanced teacher. After a long training period, he then presented himself back
at Yale as the primary subject of his own study.
246 Handbook of Indian Psychology
By the 1940s, Vedanta had become formally established as the foremost expression in the
West of what was being touted as "Hindu psychology". Indra Devi opened her yoga studio in
Hollywood in 1947 to wide acclaim. In Boston, Massachusetts, Swami Akhilananda held sway
over an influential group of intellectuals from the local universities, including Peter Bertocci,
later a teacher of Martin Luther King, Jr., at Boston University; Gordon Allport, Harvard
psychologist also on the board of Psychologia, International journal of psychology in the orient;
George Williams, from Harvard Divinity School, later a biographer of Pope John Paul II, and
others (Akhilananda, 1946). Allport wrote the introduction for Akhilananada's Hindu Psychology
(1948).
Out on the West Coast of the United States, the Southern California Vedanta Society was
thriving. The word of Vedanta spread through the writings of Christopher Isherwood, Aldous
Huxley, and Gerald Herd (Isherwood, 1951). In Chicago, a new voice was about to enter upon
the scene interpreting Asian ideas as a psychology of personal transformation - Alan Watts
whose Psychotherapy East and West (1961) became a Bible of the American psychotherapeutic
counter-culture.
Meanwhile, in New York, Joseph Campbell became the editor of the Bollingen Series and
began publishing the works of the Indologist Heinrich Zimmer (Zimmer, 1951), while C. G.
Jung, in Basel, long a student of Asian ideas in the field of depth psychology, wrote on Kundalini
Yoga (Jung, 1996; Coster, 1935). More obscure writers were also at work at the time interpreting
the Hindu experience, such as Theos Bernard, whose Ph.D. on Hatha Yoga from Columbia
was subsequently published for a wider audience. This was followed by other scholarly
publications on yoga philosophy in English.
Meanwhile, individual adepts continued to emerge on the American scene, such as Swami
Sivananda, who was the founder of the International Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres through
his disciple, Swami Vishnu-devananada. Swami Vishnu-devananada also wrote the Illustrated
Book of Yoga. Sivananda's other disciples included Swami Satchitananda who introduced
chanting and Yoga to Woodstock; Swami Sivananda Radha, the Caucasian woman who explored
the connection between psychology and yoga, and Yogi Bhajan, who started teaching the
controversial Kundalini Yoga in the 70s.
There was also Swami Satyananda, founder of the Bihar School of Yoga, and local figures
who gained popularity, such as Swami Vithaldas in New York, and Kumar and Runjana Pallana
in Dallas. These developments can be partly attributed to the communist invasion of Asia after
World War II, picking up momentum by the 1960s, so that a new generation of meditation and
Yoga teachers came to the West, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Satya Sai Baba, Baba Muktananda,
Bhagwan Rajneesh and Gopi Krishna, among them.
Hatha yoga, with its emphasis on the practice of physical posture (dsana) practice, became
the most prevalent aspect of yoga practise in the United States. Students of Krishnamacharya
in Mysore founded three of the most popular styles of practice - Iyengar, Astanga (K. Pattabhi
Jois), and Viniyoga (T. K.V. Desikachar). Other styles of hatha yoga, or combinations of hatha
and other forms of yoga practice, arose from both Indian and American teachers. Yoga Alliance,
an international registry of yoga teachers, lists almost 100 styles, as well as several thousand
teachers.
Books directed toward psychologists have also proliferated. The personality-social
psychologists Gardner and Lois Murphy published Asian Psychologies in 1968, followed by
Yoga Psychology and the Samkhya Metaphysic 247
Elmer and Alyce Green's Beyond Biofeedback, a detailed psycho-physiological study of the
Yoga adept, Swami Rama. Today, Georg Fuerstein's many books on yoga, including his
encyclopaedia, represent a veritable industry and are read among transpersonal psychologists.
As well, in the Western medical literature, since 1960, nearly 800 studies on various aspects
of yoga as a therapy have appeared. While mainly by Indian researchers publishing in specialty
journals in India, more investigations are appearing each year and more Western investigators
are conducting studies, as the popularity of yoga spreads and the use of alternative therapies
becomes more world-wide (Khalsa, 2004).
After 50 years, we also now have an aging generation of American swamis and advanced
yoga teachers, who in numerous cases might be considered adepts equal to their Hindu teachers
in skill and expertise. At the same time, recent surveys indicate that more than 11 million
people in the United States do yoga on a regular basis. The most important point to make from
this all-too-brief survey is that a majority of these teachers have learned yoga through the
philosophy of Vedanta, not Samkhya.
The key translations that have contributed to this interpretation stem from the monistic
philosophy of the Theosophists and the Vedanta philosophy of indigenous Hindu swamis.
Shree Prohit Swami's translation of 1938, with the introduction by William Butler Yates, Taimni's
translation of 1961, and the Prabhavananda and Isherwood translation are prominent examples.
Samkhya and Vedanta Compared

Yoga in the hands of the Vedanta, as compared to that of the Samkhya, differs in several
important respects. First, and foremost, Vedanta is both a monistic and theistic system, while
the classical Samkhya in its orthodox form remains largely non-theistic and adheres to a
metaphysics of absolute dualism, particularly with regard to their respective interpretations of
personality and consciousness. While the majority of ashrams in the US follow the non-dual
teachings of Advaita, Dvaita Vedanta was also expounded by Swami Sarvagatananda in Boston,
a mudva scholar (Taylor, 1996). While there are versions of the Samkhya that consider the
dualistic principles of purusa and prakrti to be intermediate stages to a more supreme union,
Vedanta unwaveringly regards the ultimate nature of reality as a single supreme principle,
Atman. In this regard, supreme consciousness, which is sat-cit-ananda, pure existence, pure
consciousness, and pure bliss, is also ultimately the nature of the individual person, or jtva,
except that in the normal every day waking state of attachment to the pleasures and pains of
material attachment, the individual remains ignorant of the nature of the true self. Much suffering,
and more importantly, karmic rebirth are the result. The antidote is ascetic practice, or sadhana,
such as that prescribed by the yoga darsana, in which all distinctions between phenomena are
seen as avidya, or illusion. At the time of such an awakening, the individual becomes liberated
while still alive in this body. He is now called zjivanmukta, aware of the supreme consciousness
in all things, unattached, and impervious to karmic rebirth.
Classical Samkhya, however, remains a dualistic system in which purusa, pure
consciousness, andprakrti, lifeless inert matter, are both taken as ultimately real. Purusa remains
pure and undefiled, never touching prakrti, yet, because of the stirrings of the gunas, sattva,
rajas and tamas - the principles of illumination, activity, and inertia-the light of pure
consciousness shines through personality at every level to one degree or another. In the seeming
fusion of purusa and prakrti, the manas (mind), buddhi (intelligence), and ahathkara (the
ego), reach out and grasp the object of attachment in either a pleasurable or painful way. The
greater the clinging or aversion, the deeper the karmic involvement, and also the more obscure
the buddhic light of sattva becomes. Yoga is freedom from this bondage through practice that
leads to discrimination. So, in this way, Samkhya becomes the theoretical explanation for the
evolution of mind into matter, while Yoga, the path of liberation, becomes the vehicle for the
evolution of matter back into mind.
Once detachment from external objects is achieved, the unsteady mind becomes steady
(cittavrittiniroddha), and sustained, concentrated absorption then becomes possible. Intuitive
insights into the nature of a higher spiritual reality are generated at successively more subtle
levels of interior awareness, such that the past seeds of previous karma are burnt out, while
producing no new karmic consequences of their own. As the evolution of mind back into
matter proceeds, spiritual consciousness becomes brighter. The effects of energy and inertia
become more well regulated, until the gunas come into equilibrium, at which time there is a
separation of the illuminating quality of a continuing flow of the stream of consciousness that
gives insight into all objects (samprajnanata samadhi) and focuses instead on the illuminating
quality itself, which is then seen as even independent of sattva. Isolation {kaivalya) in a state
of pure consciousness (asamprajnata samadhi) occurs at the point when the power of the
manifested world is renounced, and being no longer relevant to consciousness, recedes, thus
the power of pure consciousness rests in itself. This is the culmination of yoga.
Yoga is often defined as a type of union, drawing from the translation of the Sanskrit word,
meaning yoke. While this makes sense in some of the diverse forms of yogic inquiry and
practice, it is confusing in the context of Patanjali's Yoga. Whicher (2000) points out that the
"notion of 'union,' while making sense within the context of Vedanta, is not representative of
all forms of Yoga" (p. 29). An 11th century commentator, Bhoja Raja, pointed out that yoga is
separation, not joining, in the sense of discrimination (yiveka) between purusa and prakrti, or
between transcendent consciousness and the physical world, including our physical, mental
and emotional being.
The key difference with Vedanta is that in Samkhya-Yoga, prakrti remains isolated as a
principle of ultimate reality unto itself. Without the presence of purusa, prakrti is 'lifeless inert
matter'. It is active only in the presence and in the service of purusa. In Vedanta all is One.
Prakrti merges into the purusa. In Samkhya-Yoga, the two become clearly differentiated, as
pure consciousness becomes separatedfromlifeless inert matter. Self is then clearly differentiated
from not-self. This is knowledge of reality {tattvajnana).
According to our interpretation of the psychology of consciousness inherent in this system,
a parallel way of thinking about it might be to equate Vedanta with Berkeleyan idealism. Here,
everything in reality is an idea in the mind of God. There is no world of objects with an
independent reality. Meanwhile, Samkhya-Yoga takes the more realistic position that matter
does have an independent existence, but it can only be grasped when it is infused with the
principle of human consciousness. Patanjali asks if an object were not detected, would it still
exist. Of course, the world is real, although each person may perceive it differently based on
their own "colourings" or conditioning.
The issue of God (iswarapranidhana) is also of some importance in understanding the
meaning of Samkhya-Yoga and the migration of Yoga to the west as a monistic system. Purusa
is purely non-theistic, in classical Samkhya. To say that it is atheistic, we feel, is a misnomer,

since classical Samkhya-Yoga does not rule out the role of the concept of a chosen deity as an
aid to the adept, so much as it gives greater emphasis to a generic philosophy of spiritual
consciousness within the individual. Neither Samkhya nor Patanjali's Yoga propound an
omniscient, creator God. For Patanjali, Isvara is a distinction of purusa, and devotion to Isvara
is a practice leading to, or aiding, the yogi. Devotion is, ultimately, another form of sustained
concentration, the basis of yogic samadhi.
A similar situation arises with Buddhist epistemology, which has often been characterized
as atheistic. Buddha never claimed to be a deity, only an ascetic who had found a means to end
suffering. Later appropriation of local deities for missionary activity and as a way to promote
individual worship, or obeisance to the image of the Buddha himself has always been permitted
but never made the central tenet of the Dharma.
However, there have certainly been numerous eras of theistic Samkhya. These are evident
where the Samkhya has appeared in the Upanisads, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad-Gita, the
Puranas and other literature. We must assess these documents in the light of their grounding in
Vedic culture, however, which, as we have pointed out with Vedanta, is inherently monotheistic
in orientation. Nevertheless, the classical Samkhya remains both dualistic and non-theistic, as
much as this may be difficult for westerners to comprehend.
Gupta (1986), however, wants to divide the history of the Samkhya into three stages-the
initial theistic and monistic stage of the Upanisads, Mahabharata, the Puranas, the Bhagavad-
Gltd, and other Vaisnava literature; the atheistic and semidualistic stage of the Panchasikha
and Caraka; and the third or atheistic and dualistic stage, represented by Arada and Isvara
Krsna, also the author of the Samkhya-Sutras (p. 18-145). Larson in his extensive examination
of Samkhya literature makes even finer distinctions in the 2,000-year history in even more
detailed stages, beginning with proto-Samkhya in the Upanisads, Ayurvedic source texts, and
the Puranas (Larson, 1969, pp. 206-207).
Zimmer's position is somewhat more radical, although he is hardly the first to field the
more indigenous interpretation. His position is that roots of yoga precede the monistic era and
go farther back to the pre-Aryan culture of the Indus valley. While highly speculative, this view
is partly based on the few seals still extant from the period prior to 1500 BCE, several of which
depict a seated figure in the classical lotus posture of meditation. In this sense, it can be said
that Buddhism, to some extent Jainism, and the Samkhya represent non-Vedic elements of
Hindu culture and at least have that fact in common with each other. As such, our hypothesis is
that the dualistic and non-theistic metaphysics of the Samkhya represent that element of Hindu
culture indigenous to the Indian subcontinent that the Aryans appropriated once they came but
that was not original to them.
This is the meaning of Zimmer's emphasis on Patanjali's choice of the Samkhya metaphysic
as a way to understand yoga psychology. The seals suggest a yoga of pre-Aryan origins, the
Samkhya was allegedly chosen because of its anti-Vedic character, and the state of consciousness
described as samadhi in the Yoga-Sutras remains dualistic and does not dissolve lifeless inert
matter into pure consciousness, as the Vedantic interpretation requires.
1
Both Surendranath Dasgupta and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan had already established this point in the
Indian philosophical literature.
Commentary
Starcher (2000) has argued that there is a lineage already established that links Eliade,
Zimmer, Jung, and Campbell to a tradition already laid down in the history of Existential-
humanistic and transpersonal psychology which instructs us on how to translate a religious
experience from a non-Western epistemology into a psychotherapeutically useful language
appropriate to a psychology of self-realization in the West. Eliade, like William James, argued
for a paradigm identifying generic structures within the phenomenology of religious experience
that all people have in common and that cut across cultures. Zimmer represents an example of
this paradigm, which was also influential in European intellectual circles in the mid-Twentieth
century, particularly around experts in depth psychology, such as the Swiss psychiatrist, C. G.
Jung.
Jung (1996) produced such works as The kundalini yoga Seminars, which presented four
lectures on the Sat Cakra Nirupana, a Hindu tantric text on the cakra system. The lectures
werefirstgiven by a scholar in comparative religions, and then repeated by Jung but represented
in terms of a psychology of individuation. Thus, we have a means by which we can see in a
single work, how a text translated out of the Sanskrit into English, was interpreted first by a
scholar and then by a psychiatrist whose main objective was to catalyze the process of self-
realization in his patients.
Joseph Campbell (1988), who was both a translator and editor of Zimmer's writings and
profoundly influenced by Jung, maintained that the key to understanding the contribution of
any culture to a global picture of spiritual self-actualization as far as human potential is
concerned, is through their mythology. He was ignored by religious scholars and folklorists in
the West, but his interpretation of mythic experience within individuals and across cultures,
through interviews with Bill Moyers on Public Television before he died, became a major
cultural event in the United States. It linked, among other things, a psychology of self-realization
to Hindu mythology and the practise of yoga.
This raises the important issue of just what psychology actually means between cultures.
In the West, psychology was originally a branch of philosophy, only recently divorced from
protestant Christianity that has now become established as a social science. In this form it
has migrated to Asian cultures under the umbrella of Western science and the Western
university system. Meanwhile, there is no separate discipline called psychology in Asian
cultures. There is rather a very intense focus on consciousness in disciplines such as yoga
and meditation, which may be considered from a psychological, philosophical, or religious
standpoint.
We may conclude in this regard that, while the practice of yoga has been most recently
introduced into the West through the psychotherapeutic counter-culture as a devotional form
of personality transformation and lifetime spiritual practice, it has now evolved into an exercise
regime for health and fitness as a more mainstream activity.
At the same time, yoga in the West is hardly of academic interest, except in such smaller
and newer fields as comparative religions and alternative therapies. To effect a change in
perception at the level of the academy in philosophy or psychology, a process of translation
from one epistemology to another would be necessary to make yoga understandable as a true
science of consciousness rather than merely an aerobic exercise or just another foreign religious
practice.2 Only when Westerners interpret yoga at that level of understanding will they discover
the Samkhya.
There are two important reasons to cultivate this understanding. First, it is this mystery of
the Samkhya that represents that part of indigenous Hindu culture we do not know in the West.
Our present conception of consciousness would have to become transformed in order to
accommodate the construct of higher, or deeper, or more expanded states of consciousness, as
yoga psychology posits. Western psychology would have to become less analytic and more
phenomenological to grasp this, however.
Second, a cross-cultural, comparative psychology of consciousness has much to contribute
to the realization of world peace, the actualization of which would represent nothing less than
an expanded state of planetary consciousness. If so, we also believe that a clearer understanding
of the dependence of yoga psychology on the Samkhya metaphysic represents an important
step in that direction.
References
Akhilananda, S. (1946). Hindu Psychology: Its Meaning for the West. Introduction by Gordon
W. Allport; foreword by Edgar Sheffield Brightman. New York: Harper.
Behanan, K. T. (1937). Yoga: A Scientific Evaluation. New York: MacMillan.
Campbell, J. (1988). Historical Atlas of World Mythology. New York: Perennial Library.
Coster, G. (1935). Yoga and Western Psychology: A Comparison. London: Oxford University
Press.
Green, E. and Green, A. (1977). BeyondBiofeedback. New York: Delacorte Press/S. Lawrence.
Gupta, A. S. (1986). The Evolution of the Samkhya School of Thought. New Delhi: Munshriram
Manoharlal.
Isherwood, C. (1951). Vedanta for Modern Man. New York: American Library.
Jung, C. G. (1996). The Psychology ofKundalini Yoga: Notes of the Seminar Given in 1932 by
C. G. Jung/edited by Sonu Shamdasani. London: Routledge.
Khalsa, S. B. (2004). 'Yoga as a therapeutic intervention: A bibliometric analysis of published
research studies'. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 48(3):269-S5.
Larson, G. L. (1969). Classical Samkhya. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Murphy, G. and Murphy, L. (Eds.) (1968). Asian Psychologies. New York: Harper & Row.
Patanjali (1888). Yoga Aphorisms. (Wm Q, Judge and Tookaram Tattya, Trans.). Bombay.
Patanjali (1953). How to Know God: The Yoga Aphorisms ofPatanjali. (Swami Prabhavananda
and C. Isherwood, Trans.). New York: Harper.
Ramachakra, Yogi, (1906). A Series of Lessons in Gnani Yoga. Chicago: Yogi Publication
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Starcher, D. (2000) Psychological Commentary on the Sat Chakra Nirupana. Unpublished
PhD dissertation, Saybrook Graduate School and Research Centre, San Francisco, CA.
Taimni, I. K. (1961). The Science of Yoga. Wheaton, 111: Theosophical Pub.
2
Epistemologically, the only equivalents we may have in Western thought to this kind of paradoxical
unity in difference would be existentialism, phenomenology, and depth psychology, or the psychology
of religion, or the historical study of comparative religions in the field of religious studies.
Shree Prohit Swami (Trans,)- (1938). Aphorisms of Yoga. London: Faber.

Taylor, E. I. (1996). 'Historical introduction'. In: M. Murphy, and S. Donovan. The Physical
and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a
Comprehensive Bibliography; 1931-1996. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences.
Taylor, E. I. (1996). 'Sriyogirajmahagurusat Sarvagatananda-ji'. In: C. Mehta (Ed.). The
Lamplighter: Swami Sarvagatananda in the West. Fortieth Anniversary Tribute to the
Ministry of Swami Sarvagatananda. Ramakrishna Vedanta Society of Boston, Mass., Salem,
NH: The Frugal Printer.
Taylor, E. I. (1986). 'Swami Vivekananda and William James'. Prabuddha Bharata (Journal of
the Ramakrishna Society), 9/; Sept., 374-385.
Watts, A. (1961). Psychotherapy: East and West. New York: Pantheon Books.
Whicher, I. (2000). The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana. New Delhi: D. K. Printworld.
Zimmer, H. (1951). Philosophies of India, (Ed. and Trans.), Joseph Campbell. Cleavland:
Meridian.

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12

Yoga Psychology and the Samkhya Metaphysic

E U G E N E TAYLOR AND JUDITH G. SUGG

Samkhya and Vedanta Compared

is purely non-theistic, in classical Samkhya. To say that it is atheistic, we feel, is a misnomer,

Shree Prohit Swami (Trans,)- (1938). Aphorisms of Yoga. London: Faber.

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