RADIATION PHYSICS

DR.VIJAYENDRA NAYAK S.
 Learning Objectives
Illustrate the production of X-rays (c3)
Analyze the role of factors affecting production of the
X-rays (c4)
Compare the interactions of X-ray with matter (c4)
1913-W.C.COOLIDGE MODIFIED GLASS TUBES
AND TILL DATE WE USE THE SAME BASIC
PRINCIPLES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF X-
RAY TUBES.
X-RAY MACHINE
 PARTS OF THE
X-RAY MACHINE
Extension arms
EXTENSION
CONTROL PANEL TUBE HEAD
ARM
tubehead
plug

control panel
CONTROL PANEL
It contains
The main on/off switch and warning light
An exposure button digital timer indicator
Switch to increase or decrease time
An exposure time selector, usually either numerical ( time selected in seconds) or anatomical
( area of mouth selected)
Warning lights and audible signals to indicate when x-rays are being generated
 POINTS TO REMEMBER

Timer (all machines)

mA control (some machines)
kVp control (some machines)
Autotransformer (some machines)
Exposure switch (all machines)
EXTENSION ARM

It connects control panel to tube head, hold the X-ray tube head and
houses electric wires.
 Metal housing
Parts seen
externally
Position
Tube head
indicating device
Parts seen
internally
Angle meter
METAL HOUSING

This is the external body of tube head made up of metal, which is tightly sealed
and filled with oil. Internally it contains X-ray tube, transformer, filter, etc.
POSITION INDICATING DEVICE

It is connected to the tube head

Also called as cone
Made up of lead, plastic
Length of PID: short-8 inches; long -16 inches
Function : Shapes the bean
ANGLE METER
Present on either side of metal housing with a hinge joint
for the vertical movement of tube head.
The function of the angle meter is to guide the accurate
vertical angulation while taking radiographs.
PID when moved up called negative angulation and when
move down called positive angulation
 Tube head

Internally externally

Insulating X-ray tube Transforme

Filter Collimator
oil proper rs

Glass
Cathode Anode
Housing

Focusing Copper
Filament Target
cup stem
INSULATING OIL

It surrounds the X-ray tube and transformer.

Function : act as insulator, prevents overheating of X-ray machine by absorbing
heat generated during production of x-rays.
X-RAY TUBE
LEADED GLASS HOUSING

This acts as envelope made up of Borosilicate glass along with the lead
It is completely evacuated ( vacuum) inside- prevents ionization of air inside the
tube, which can decrease the speed of electron and thus their efficiency
Function : Prevents radiation leakage
CATHODE

It is negatively charged
Composed of 2 parts : Focusing cup and Filament
The main function of cathode is to generate electron ( by filament)
and focus it to anode ( by focusing cup)
FILAMENT THERMIONIC EMISSION
Release of electrons from hot filament when current
flows after depressing exposure switch

Made of tungsten
The hotter the filament gets (increased current), the
Atomic number 74 greater the number of electrons produced.
Diameter 1-2mm wide
Thickness 0.1mm-0.2mm
Length 7-15mm
Function Emission of electron by thermionic emission
FOCUSING CUP
Made up of Molybdenum, Nickel
Atomic number : 42
Melting point- 2620 degree Celsius
Function : It focuses the electron toward the anode by electrostatic
forces
ANODE
It is positively charged
Composed of Tungsten target embedded in the Copper stem
The main function is to generate X-ray ( by target) and
dissipation of heat ( by copper stem)
Types
a. Stationary
b. Rotatory- Advantage of using rotatory anode is additional
dissipation of heat compared to stationary. This is so because
target will get additional time to cool due to continuous
rotation of anode
 Target
Made of Tungsten
Vapor pressure Low
Thermal conductivity High
Inclined at 20 degree to the central
ray of electrons ( line focus
principle)
Function the purpose of tungsten
target is to convert kinetic energy
of the electron in to X-ray photons
Centre area of the target is called
focal spot
Copper block
Tungsten is embedded into copper
block
Thermal conductivity High so
that it dissipates the heat
Function dissipation of heat by
conduction thus reduces the
chance of target melting
MODES OF HEAT DISSIPATION IN X-RAY
MACHINE ARE

INSULATING OIL
COPPER STEM OF ANODE
ROTATING ANODE
FOCAL SPOT AND LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE
The focal spot is the area on the target to which the focusing cup
directs the electrons from the filament
The sharpness ( umbra) of radiographic image increases as the size of
focal spot decreases
The unsharpness ( penumbra) increases as the size of the focal spot
increases
The ideal size of focal spot for intraoral : 0.6-1.2 mm²
To make small focal spot without changing target area, the target is placed at an
angle to the electron beam.
The target is inclined about 20 to the central ray of the x-ray beam
This causes the effective focal spot ( ie focal spot seen from position perpendicular
to the electron beam) to be almost 1x1 mm, as opposed to the actual focal spot,
line focus principle
Effect of size of focal
spot on image
sharpness
Line focus principle
Focal spot size can be made smaller if angle of truncation is more reduced. However it is practically not

possible because of Heel effect

The heel effect is the variation in x-ray
intensity towards anode and cathode
There is less intensity toward anode (AC)
and more intensity toward cathode (AB) X-ray passing through
the heel ( lower part of
It is called heel effect because photons the anode )of the anode
causing absorption of
formed toward inner side of anode must first some part, thus
decreasing intensity
pass through the lower corner part ( heel ) of
the anode which causes self absorption of
photons
More steeper is the anode, more is the heel
effect.
FILTRATION
Filter is that component of X-ray machine, which remove low energy x-rays
Low energy rays can penetrate only superficial tissue and have no use in making
image.
Low energy rays also causes unwanted absorption of these rays in patients.
So filter is used to remove these low energy x rays, decreasing patient exposure
with no loss in radiographic information
PID The aluminum filter is
usually located in the
end of the PID which
attaches to the
tubehead.

filter
 TYPES
INHERENT These are inbuilt components
in tube head, acts in the way
of X-ray, passing from focal
spot till exit of tube head.
These include glass wall of
the tube, insulating oil.
Inherent filters: 0.5-2.0mm of
Aluminium

ADDED/EXTERNAL It consists of aluminum discs

placed over the exit port of
the tube head
Other material that can be
used- copper, tin etc.
TOTAL FILTRATION Inherent + added = Total
filtration
The recommended total
filtration should be
- Upto 70kVp- 1.5mm of
Aluminium
- > 70 kVp- 2.5mm of
Aluminium
COLLIMATOR/ COLLIMATION
Collimation is the method to control size and shape of the X-ray beam
A collimator is a metallic barrier with a window used to reduce the size of the X-
ray beam
Made of lead
If collimator is not used, the x-ray bean will diverge in a broad base and will
expose the more body surface. Which is undesired and increases patient exposure
and harmful effects
FUNCTION
Controls the size and shape of
beam, thus decreases patient
exposure.
By limiting the size of the X-ray
beam, we can also improve
image quality by reducing the
scatter radiation.
IDEAL REQUIREMENT If you switch from 7 cm
diameter round collimation to
6 cm diameter round
collimation, the patient
receives 25% less radiation.

If you switch from 7 cm diameter

round collimation to rectangular
collimation, the patient receives
55% less radiation.
EXPOSURE FACTORS
kVp
mA
Exposure time
Incorrect exposure factors
(too many x-rays or too
much energy; film too dark)

Correct exposure factors

Incorrect exposure factors

(not enough x-rays or
energy too low; film too
light)
 KVP (KILOVOLT
PEAK)

Number of X-rays
85 kVp

70 kVp

maximum energy

70 85
average energy
X-ray Energy (keV)
INCREASING KVP RESULTS IN:
Higher average energy of x-
rays

Greater maximum energy x-

rays

More x-rays
 MA (MILLIAMPERES)

Number of X-rays
10 mA

5 mA

maximum energy
(no change)

70
average energy X-ray Energy (keV)
(no change)
 EXPOSURE TIME

Number of X-rays
10 impulses

5 impulses

maximum energy
(no change)

70
average energy X-ray Energy (keV)
(no change)
INCREASING MA OR EXPOSURE
TIME RESULTS IN:

An increase in the number of

X-rays produced
No change in the energy of the
X-ray beam
 MAS OR MAI
MILLIAMPERES (MA) X SECONDS (S)

MILLIAMPERES (MA) X IMPULSES (I)

60 impulses = 1 second
10 mA x .5 seconds = 5 mAs
20 mA x .25 seconds = 5 mAs
mAi = 60 x mAs
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
What is an X- ray?
It is defined as weightless bundles of energy ( photons) without an electric charge that travels with
the speed of light

X-RAYS ARE PRODUCED WHEN ELECTRON GENERATED AT THE CATHODE STRIKE TO

THE TUNGSTEN TARGET. ABOUT 99% OF ENERGY IS DISSIPATED INTO HEAT AND
ONLY 1% WILL CONVERT INTO X-RAYS.
 When X-ray machine is turned on, the electric supply reaches the X-Ray tube head via control panel

The current of 110-220 volt is reduced to 10 volt by step down transformer ( connected only to filament)

The tungsten filament starts heating and causes thermionic emission ( emission of ion because of temperature)

Continuous heating of filament causes formation of electron cloud near cathode

Now when the exposure button is pressed, high voltage circuit is generated between cathode and anode by step up
transformer which increases voltage of 110-220v to as high as 60-100Kv

Because of high voltage circuit electron from cathode will accelerate electron toward anode. Molybdenum focusing
cup will direct the electron towards target anode
 Electron strikes to tungsten target causing generation of two types of radiation,
BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION and CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION

About 99% of energy is dissipated into heat and only 1 % will convert into X-rays

This heat will be transferred to copper and will be absorbed by insulating oil

The X-ray produced will emit in all directions but will be restricted by leaded glass housing

Only few X-rays will pass from leaded glass housing via unleaded window

Now this X-ray which passed from unleaded window will pass through Filters and collimator before reaching to
patient
BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION
Produced by the sudden stopping or slowing of electron at the target
Most x-rays are generated in a dental x-ray machine by this process
Produced by two either ways
1. Direct hit
2. Near miss
DIRECT HIT
If a high- speed electron
directly hits the nucleus of a
target atom, all its kinetic
energy is transformed into
single X-ray photon
The energy of the resultant
photon is numerically equal to
the energy of the electron
NEAR MISS

Most electrons pass near or widely miss the nuclei

Negatively charges electron is attracted toward the positively charged nucleus and loses
some of its velocity.
And deceleration causes the electron to lose some kinetic energy, given off as photon
The closer the electron passes to the nucleus,
the greater the change in direction of the
electron, the greater the intensity of the energy
( x-ray photon) given off.
The intensity of deceleration depends on the
number of protons in the nucleus, i.e. atomic

material as it has high atomic number.

More atomic number= more proton=more
positive charge on nucleus = more attractive
force/speed of the electron of coming electron
from cathode.
CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION
Occurs when a high speed electron from the filament displaces an electron from an inner shell, causing
ionization of the tungsten atom.
An outer shell electron drops in to fill the void in the inner shell, emitting a photon with energy equivalent to
the difference in the orbital binding energies.
Atomic number of the target material determines the energy of the characteristic x rays produced.
This radiation is so called because the intensity of X rays generated
will be characteristics to the shell from which electron is removed. (
E.G, k shell electron has more binding energy then m shell so if
electron is removed from k shell will have more binding energy)
INTERACTION OF X-RAY WITH MATTER

In imaging, the x-ray beam enters the body of a patient interacts with hard and
soft tissues and then strikes the film
There are 3 types of interaction
1. Coherent scattering ( about 8% of the total number of interactions per exposure)
2. Photoelectric absorption (about 30%)
3. Compton scattering ( about 62%)
COHERENT SCATTERING
It causes very little fog because of small quantity of scattered photons and has
low energy level to reach the film.

The incident photon interacts with the

outer shell electron

Causing it to become momentarily

excited

The excited electron then returns to

the ground state and generates another
X-ray photon with the same frequency
and energy as in the incident beam,
which divert at different directions
PHOTOELECTRIC ABSORPTION
IT IS IMPORTANT IN DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING

Occurs when an incident X-

ray beam displaces an electron
from an inner shell causing
vacancy

An outer shell electron drops

to fill in the void of inner
shell, emitting a photon with
energy equivalent to the
difference in the orbital
binding energies
COMPTON SCATTERING
It occurs when the incident
photon collides with an outer
electron

This interaction causes production of

incident photon in different directions
and ejection of recoil electron from
target atom

Intensity of scattered photon =

intensity of incident photon ( kinetic
energy gained by outer electron + its
binding energy)
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
PORTABLE X-RAY MACHINE