Review

Author(s): Stuart Ray Sarbacker

Review by: Stuart Ray Sarbacker
Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 60, No. 2 (APRIL 2010), pp. 294-298
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40666561
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 BOOK REVIEWS

Yoga: India's Philosophy of Meditation. Edited by Gerald James Larson and Ram
Shankar Bhattacharya. Volume 12 of Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophy Series Editor
Karl Potter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2008. Pp. 784.
Reviewed by Stuart Ray Sarbacker Oregon State University

Yoga: India's Philosophy of Meditation is the most recent volume in the highly ac-
claimed Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophy series, under general editor Karl Potter.
This work might be appropriately considered the long-awaited sequel to Larson and
Bhattacharya's earlier volume (number 4 in the series), Sãmkhya: A Dualist Tradi-
tion in Indian Philosophy and it may well be among the greatest in importance on
the topic in the past fifty years, especially as it represents the culmination of the
trajectory of Larson's engagement with the material over the course of his prolific
career. Ram Shankar Bhattacharya passed away in 1996 while the work was still in
progress, leaving Larson to complete the volume on his own. Larson's admiration for
Bhattacharya as an industrious researcher and as a generous teacher shines through
clearly in the text. Bhattacharya's numerous contributions to the book and the broad
presentation of his range of work within it are conscientiously represented by Larson
and will undoubtedly solidify Bhattacharya's legacy in the study of Patañjala yoga for
generations of scholars to come. This book represents the fruition of decades of work
for Larson and is a testament to the depth and breadth of his knowledge of the field,
especially with respect to the relationship between Sãmkhya and Yoga as philosophi-
cal schools.
Though this volume is a resource clearly of greatest use for scholars of South
Asian religion and philosophy, Larson also intends it to have broader relevance to
contemporary philosophical conversations, especially with respect to philosophy of
mind (pp. 72-74). It is divided into two principle parts, the first being an introduction
to yoga that includes sections on the history and literature of yoga, the philosophy
of Patañjala Yoga, the Hatha Yoga traditions, and Contemporary Yoga traditions. The
second part consists of summaries of key works on yoga in the Sanskrit literature. The
three sections of the second part focus on texts of the Patañjala Yoga traditions (the
Yogasütra and commentaries, i.e., the Yogasãstra), on Hatha Yoga traditions (including
the Kaulajnãnanirnaya, Siddhasiddhãntapaddhati, and Hathayogapradlpikã, as well
as lesser known texts), and on so-called "additional" texts (such as the Yogavãsista
and the Yoga Upanisad literature).
Larson charts out four explicit goals in the introductory part of the work (p. 21).
The first of these is to examine how, and to what degree, Yoga as a school of thought
represents an authentic philosophy of India. Larson's inclination is to say that it
can clearly be identified as being a philosophy in the fullest sense, given the fact
that there is a long-standing Sanskrit tradition of text and commentary that extends
from the fourth or fifth century c.e. to the present, including the Yogasütra (hereafter
YS), a primary text or sütrapatha (fourth to fifth centuries c.e.), of Patañjali, and the

294 Philosophy East & West Volume 60, Number 2 April 2010 294-298
© 201 0 by University of Hawai'i Press

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various commentarial works of figures such as Vyasa (fourth to fifth centuries ce.),
Vãcaspatimisra (ninth to tenth centuries ce.), Bhojarãja (eleventh century ce.), and
Vijnãnabhiksu (sixteenth century ce.), among others (p. 22). The status of yoga as a
philosophical system is also indicated in Larson's referencing of the intimate rela-
tionship between Sãmkhya and Yoga, especially given Vyasa's identification of his
commentary as a Sãmkhyapravacana, or "exposition on Sämkhya" (p. 23). Larson
views the trajectories of Yoga and of Sãmkhya, whether separate or united, as being
profoundly influential on the religious life of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina traditions
and, more broadly, in many dimensions of South Asian religion and culture.
The second stated goal of the work is to discern the relationship between yoga as
a philosophical undertaking and yoga as an experimental or experiential endeavor.
Here, Larson discusses the ubiquity of yoga as a dimension of Indian religion and
culture, a "characteristic dimension of Indian spirituality/' as noted in the work of
Mircea Eliade and others (p. 24). One of the key issues at stake for Larson is distin-
guishing yoga as an ascetic, experimental technique that is found in a wide range of
contexts from the concept of yoga as an overarching philosophy that is articulated in
a systematic and cohesive fashion.
In examining the degree to which these dimensions can be separated from
one another - the third stated goal of the work - Larson notes that scholarship on
yoga tends to be polarized and fixated on one dimension or the other. These issues
tie into a dynamic that he sees between scholars who want to argue that yoga is
"everywhere" (i.e., a ubiquitous form of spirituality) in the South Asian context versus
those who want to argue that it is "nowhere" (i.e., that it is a rarefied and idealized
philosophical tradition that is secondary to Sãmkhya and exists only on the margins
of other traditions) (pp. 30-32). Larson suggests that understanding how the experi-
ential components, especially "powers" such as siddhi and vibhüti, operate within
the philosophical systems of yoga might offer one solution to this problem.
In defining the term "yoga," his fourth stated goal, Larson indicates an inclination
toward making the philosophical understanding of the term "yoga" preeminent in his
analysis - as a form of meditation (derived from the verbal root ^yuj, in its technical
sense of "to concentrate" as opposed to the typical translation "to yoke" or "to join")
and in a particular sense referring to the system elucidated in the Yoga philosophy or
scripture (sastra) (pp. 28-29).
With respect to the historiography of yoga and the relationship between Sãmkhya
and Yoga as philosophical schools, Larson more clearly and convincingly articulates
an argument for the intimacy of this relationship that he has developed in other
works. Larson argues for a process whereby the concept, if not the practice, of yoga
was co-opted by a neo-Sãmkhya philosophical tradition, one that incorporated Bud-
dhist Abhidharma traditions along with a variety of ascetic techniques, including
those of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina origin, within an overarching Sãmkhya frame-
work. Larson suspects that the chief architect of this transformation was the Sãmkhya
philosopher Vindhyavãsin (p. 40). On the basis of this assertion, Larson presses the
thesis that Sãmkhya is what makes yoga a "philosophy," and that the confluence
of Sãmkhya and the theories and methods of yoga is a moment that reflects a shift

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 from performative toward academic modes with respect to the subject. Though Lar-
son does not pursue the implications of such a bridging of approaches, this kind
of observation leaves the door open for questions regarding the sociohistorical is-
sues at stake in the drawing of ascetic technique into the philosophical mold. The
three chief streams of these traditions that have come together, according to Larson,
are the sastitantra or "discernment philosophy" of Sãmkhya, the nirodhasamãdhi or
"cessation contemplation" model that is drawn from Buddhist materials, and ascetic
techniques such as kriyãyoga or "the yoga of action" (pp. 43-45). Larson argues
uncontroversially that the crucial difference to be found between Sãmkhya and Yoga
is with regard to soteriological approach, specifically that Sãmkhya posits reasoning
as sufficient for facilitating liberation, whereas in Yoga the development of particular
types of awareness through meditation is required to bring about liberation.
Larson's study also brings a number of insights to two key issues that have been
the subject of controversy for generations with respect to the YS: the identity of Pata-
ñjali and the question of whether the YS is a unitary or a composite text. Larson's in-
clination is to defer to the "testimony of tradition" where arguments remain unsettled
(p. 54). Nevertheless, he brings considerable clarity to the issue of the question of the
singular-versus-plural nature of Patañjali as an author, with an excellent discussion
of the links between the study of mind (citta, manas), language (sabda), and medi-
cine (cikitsã) that connect together the various personas of the Patañjali of tradition.
He also examines the often-ignored relationship between Patañjali as the author of
the VSand Patañjali as a mythic nãga figure, which culminates in the identification
with Patañjali as Adisesa or Nãgarãja, a common representation in contemporary
contexts. This excursion into the persona of Patañjali is followed by an examination
of the various ways in which prominent Indologists from Deussen and Frauwallner to
Staal and Feuerstein have sought to understand the structure of the YS and the ques-
tion of its unity. Larson finds parity in Feuerstein's analysis, especially with respect
to the assumption of a "basic homogeneity" to the text, and a model in which one
assumes the integrity of the text unless evidence to the contrary appears in analysis
(p. 64). Nevertheless, he does believe that attempts to isolate fragments of the text do
assist in identifying themes within the text, something that he sees as typically quite
difficult to do without the assistance of the larger commentarial literature.
With regard to the philosophy itself, having acknowledged his debt to the com-
mentarial literature, most notably the TattvavaisãradJ, Larson provides a clear and
concise overview of the key principles of yoga philosophy. The principles that he
focuses on in his analysis include the definition of yoga (yoga as cittavrttinirodha, the
"cessation of the function of ordinary awareness," as Larson defines it); materialism
(drawn from Sãmkhya); dualism (prakrti and purusa); theism (Tsvara); concentration
(samãdhi); the yoga of action (kriyãyoga) and the limbs of yoga (yogãnga); compre-
hensive reflection (samyama) and the extraordinary cognitive capacities (vibhüti, sid-
dhi); and spiritual liberation (kaivalya).
Larson's overarching approach is to "demythologize" yoga through examining
yoga as a philosophy of mind rather than principally a metaphysical system. The
implications of this approach are demonstrated with respect to his lucid presentation

296 Philosophy East & West

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of the relationship between Sarpkhya cosmology and the theory of mind and medita-
tion that is presented in the Yoga school. It also supports a provocative discussion of
the different modes of awareness that are explicated in the YS and the commentarial
literature, providing the ground for Larson's attempt to bridge Yoga with contempo-
rary conceptions in the Philosophy of Mind. Likewise, Larson provides a coherent
scheme for understanding the occult attainments resulting from the practice of yoga,
delineating the major themes of knowledge (jñana) and power (vibhüti) in a system-
atic way. Larson augments this systematic understanding of such yogic powers by
interpreting them psychologically, as a way of integrating them into a philosophical,
as opposed to a mythic, paradigm.
Though this theory is intellectually appealing in some respects - at least, as Lar-
son has stated, in making Yoga a "respectable" Philosophy of Mind - the sheer em-
phasis on vibhüti in the text and the seemingly clear cosmological implications of
such powers may cause one to give pause to the wholesale adoption of such an inter-
pretation. It might be more fruitful, for example, to view the discussion of yogic pow-
ers in vibhütipada as a sort of "natural philosophy" or "natural theology" that utilizes
Sarpkhya metaphysics and cosmology to explain how such powers, documented in
literature and perhaps in the experience of practitioners, can be explained in rational
and analytical terms. It might be further argued that the YS and its commentaries
draw upon a philosophical framework in which the psychological and cosmological
realms were not seen as in opposition to one another but rather as intimately and dy-
namically related to one another. This is evident, for example, in the correlations be-
tween the contemplative states of samãdhi and the characteristics of beings dwelling
at higher cosmological levels (YS 111.26 and commentary) and in the suggestions that
link samyama on parts of the body to particular types of knowledge (e.g., YS 111.32).
This point aside, the clarity of Larson's analysis combined with his ability to bring
structure and coherence to this aspect of the Yoga philosophy does serve to bring the
reader into a deeper intellectual conversation with this tradition, and builds bridges
to contemporary philosophy that have great potential for the growth of comparative
studies.
The last parts of the essay portion of the text deal principally with hathayoga
and contemporary yoga traditions. The section on hathayoga and "satellite/sectar-
ian" traditions sketches out briefly the development of the various tantra-influenced
hatha lineages with reference to their relationship to the Yoga philosophy. Larson
includes sections on the sectarian traditions of the Pãncarãtras, Pãsupatas, Kãpãlikas,
Kãlãmukhas, Nãtha Siddhas, and others. Likewise, the section on contemporary tra-
ditions, contributed by Autumn Jacobsen, provides brief descriptions of a number
of contemporary lineages of yoga, paying special attention to Norman Sjoman's
work on the Krishnamacharya tradition of Southern India. These two sections, on
hathayoga and on contemporary yoga traditions, are the least developed in the essay
portion of Larson's work, perhaps due to their peripheral relationship to yoga as a
systematic philosophy. The selection of sectarian groups and contemporary traditions
is a bit eclectic, and the relative importance of the traditions and lineages selected
(and those that are absent) does not always appear clear. These brief discussions do,

Book Reviews 297

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 however, orient the reader on a foundational level to this larger scope of yoga in
theory and practice. Though these elements are clearly not as central to the thesis
and purpose of Larson's work, they nevertheless contribute to the field by consoli-
dating knowledge in two areas of study that are currently in a state of accelerated
development.
As mentioned above, the second part of the work is dedicated to providing sum-
maries of important works on yoga. The collection of texts that are discussed rep-
resents a vast range of primary sources and commentarial literature from both the
Pãtanjala and Hatha Yoga traditions. It includes a translation of the VSby Larson and
a summary of the Bhãsya by Bhattacharya, as well as entries by notable scholars of
Indian philosophy and yoga such as Karl Potter and T. S. Rukmani. These transla-
tions and summaries provide an effective and useful counterpart to the historical and
philosophical analysis of Larson that is found in the first part of the work. Overall,
this volume is a landmark work that will clearly be an invaluable resource to scholars
for generations to come. It is a lucid exposition on traditional philosophy that is also
innovative and forward-looking in a number of ways. It will be of great use to schol-
ars of Indian philosophy and South Asian religion, and an excellent encyclopedic
resource for scholars and students of philosophy and religion across disciplinary
fields.

The Writing of Weddings in Middle-Period China: Text and Ritual Practice in the
Eighth through Fourteenth Centuries. By Christian de Pee. Albany: State University of
New York Press, 2007. Hardcover $75.00. Paper $27.95.

Reviewed by Michael Nylan University of California, Berkeley

Christian de Pee's The Writing of Weddings in Middle-Period China: Text and Ritual
Practice in the Eighth through Fourteenth Centuries beautifully marries pathbreaking
insights drawn from different disciplines, including gender studies, archaeology, and
cultural anthropology. This book is likely to enrage some historians, however, and to
understand why, we had better review the two competing visions of history, modern
and postmodern, that underlie de Pee's effort. Paul Veyne has summarized those two
opposing views with great clarity:

History has long been defined as an explanatory account, a narrative featuring causes.
To explain used to pass for being the sublime part of the historian's craft. Indeed, it was
considered that explanation consisted in finding a reason, garbed as a cause - that is, a
scheme (the rise of the bourgeoisie, the forces of production, the revolt of the masses) that
brought great and exciting ideas into play. But let us suppose that explanation is reduced
to envisaging a polygon of minor causes that do not remain constant from one set of cir-
cumstances to the next and that do not fill the specific places that a pattern would assign
to them in advance. In this case, explanation, which has become circumstantial and an-
ecdotal, would be no more than an accumulation of chance occurrences and would soon
lose all interest. In return, another task that is no less interesting emerges: to reveal the

298 Philosophy East & West Volume 60, Number 2 April 2010 298-303
© 2010 by University of Hawai'i Press

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