TTT Bold iela) ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA eet alot 8 coal acl tela) Poonam Dalal Dahiya Mc Graw Hill cannerave 0,000 Bc 40,000 BcE-10,000 ace ‘Covers the greater part of the Established only in 1960 by bs H.D. Sankalia and was named Nevasan industry after the site of Nevasa, Maharashtra, Homo sapiens first appeared at the end of this phase thereby marking increase in cognitive capability of humans. This phase also coincided with the last phase of the Ice Age, when the climate became peram _ comparatively warmer and less humid. Be Mesolithic Age® (Hunters and Herders) The Mesolithic Age represents the intermediate st and Neolithic cultures belong to the Holocene era® ( 10,000 years ago). One of the key aspects of the Mesolithic Age was the reduction in size of well-established tool types. The characteristic tools of this age were microliths (miniature stone tools usually made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony, or chert, both of ‘geometrical and non- geometrical shapes) (Fig. 1.3). They were not only used as tools in themselves but were also used to make composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles after hafting them on wooden or bone handles. The microliths enabled the Mesolithic man to hunt smaller animals and birds. age in Stone Age culture. Both Mesolithic which succeeded the Pleistocene era around FiGURE 1,3 Tools of the Mesolithic Age ‘The term ‘Mesolithic is the combination of two words, ‘meso’ and lithic. In Greek eb bape the middle and ‘lithic’ feane stone, Hence, the Mesolithic stage of pre-historyis also known as the Middle Stone Age, "Dating this r,t ie in temperature, as a result of which the climate became warm which further resulted Samalting of ice and brought certain Changes in flora and fala. With the advent of global warming, buman groups became highly mobile and began to occupy various eco zones. & scanned with OKEN Scanner(@) The Mesolithic people lived in semi-permanent and temporary settlements along with occupying |___caves and open grounds. (&) They survived on hunting, fishing, food gathering, and in later stages, also domesticated animals along with cultivation of plants thus paving the way for Neolithic way of life. This culture is thus assigned to pre-agricultural times in most areas. These people used fire and perhaps roasted food too. (© They buried the dead and sometimes with grave goods which suggests their beliefs in life after death. [(@ They had artistic sill and the Mesolithic era initiated rock art in pre-history. In 1867, the fist rock paintings in India were discovered at Sohagighat (Kaimur Hills, UP). Now, over 150 Mesolithicrock art sites have been discovered across India, with rich concentration in Central India suchas the Bhimbetka caves (Fig. 1.4), Kharwar, Jaora, and Kathotia (M.P.), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Orissa), Ezhuthu | Guha (Kerala), Animals dominate the scenes at most Mesolithic rock art sites. However, no snakes _ are depicted in Mesolithic paintings. Also, certain rock paintings give ideas about the development of religious practice along with reflecting the division of labour on the basis of gender. FIGURE 1.4 Bhimbetka Cave Painting” IMPORTANT MESOLITHIC SITES ‘One of the largest and best documented ‘Mesolithic sites in India. Provides the earliest evidence e for the domestication of animals, & scanned with OKEN ScannerEV th.) ET Se PA PreHistoric Inia |. OT MESOLITHIC SITES IN INDIA cftRaKoTFALLs (CHINTAMANU GAVI entcunta PooipAra & scanned with OKEN Scannerfeeeen a a et et a0 Ancient and Medieval India Bx 3 ees Bone artefacts are found, including arrow- heads and bone ornaments. Finding of a burial having a man and woman buried together. 4 | Langhnaj, district Mehsana in Gujarat and in the | Though pottery is absent at most Meso. | Kaimur region of Mirzapur (U.P.). lithic sites, itis present at both these sites. 5 | Chotanagpur Region, Central India. Prominent sites in these concerned states. South of River Krishna (Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu) Birbhanpur in West Bengal Laghnaj (near Gujarat) | Sarai Nahar Rai (near Allahabad Pratapgarh area) Be Neolithic Age* (Food-Producing Stage) In northern India, the Neolithic age emerged around c.8000-6000 BCE. But at some places in southern and eastern India, it was as late as 1000 BcE. Its significance in pre-history can be gauged by the fact that V. Gordon Childe termed the Neolithic phase as Neolithic Revolution since it introduced a lot of important changes in man’s socio-economic life which consequently greatly affected the human life. Some of the innovations were: (@) Beginning of agriculture and animal domestication: The use of sharp and polished Neolithic tools made it easier to cultivate the soil and thus, the Neolithic man cultivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram (kulathi). He started domesticating cattle, sheep, and goats and as a result, there was emergence of settled agricultural communities, (b) Innovations in technology: The Neolithic man innovated in the production of stone taols, producing implements such as polished, pecked, and ground stone tools (Fig. 1.6). ‘They depended on polished stones other than quartzite for making tools. The use of celts was especially important for ground and polished handaxes. Besides stone tools, various types of bone objects such as needles, scrapers, borers, arrowheads, pendants, bangles and earrings have also been found. The new polished tools made it easier for humans to cult and perform other activities in a better manner. + The Neolithic era communities first made pottery by hand and » help of the potter's wheel. Their pottery included black burnished ware, d mat-impressed ware. It can therefore be said that pottery on a large-scale & scanned with OKEN ScannerAE SSO K Ne AS Be WET Ficure 1.6 Neolithic Implements (@ Emergence of self-sufficient village communities: In the later phases of the Neolithic era, people led a more settled life. They lived in circular and rectangular houses made of mud and reed. They also knew how to make boats and could spin cotton, wool and weave doth. (©) Division of labour based on sex and age: As society was progressing, the need for additional labour was recognised and thus labour was procured from other non kin groups too. Nr ercasce (Neolithic Culture of North- | Inthenorth-wester part of India, the Neolithic culture began ata very early date. For instance, the site of Mehrgarh has produced evidence of early Neolithic times dating to c. 7000 BCE and this culture preceded I __| Indus Valley Civilisation, sO lesstive i) Neolithic Culture of Kashmir The Neolithic culture in Kashmir was contemporary to the Harappan ivilisation, The people lived in pit houses (about 4m in depth) in order I to escape the cold weather. ied (ii) Neolithic Culture of Ganges | These Neolithic sites were characterised by cord marked pottery. Valley and Central India | Important sites are Koldiwa, Chirand, Senuwar and Mahagara. (iv) Neolithic Culture of Eastern | These Neolithic sites are found in Bihar and West Bengal and show India similarities with the Neolithic complexes of east and south-east Asia, | | Western India & scanned with OKEN ScannerF | BEAA2|H| Anciont and Medieval India a oenraic omens (%) Neolithic Culture of Southern India | | (ei) Neolithic Culture of North |____Bastern India Z ‘These sites have been found mainly in Andhra Pradesh and Kamataka and in the north-western Tamil Nadu. These sites have ash mounds in the centre with settlements around them. ‘The Neolithic culture in north-eastern India appears at a very late period and generally dates from 2500-1500 BCE or even later. Itis also pertinent to note that the Neolithic cultures of India are divided into various regional cultures and they flourished in different time periods. IMPORTANT NEOLITHIC SITES es Big 1 | Burzahom (Jammu and Kashmir) 2 | Gufkraal (Jammu and Kashmir) Maski, Brahmagiri, Piklihal and Takkalakota (Karnataka) Budihal (Karnataka) Chirand (Bihar) Belan Valley which is located on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas and middle part of Narmada valley 7 | Koldihwa (in Belan valley) “7 Chopani- Mando (Belan valley) 8 | Mehrgarh (Breadbasket of Baluchistan, a province of Pakistan) 9 | Koldihwa and Mahagara (lying south of Allahabad) ecu Unique rectangular chopper. Domestic dogs buried with their masters in graves ; Famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and graveyard in house 4.008] Proof of cattle herding. | Proof of community food preparation and feasting. 5 = Considerable bone implements specially made of antlers, ie. homs of deer. _ = All the three phases of Palaeolithic age followed | by Mesolithic and Neolithic in sequence. Reveals a three-fold cultured sequence of eolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age. 53 | Provides earliest evidence of use of pottery. Earliest Neolithic site. | Evidence of houses built of sun-dried bricks by | Neolithic people. | Bvidence of cultivation of crops like wheat, | barley and cotton. Barliest example of dentistry, Le. drilling of | human tooth. ER asie Z| Have many strata of circular huts along with crude hand-made pottery Also, evidence ofrce | (this isthe oldest evidence of rie cultivation, not only in India but anywhere in the world). & scanned with OKEN Scannerae AT Se EE Pro-istoric india \MAASI aiyampalli in Tamil Nadu Utnur, Nagarjundakonda, Budihal in Andhra | Pradesh | Amri, Kotdiji in Sindh, Punjab Garo Hills in Meghalaya | Saraikhola (near Taxila on Potwar plateau) Prominent sites in these concerned states, NEOLITHIC SITES ‘CHIRAND KOLDIHWA & scanned with OKEN ScannerKeone 6000-1000 BCE Also known Old Stone Age Late/Middle Stone Age New Stone Age as e : Age of Hunters and food gather- | Hunters and herders, Food producers ers Prs8 Hv Subsistence | Food gathering, hunting Pre-agricultural times Agriculture, livestock rear- and fishing ing complemented with | ie --—- ____ hunting and gathering Stone tools | Rough, crude, bigand Improved polished stone tools Polished and pecked stone “unpolished stone tools | such as microliths tools such as celts along with needles, scrappers, ete. Existence _|Nomadicexistence __ Transition stage __———_| Settledeexistence Shelter Lived in open spaces, river | Lived in semi-permanent and _| People started living in valleys, caves and rock | temporary settlements permanent houses such as shelters __ thatched huts Artand Inthe upper Palaeolithic | Good evidences of artistic skills | Made pottery, carved craft stage, some evidence of |_as many cave paintingshave _ objects from wood, built painting ofanimalson _been found belonging to this. _ shelter and tombs a cave walls era, No knowledge of agricul- | Began to use controlled fire, | Knowledge of agriculture ture or domestication of | and in later stages started tam- and domestication of ani- animals or housebuilding ing animals and initiated some _ mals along with pottery orpotterybutinlater _plant cultivation though not on | and some metals stages had knowledge of | same scale as Neolithic Age but fire still no knowledge of pottery. Language No complex language, _| Began to use little bit of devel-__ Use of complex and devel- develop» may have expressed afew | oped language | oped language ment | words or sounds and used | | _ a sign language | Chalcolithic Age / Copper-Stone Age (c. 3000-500 sce) ‘The Chalcolithic age marked the emergence of the use of metal along with stone tools. The first metal to be used was copper, though they also occasionally used bronze. Technologically, the Chalcolithic stage largely applies to the settlements of pre-Harappans, but in various parts of Country, it appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture, Some Chalcolithic cultures are contemporary of Harappan culture and some of pre-Harappan cultures, though it is possible to Say that most Chalcolithic cultures are post-Harappan. TSS & scanned with OKEN ScannerADE RS CSE he et Sa ee mi i Presistric India \RAASTA =m Primarily raral ly urban fe Used mostly copper Used bronze if ) Lived near hilly land or _ Attained urbanisation on the basis of produce from flood plains in Indus a rivers valley fonts (@)_Chalcolithic people subsisted on agriculture and cattle rearing, besides practising hunting and fishing, The people of the Chalcolithic phase produced wheat and rice as their staple, bajra, several pulses such as lentil, black gram, green gram, and grass pea, while those living in eastern regions lived on fish and rice. They practiced more slash-burn or jhum cultivation. However, neither the plough nor the hhoe has been found at any site of this period. It is pertinent to note that major parts of this culture flourished in the zone of black soil, useful mainly for growing cotton. (@) They domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pigs and buffaloes and hunted deer but were not acquainted with horses. They cooked their food and ate beef too. However, quite interestingly, the domesticated animals were slaughtered for food and not milked for dairy products (this practice still continues among the Gond people of Bastar). _ ls OR (© Theyused different types of pottery, of which black and red pottery and ochre coloured pottery (OCP) were the most popular. This was made using the potter's wheel and was painted with white line design. Equally interesting is the fact that female potters did not use the potter's wheel, only men did. (@ Theywere characterised by rural settlements and were not acquainted with burnt brick, and generally lived in thatched houses made of mud bricks. Their economy was a village-based economy. Also, one can note the beginnings of social inequalities in Chalcolithic societies, as chiefs who lived in rectan- gular houses dominated others who lived in round huts. (©) Their villages were small, with huts close to each other. People lived in rectangular and circular houses swith mud walls and thatched roofs. Most of the houses were single roomed but some had two or three |__xooms. Pa (Q Smnall lay images of earth goddesses have been found from Chalcolithic sites. It is thus possible to say that they venerated the Mother Goddess. The bull was probably the symbol of their religious cult |____ (based on stylised bull terracottas of Malwa and Rajasthan), (@ Chalcolithic people were fond of ornaments and decoration. The women wore ornaments of shell and bone and carried finely worked combs in their hair. They manufactured beads of semi-precious stones |__such as carnelian, steatite and quartz crystal. its iu i | (b) he Chalcolithic-era people were expert coppersmiths. They knew the art of copper-smelting and were | go0d stone workers as well. They knew spinning and weaving too, However, they did not know the | of writis | Infant mortality was very high among Chalcolithic people, as evident from the burial of alarge number ___ of children in western Maharashtra. Bray ~~ fa 1 & scanned with OKEN ScannerCHALCOLITHIC | SITES iis ~-~-7 Mehrgarh Ganeshwar >, © Chirand MAhar — @ Eran —-@ Koldihwa @ Kayatha © Navadatoli dlabal Sasan Brahnfagiri @ Map not to Scale FIGURE 1.8 Chalcolithic Sites in India Chalcolithic settlements have been found in south-eastern Rajasthan, western M.P., western Maharashtra, as well as other parts of southern and eastern India. There are definite regional differences in terms of cereals produced and consumed, pottery made, and so on. For instance, eastern India produced rice, whereas western India cultivated barley and wheat. In Maharashtra, the dead were buried in the north-south direction, whereas in southern India they were buried in the east-west direction. In eastern India, fractional burial was practiced, & scanned with OKEN ScannerPreHistorc India |AA7 one Abar near Udaipur and Gilund {@) Banas culture (2600 ner south-east Rajasthan (b) Kayatha culture (2100 nce-2000 new) [(@ Malwa culture (1700 Bcr-1400 nce) ©(@ Jorwe culture (1400 BcB-700 nee) | Kayatha in Chambal as its chief site in Madhya Pradesh Navdatoli in Western Madhya Pradesh Tnamgaon and Chandoli near Pune in Maharashtra IMPORTANT CHALCOLITHIC SITES No 1 Ahar (Banas Valley, Rajasthan) eee People practised smelting and metallurgy Ce amipatins ___| Lived in stone-built houses __Gilund (Banas Valley, Rajasthan) | Seldom use of burnt bricks Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and | Non-Harappan culture | Eran (M.P.) Ss z peiecinbaneiras os eS 4 | Navdatoli Cultivated almost all food grains _ 5 Daimabad Largest Jorwe culture site in Godavari valley Famous for recovery of bronze goods such as bronze | rhinoceros, elephant, two-wheeled chariot with a rider | ee ___ anda buffalo b ea | 6 | Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik _Large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses | (Maharashtra) _ 4 of ee | 7 | Kayatha (M.P.) Mud plastered floors | Pre-Harappan elements in pottery along with copper ___ objects with sharp cutting edges _ : 8 | Malwa (M.P.) | Richest Chalcolithic ceramics | Spindle whorls | Non-Harappan culture _ 9 | Chirand, Senuay, Sonpur (Bihar) Prominent sites in these concerned states Mahishdal (West Bengal) ile 2 QUESTIONS FROM LAST YEAR'S MAINS 1, Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India not only reflects the cultural life of the times but inting, Critically evaluate this comment. also a fine aesthetic sense comparable to modern painting, Critically ev: ae ET A rar} oR Ths © & scanned with OKEN Scannerfg Sa ARES ae nas a ‘Ancient and Medieval India PRACTICE QUESTIONS — PRELIMS 1. Match the following: Column A Column B | g i. Palaeolithic Age ar fe fe rE A. Copper ii, Neolithic Age B. Discovery of fire iii, Chalcolithic Age C. Microliths iv. Mesolithic Age D. Tools for harvesting crops @ iA ia iv. B ©) ic i A iv. B © iB ii, D iv. C @ iD fe iv. B rs Consider the following statements and identify which are specific to the Neolithic period. i, Domestication of animals and growing of wild varieties of crops. People used copper and bronze to make a lot of tools. iii. Making of specialised tools by flaking stones, which were pointed in one end. @) lonly ) 1,2,3 ( 1,3 only @ 1,2only . 3. Match the historical period and archaeological sites. Period re i. Palaeolithic Bhimbetka 4 ii, Mesolithic . Belan iii, Neolithic Navada Toli iv. Chalcolithic . Mehargarh @) iA ii, C ii, D iv. B b) ic ii, A .D iv. B (© iB ii, A iii, D iv. C -@ iD ii, C iii, A iv. B 4. Which of the following are characteristic of the Neolithic age? i, Use of very finely flaked small stone stools, blades, and burins, ii, Domestication of cattle, horses, and other farm animals. iii, Painting and decorating pottery. (b) i,iionly (d) None of the above 5. Consider the following statements and choose the appropriate one. i : i, Technologically, the Chalcolithic stage refers to pre-Harappans but in various parts o the country it appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture. & scanned with OKEN Scanner> a 2 ° 10. 11. 13. 14. . Nomadic man started settling in: (@) Palaeolithic Age (b) Mesolithic Age (. Neolithic Age (d) Chalcolithic Age Man moved from food-gathering to food-producing in the: (@) Palaeolithic Age (b) Mesolithic Age () Chalcolithic Age (d)_ Neolithic Age a Pre-Historic India |AAST ji AllChalcolithic cultures are not necessaril re- cultures are necessarily Chalcolithic aie ‘Harappan cultures, but all pre-Harappan iii, All Chalcolithic cultures are necessarily pre-Hara cultures are not necessarily Chalcolithic cultures @ ionly (b) i, itionly (© iii i (d) i,ii only Which of the following statements is correct regarding pre-historic art? (@ Palaeolithic and Mesolithic people practised painting, (&) Pre-historic art does not appear at the Bhimbetka caves. (QO Many figures regarding the solar system were painted. (@ ‘he paintings depict the religious beliefs of the people. ippan cultures, but pre-Harappan Which was the first metal used by man? (a) Copper (b) Silver (Q Bronze (@) Iron With which of the following periods do we associate the ‘microlith’ implements? (a) Palaeolithic (b) Chalcolithic (Q. Neolithic (d) Mesolithic With which period do we associate the ‘megaliths’? (a) Pleistocene (b) Neolithic-Chalcolithic (Q Mesolithic (@ None of the above What was the earliest metal tool used for? (2) Pot-making (b) House-building (Q. Clearing jungles (@) Making wheels The first animals to be domesticated during Stone Age were: (b) Dogs, horses, goat (@) Dogs, goat, sheep (a) Sheep, elephant, dog (9 Horses, sheep, goat ¢ Palaeolithic age was (b) Potter's wheel (d)_ Spinning and weaving ‘The greatest innovation of man in th (a) Metal implements (©) Discovery of fire & scanned with OKEN ScanneroN ee Re TA SE ECT EGA HEAZON| Arciont and Medieval nda 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. During the Chalcolithic age, the only metal known to man was: (a) Iron (b) Gold (©) Copper (d) Silver Which one of the following statements is not correct? (a) The Chalcolithic men in India were acquainted with burnt bricks. (b) Palaeolithic man in the later stages knew about fire. (© Bhimbetka Caves are a treasure house of pre-historic paintings. (@)_ Man came to practice agriculture in Neolithic era. Sites Age i, Ahar and Gilund A. Chalcolithic ii, Mohenjodaro B. Harappa . Burzahom C. Neolithic iv. Bagor D. Mesolithic @ iA c iii, B iv. D ® ic A iv. B Oia i, B iv. D @ id i C iv. B Consider the following statements regarding the economy of the Neolithic period: i The economy of the early Neolithic cultures was based on agriculture and animal domestication ii, The Neolithic man knew about iron Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? @) Onlyi (b) Both iandii © Onlyii (d) None of the above Consider the following statements regarding Chalcolithic people: i. Chalcolithic communities traded and exchanged materials with other contemporary communities ii. Large settlements like Ahar, Gilund, Navdatoli, Eran, Rangpur, Daimabad, and Inamgaon served as major centres of trade and exchange iii, Ahar people, settled close to the copper source, supplied copper tools and objects to other contemporary communities in Malwa and Gujarat Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? (a) Onlyi (b) iandii © iiandiii (d) All of the above & scanned with OKEN Scanner90, Consider the following st 21. PreHistorc Inca ALA ‘atements regarding th riod: ig the status of technology during the Chalcolithic j. The Chalcolithic people were ex in metal technology. ii, ‘The painted pottery was well made. Pert coppersmiths and had made considerable progress Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? (@) Only (b) iandii (©) Only ii (d) None of the above coe pe rune soimne regarding the Chalcolithic cultures in India: i, Some of the colithic cultures were contemporary with the Harappan culture and others were post-Harappan. ii, The Chalcolithic culture is characterised by painted pottery, usually red and black. ii, Itwas urban as compared to rural Harappan. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? (@) Onlyi (6) iandii (9 iandiii (@) Allof the above Which of the following pairs is incorrectly matched? i, Lower Palaeolithic - Handaxe and cleaver industries Middle Palaeolithic - Tools made on flakes iii, Upper Palaeolithic - Tools made on blades and burins. (@) Onlyi (b) Onlyiand ii (0) Allof the above (@_ None of the above Consider the following statements regarding tools and technology of the middle Palaeolithic culture: i. The middle Palaeolithic period is characterised basically by the flakes obtained by striking them out from pebbles or cobbles. ii, ‘The tools included various kinds of scrapers, borers, and knives. Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct? (=) Onlyi (b) iandii © Only ii (@) None Which of the following archaeological sites have Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic remains? (@) Belan valley (b) Bhimbetka () Nevasa (@) Pushkar & scanned with OKEN ScannerANSWERS PAO 2@) 18.04) 80) 6@ -7.@ 8 90) 1.0 1@ 12© 13@ 140 15 16() 17.0 18@ 19@ 206) 2216) 2@ 236) 24@ (| PRACTICE QUESTIONS — MAINS 1, Explain the different phases of the Stone Age, specifying their characteristic features and prominent sites related to each. 2. Why does the Neolithic Age hold a unique place in the evolution of mankind? Elaborate with five examples. 3. ‘Technologically, the Chalcolithic phase refers to pre-Harappan cultures, but in various parts of the country, the Chalcolithic phase appears after the end of bronze Harappa culture’. Does this statement hold any authenticity? Specify with reasons. & scanned with OKEN Scanner