FAMILIES AND HOUSEHOLDS

Sociological theories are explanations of the social world we live in. Sociologists seek to explain human
society and they have different ways of doing so. Usually, they follow one of these two approaches:

 STRUCTURAL: They have a ‘top down’ approach and try to explain how structures (like power
hierarchy) in society determine individuals lives
 SOCIAL ACTION: They have a ‘bottom up’ approach they try to explain how individuals create
society through their actions and free will

FUNCTIONALISM AND FAMILY STRUCTURE

Functionalism is a structural theory meaning it believes that the structure of society is responsible for
shaping us as individuals. For example, the family teaches us how to behave, rather than our actions being
governed by our own choices. So functionalists are interested in how the family functions for the greater
good of society and how it contributes to the maintenance of social order.
Functionalists believe that society is based on a value consensus – a set of
shared norms and values – into which society socialises its members.
This enables its members to cooperate harmoniously to meet society’s needs
and achieve shared goals.
Murdock (1949) argued that the family was a part of the organic analogy.
An analogy is a comparison between one thing and another.
The human body is an analogy of society.
If an organ fails, the body suffers, just like if the family becomes
dysfunctional, society would collapse.
Murdock (1949) argues that the family performs 4 essential functions to
meet the needs of society:
1. Sexual
2. Reproduction
3. Economic
4. Education

Parsons was interested in the impact of industrialisation on the structure of the family.

The pre-industrial family was a multi-functional unit therefore more self-sufficient

 A unit of production
 A unit of consumption

Parsons argues that when society industrialises the family not only changes its structure but also loses
some of its functions.

 Family ceases to be a unit of production

 Family becomes a unit of consumption only
 Loses most of its other functions to institutions e.g. schools and the NHS (structural differentiation)

Parsons argued that this new nuclear family unit provided the husband and wife with very clear and distinct
social roles. Men should be the ‘instrumental leader’, which means the husband is responsible for the
economic welfare and living standards of the family group. He is head of the household and the
breadwinner of the family. Women should take the ‘expressive role’, which means the mother and wife are
responsible for the primary socialisation of children, and the emotional care and support of family
members.
As a result the modern nuclear family comes to specialise in performing just two essential or ‘irreducible’
functions:

 Primary socialisation
 Stabilisation of adult personalities

Parsons described the family as a ‘warm bath’, because he believed that the family helps to relieve stress
and tension from work, and helps adults personalities to be stabilised, and make the family members
content

Fletcher (1988) argues that the family performs three additional and unique functions: satisfying long-
term sexual and emotional needs of parents, raising children in a stable environment, and the provision of a
home to which all family members return after work. Fletcher also argues that the role of social policy is to
make parenting and family life more effective by providing social, economic and educational supports, i.e.
postnatal care, free health care from the cradle to the grave, and compulsory education

AO3 Criticisms

Murdock is ethnocentric – he sees all types of families based on his own family experiences. He tries to
apply a Western notion of the family across all societies, but ignores other types in the process.

Functionalist theory ignores the dark side of the family. The family can be seen as dysfunctional – there can
be child abuse and domestic violence.

Feminists would reject the view that the ‘natural’ role for women is the expressive role. They would argue
that view point to be patriarchal and imposed on by men.

Parsons ignores the impact of global migration on family life in the USA and other industrial nations.
Migration resulted in diversity of family types which meant the nuclear family no longer dominated as
much as it once did.

Furthermore, Parsons idealised the nuclear family, based largely on the American middle class. Like
Murdock, Parsons failed to explore alternative family structures among different social classes and ethnic
groups.

Laslett (1972) found in his study of English households between 1564 and 1821 that only about 10% of
households contained extended kin before the Industrial Revolution. A combination of late childbearing
and low life expectancy meant that grandparents were unlikely to live for very long after the birth of their
first grandchild

Interpretivist sociologists argue that functionalists treat the children as ‘empty vessels’ who soak up all they
have been taught. It ignores the ability of children to modify their parents’ behaviour (by taking part in the
decision making processes) and influencing their parents’ tastes in fashion, music and television viewing. It
ignores the role children play in creating their own personalities.
 MARXISM AND FAMILY STRUCTURE
The family’s role is shaped by the ‘Base’ of
society. The base of society is capitalism. The
role of the family is to maintain capitalist
society, and maintain the division between the
bourgeoisie and proletariat.

Engels argued that the role of the nuclear

family was essential. The nuclear and biological
family enabled the ruling classes to pass
property onto their heirs.

A monogamous nuclear relationship was the

best way to ensure men’s own paternity and the
loyalty of women so that their wealth could be
kept within the family.

Women’s position in the family was not

dissimilar from that of prostitutes in that a
financial deal was struck. She provided the sex in
return for economic security her husband
offered.

Zaretsky argues the family transmit a set of ideas to other members. These ideas justify inequality to
convince society that capitalism is just and fair.

He says the family perform and ideological function by making the family appear to be an apparent ‘haven’,
so members can escape from the harsh realities and oppression experienced at work. However, Zaretsky
argues this is an illusion and the family’s role is instead to prepare men for the next day’s world of work and
benefit capitalists, rather than benefit members of society as a whole. It’s designed so it can undermine
opposition to capitalism.

AO3 Criticisms

Engels fails to consider that there are different types of family structure in modern society. Women have
gained greater independence due to improved job opportunities and access to education which means they
no longer need to marry for financial reasons.
Marriage has become less of a social necessity. People marry for love and affection rather than social
obligation.
Zaretsky has been criticised for exaggerating the extent to which the family can be an escape from
alienating work as the family has often been characterised by cruelty, neglect and violence. Some families
are anti-capitalist and socialise their children into beliefs which are critical of the bourgeoisie.
It ignores the real benefits and positive functions the family can play. It neglects the very real emotional
and social satisfaction that people get from being members of a family.
 FEMINISM AND FAMILY STRUCTURE
Feminism is the belief that men and women should have equal rights and opportunities. Overall, feminists
argue that society is patriarchal, literally meaning ‘rule by men’ - the idea that men are powerful and
subordinate women.

Liberal Feminism
Liberal feminists assert the family serves the needs of men, reinforces patriarchy and oppresses women.
However, they argue that women’s position in the family can be improved through reform and argue that
women are gradually taking on a more equal role in the family.
Liberal feminists take a more optimistic view of the progress made so far.
Oakley (1981) argues that gender discrimination and patriarchal inequality is the product of gender role
socialisation – boys and girls learn to internalise ‘differences’ in gender behaviour. Oakley argues that
gender role socialisation is a major source of patriarchal discrimination because girls are ‘persuaded’ that
their main responsibilities are family bound which prevents them from competing with men on an equal

playing field.

Oakley also recognises that changes in the economy and social attitudes have led to political and legal
changes that challenge patriarchal inequality e.g. Equal Pay Act, women out to work and divorce laws
Wilkinson (1994) argued that the feminisation of the of the British workforce and success of women in
the world of paid work over the last 50 years has led to a dramatic shift in female identity and a profound
change in the distribution of power between men and women. Family commitments no longer have priority
in women’s lives; careers and economic independence are now the defining feature of young women’s lives.
Wilkinson describes these changes asa ‘genderquake’.
Somerville (2000) criticises Radical and Marxist perspectives for failing to accept the progress that has
been made:

 Women now have much more choice about whether to marry, whether to take paid work, and when
married whether they want to stay married.
 There is greater equality within marriage and greater sharing of the responsibility for paid and
unpaid work and childcare. Many men now advocate greater gender equality.
 Most women still value relationships with men.
She does, however, identify areas for further improvement including better childcare for working parents
and more flexibility in jobs to help families.

AO3 Criticisms Liberal Feminism

Somerville’s claims are not backed up by detailed empirical evidence which gives less weight to her
arguments.
Radical feminists don’t feel that this pragmatic approach has brought genuine gender equality. It is
impossible for women to improve their position in an inherently unfair system, instead they should totally
reject the patriarchal system to gain true female equality.

Marxist Feminism
Marxist feminists emphasise the way in which women are doubly exploited, both as employers and as
women. They argue that women’s role within the family is:
1. To reproduce the next labour force
2. Socialise children to prepare them for their working life, i.e. obedience.
3. Women absorb men’s anger and frustration from a ‘hard’ days’ worth of work.’
4. A reserve army of cheap labour.
Benston (1972) claimed that wives are used to produce cheap labour for employers. The childcare they
provide is unpaid, and they help to maintain their husbands as workers, at no cost to employers.
Ansley (1972) believes that wives suffer as a result of the frustration experienced by their husbands in the
alienating work they do for capitalists. Therefore women are ‘takers of shit’ according to Ansley. They act as
an emotional safety valve that men can let their frustrations on before returning for another day at work.
The crisis of masculinity and powerlessness that men experience leads to problems such as domestic
violence.

AO3 Criticisms Marxist Feminism

Marxist feminist ignore variations in family life such as ethnic group – many would argue that certain
ethnic groups face more exploitation and discrimination than class groups.
Morgan (1975) points out that Marxism tends to focus on the traditional family and doesn’t account for
changes in modern family life. It assumes that men are dominant in every relationship and doesn’t provide
evidence to back this up.

Radical Feminism
Radical feminists argue that patriarchy exist well before capitalism, and instead gender is the primary
source for social inequality. They suggest women are better off if they stay clear of patriarchal families and
reject relationships with men altogether. Radical Feminist believe that marriage plays a major role in
maintaining the oppression of women.
Currently, heterosexual men benefit from women’s unpaid domestic labour and sexual services. Men also
dominate women through violence or the threat of it.
Greer (2000) argues that even in marriage today women remain subservient to their husbands. She
argues for ‘political lesbianism’ (the idea of heterosexual relationships are oppressive because they involve
‘sleeping with the enemy’). Women are more likely to suffer physical or sexual abuse in the family. As a
result Greer argues that women should create ‘matrilocal’ families using new reproductive technologies
such as IVF (matrilocal= where women are the head of the household).
Redfern & Aune (2013) argue that male violence against women is extensive and takes many forms. This
violence is the product of a patriarchal set of ideas, transmitted and reinforced in the family, that see
women as second class citizens.
Firestone (1971) men and women represent separate and often conflicting ‘sex classes’. It is interaction
between these classes, especially in marriage and the family, that is responsible for gender inequality. The
family functions to benefit men by transmitting patriarchal ideology through gender role socialisation in the
family. Firestone argues that the only way for women make to progress is to abandon the patriarchal
nuclear family and use reproductive technologies to exclude men from families.
Delphy & Leonard (1992) argue that the family is a patriarchal and hierarchical institution through
which men dominate and exploit women – male heads of the household get unpaid domestic, emotional
and reproductive work in return for subsistence and the occasional gift!

AO3 Criticisms Radical Feminism

Radical feminist largely ignore the progress made by women and assume that all families are male
dominated. This seems to undermine the success women have made in their fight towards equal rights and
the rise of joint conjugal relationships where male and female roles are interchangeable e.g. women go out
to work and men perform domestic responsibilities. This approach portrays women as passively accepting
their lot. However, Somerville and Hakim argue that they exaggerate exploitation of women in the family.

Difference Feminism
Difference Feminists are critical of the three previous feminist perspectives because it treats women as if
they are an homogenous group (= treating them as a united group with the same experiences)
 Middle class women are less likely to be exploited by men as they have greater cultural, economic
and social capital.
 Not all women live in nuclear families – there is family diversity.
  Black feminists would argue their main form of exploitation is racial discrimination and prejudice.
This approach is critical of all three previous feminist perspectives for the following reasons:
Black difference feminist stress the importance of racial/ethnic differences. As a result of racial
discrimination some ethnic minority women have less power compared to women from other ethnic groups
For some ethnic minority women patriarchal control is the ‘natural outcome of religious and cultural beliefs
that they accept as part of their life
Class is also significant as women from the middle class have more economic, cultural and social capital
which enables them to challenge patriarchal control and so are less likely to be exploited than other class
groups who don’t benefit from these advantages
There is a diversity of lifestyles today e.g. many women are lone parents or are part of a same sex
relationship an so cannot be exploited by a man within the family (Calhoun, 2003)
Therefore not all women are equally exploited and it is important to understand these difference to get an
accurate picture of women’s experience of family life today.
 NEW RIGHT AND SOCIAL POLICY
The New Right prefer the traditional nuclear family made up of the instrumental (male) and expressive
(female) role and the nuclear family.
It’s a set of ideas and values of how family life should be like. It’s supposed to be represent a perfect model
for allowing the families to be efficient and perform their roles. It’s based upon a heterosexual couple with
their children, who are respectful and courteous towards their parents’ authority.
 Helps reinforce the moral order: right from wrong
 Ensures people are socialised into societal values: respect, discipline, civility and responsibility.
 Helps create a socially healthy family due to order and stability
A policy is the outline for a goal that an institution intends to accomplish. A law is an established procedure
or standard that must be followed by members of society.
Charles Murray argues this has undermined personal responsibility and encourages women to have
children they cannot afford.
Welfare state (1945): The state plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the social and
economic well-being of its citizens. It was introduced by the Labour Party to eradicate the five ‘Giant Evils’
(squalor, ignorance, want, idleness and disease) from “cradle to the grave”.
New Right says this distracts families from carrying out their functions independently. It creates a
‘dependency culture’ which generates an ‘underclass’ which wants to avoid work by living off welfare
benefits.
Contraceptive pill (1961): Women allowed to obtain this type of contraception through the NHS.
New Right says this has encouraged women to be promiscuous and sleep around because they have the
ability to control their own fertility. It can encourage marital affairs as the consequences can be hidden. It
undermines marital fidelity.
The Abortion Act (1967): It was legalised for a women to abort her foetus at 24 weeks gestation.
The New Right strongly opposed this policy because it encouraged women to use abortion as a form of
contraception. It encourages women to be less careful.
Sexual Offences Act 1967: It decriminalised homosexual acts in private between two men, both of whom
had to have attained the age of 21. The Act applied only to England and Wales
New Right says this discouraged people being committed to a heterosexual relationship – which the New
Right believed to be the natural family structure. This leads to rising lack of respect, anti-social behaviour
among the young, educational underachievement, drug, alcohol and criminal activity
Divorce Law Reform Act (1969): A married couple was able to get divorced on the grounds of
‘irretrievable breakdown’, the idea that the marriage is broken and cannot be fixed. This heavily widened
the grounds for divorce. Divorce rates increased dramatically after this Act was enforced
New Right says this has made divorce much easier and undermined people’s commitment to marriage. It
voids both men and women to successfully carry out their gender roles and leaves children inadequately
socialised as women are unable to discipline youngsters as effectively as men.
Butler argues that ‘broken families’ are more likely to produce families who break the law and be
unemployed.
Equal Pay Act 1970: Meant men and women had to receive the same amount of pay for the same work.
New Right says this believe this has distracted women from their ‘natural’ role as mother allowing them
focus on building a career and economic independence. It has led to maternal deprivation (deprived of
motherly love).
Sex Discrimination Act (1975): A man or woman could no longer be discriminated based on the sex.
The Act concerned employment, training, education, harassment, the provision of goods and services, and
the disposal of premises.
Similar to the Equal Pay Act, it encourages women to work and gain employment. The New Right believe
this isn’t their natural role and is taking women away from their responsibilities of supporting and
socialising their children.
The Adoption and Children Act (2002): This policy modernised previous laws on adoption. Since
2005, unmarried couples, including same-sex couples, were eligible to apply for joint adoption.
New Right says it discourages biological mothers and fathers from performing their natural role to bring up
their child. Children could be brought up with no clear female or male role model which may increase their
chances of being inadequately socialised.
Same Sex Civil Partnerships Act (2004): Grants civil partnerships in the United Kingdom with rights
and responsibilities very similar to civil marriage. Civil partners are entitled to the same property rights as
married opposite-sex couples, the same exemption as married couple’s social security and pension benefits,
and also the ability to get parental responsibility for a partner’s children.
New Right says this has encouraged other family types which are incapable of performing family functions
such as socialisation adequately. Consequently, social stability and emotional security for children is
threatened.
Morgan argues that IVF babies are ‘trophy children’ and not the outcome of love, so are more likely to
suffer from bullying.
The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act (2009): Allowed for artificial insemination and the
storage of human eggs, sperm or embryos. It means the mother is the person who carries the child without
having any biological ties to the embryo. It makes having children possible for same-sex couples.
New Right says this has encouraged other family types which are incapable of performing family functions.
Same-sex marriage (2014): Legalised in the United Kingdom on 29th March 2014, with the exception of
Northern Ireland. Those in Civil Partnerships could convert the status of their relationship.
New Right says this discouraged people being committed to a heterosexual relationship – which the New
Right believed to be the natural family structure.

AO3 Criticisms
It could be argued that government legislation and policy on the family since 1997 has focused on
improving the social and economic position of women and increased rights of same sex couples has led to
less discrimination.
The traditional family is evolving rather than deteriorating and that increasing acceptance of a range of
family types may be healthy for society rather than a symptom of decay – why?
The New Right ignore policies that support and maintain the conventional (nuclear) family rather than
undermine it. For example, maternity leave policies reinforce patriarchy as benefits are kept low, so it
increases the mothers’ economic dependence on their male partner (the breadwinner).
 CHANGING FAMILY PATTERNS – DIVORCE
There are three solutions to the problem of an unhappy marriage. They are the following:
1. Divorce - the legal termination of a marriage
2. Separation - the physical separation between two spouses.
3. ‘Empty-shell’ marriages - the spouses remain living together although their marriage exists in name
only.
The divorce rate in the UK has been increasing since the 1960s
 In 2012, there were 13 divorces an hour in England and Wales
 In 2012, 1 in 7 divorces were granted because of adultery

 In 2012, the majority of divorces were initiated by the wife

 Divorces were most likely to occur between the 4th and 8th wedding anniversary

 It is expected that 42% of marriages will end in divorce

 The number of divorces doubled between 1961 and 1969, and doubled again by 1972.
 The number of divorces in England and Wales peeked in 1993 at 165,000
 In 2012 the number of divorces stood at 118,000, about six times higher than in 1961.
 About 65% of petitions for divorce now come from women, whereas, in 1946, this figure stood at 37%
 For those married in 1972, 22% of marriages had ended in divorce by their 15th wedding anniversary
whereas for those married in 1997, almost a third of marriages had ended by this time.
 Office for National Statistics (ONS) data reveals marriages are declining but divorce is increasing.

Changes in the law

Divorce has become easier to obtain because changes in the law have widened the grounds for divorce and
made the process cheaper. The most notable change was the Divorce Law Reform Act (1969) which
came into effect in 1971, and was the main cause for a significant increase in divorces because it allowed
marriage to end based on ‘irretrievable breakdown’. For example, there were 74,000 divorces in 1971 but
this climbed to 119,000 in 1972 when the Act became law.
It is highly likely that many couples who had been in empty-shell marriages or who could not afford to
divorce after separating before 1972 took the opportunity of the new rule to escape from their unhappy
marriages.

Declining stigma and changing attitudes

Mitchell and Goody argue there is less stigma attached to divorce. In other words, getting divorced is
more socially acceptable and more people are willing to resort to it as a solution to end marital problems.
Divorce has become less ‘shameful’, but a normal response to take when a marital problems become
difficult to fix.

Secularisation
Secularisation refers to the declining influence of religion within society. In early 20 th century UK,
Christianity was the dominant religion and it shaped and influenced behaviour, including marriage.
However, as science started to dominate, religion started to lose its authority and started to become a
personal choice, rather than a social obligation.
Goode (1971) and Gibson (1994) argue that marriage has become less of a sacred, spiritual union and
more of a personal and practical commitment which can be abandoned if it fails. The developments of
technology have led people to believe in ‘scientific fact’ not religious texts which can be difficult to prove.

Rising expectations of marriage

Fletcher believes rising expectations of marriage is to blame for the rising divorce rates. People are
marrying based on the idea of ‘romantic love’ rather than for economic reasons and family duty, so
therefore would less likely to be dissatisfied by the absence of love.

Women’s increased financial independence

Changes in society have meant, today, women are less financially dependent and are not constrained to
staying in a marriage for financial security.
Allan and Crow argue “marriage is less embedded within the economic system” now because anti-
discrimination laws have helped narrow the pay gap, and girls’ greater success in education means higher
chances of better paid jobs.

Individualisation thesis
Beck-Gernscheim (2002) describes individualisation as a process whereby the traditional rules
governing people’s personal relationships have weakened, and become more fluid, unclear and uncertain.

Individualisation and the impact on divorce

Beck (1992) said divorce is increasing because traditional norms have lost their hold over individuals.
People are pursuing their own interests rather than stay with their partner out of duty.
Giddens (1993) describes this changing landscape of love as a move away from what he calls ‘romantic
love’, in which people fell in love and instead towards something called ‘confluent love’. This is where
intimate relationships are characterised by emotional intimacy but the love is only maintained ‘until further
notice’, on the condition that both partners find mutually fulfilling.
Bauman (2003) argues that in this world of growing individualisation, uncertainty and constant change,
kinship networks are frail and human bonds are weak, and people are constantly searching for security.
Beck-Gernscheim (2002) suggests the underlying causes of growing individualisation lie in the
developments in modern medicine, such as contraception and artificial insemination, which enable
sexuality and reproduction to be separated from each other.
Fletcher (1966) argues that a higher divorce rate reflects a higher value placed on marriage. Couples are
no longer prepared to put up with unhappy, empty-shell marriages or to take their relationships for
granted. People want more from their marriage than companionship.
The fact that a large proportion of divorcees remarry shows that they are not rejecting the institution of
marriage but simply expecting more from a relationship. They are willing to go through a number of
partners to achieve these goals.

Feminist Explanations
The ‘dual burden’ has led to a source of greater marital conflict.
Sigle-Rushton argued working mothers are more likely to divorce than unemployed mothers.
Hochschild argues work has given women a sense of value, whilst men’s resistance to chores has led to

frustration which destabilises marriage

In 2012, 65% of divorce petitions were initiated by wives. Thornes and Collard (1979) argued that this
trend supports the view that women expect far more from marriage than men and, in particular, that they
value friendship in marriage and emotional gratification more than men do.

For example, in 2012, 54% of women-initiated divorces were on the grounds of the husband’s
unreasonable behaviour, which supports this feminist perspective.
 CHANGING FAMILY PATTERNS - MARRIAGE
Effects of changing family structure:
 Increase in stepfamilies
 More people living alone
 More births outside of marriage
 Rise in same sex families
 More lone-parents
 Couples are cohabiting
 Number of nuclear families has fallen
 Couples with less children than before
 Delaying marriage
Monogamy is practiced in the UK (being married to one person at one time). Legally, men and women can
only be married to one wife or husband at any one time.
Although, serial monogamy is increasingly becoming the marital norm. This is where people re-marry
due to divorce or a death of a spouse. Second marriages are more likely to be successful than first marriages
according to statistics if one or both partners are remarrying they have a 31% chance of divorce, compared
to 45% if it is both partners’ first time.
Bigamy is the act or condition of marrying one person while still being legally married to another.
Polygamy exists in three specific forms: polygyny (a man has multiple simultaneous wives), polyandry (a
woman has multiple simultaneous husbands), polyamory (or group marriage, wherein the family unit
consists of multiple husbands and multiple wives)
The General Marriage Rate (GMR) is the number of people who marry per year per 1,000 of the population.
There was an increase in marriages in 2012, with 262,240 taking place. This was a 5.3% increase from 2011

when there were 249,133. In 2012, there was 1 marriage every 2 minutes
 1972 – 480,000 marriages
 1991 – 350,000 marriages
 During the period of 1971 to 1991 divorce rates more than doubled
 2009 - 231,490 marriages

Ethnic variations
Berthoud (2000) suggests that three-quarters of Pakistani and Bangladeshi women are married by the
age of 25. This probably reflects powerful expectations of British Asian Communities.
 Extended families more common in South-Asian and East-African Asian communities, such as
Pakistan, Bangladesh and India.
 Families tend to be larger. South Asian families have 4.4 persons per household respectively,
compared with 2.4 for both Black Caribbean and White British.
 Most likely to be married. Around three-quarters of Pakistani and Bangladeshi women are married by
age 25.
Ballard (1982) found that extended family ties provided additional support among Asian migrants in the
1950s and 1960s. Greater value placed on extended family ties. Although families are more nuclear,
relatives lived nearby for frequent visiting, kinship networks and for a source of support.
British African Caribbean’s are the group least likely to get married - only 39% of African Caribbean adults
under the age of 60 were in formal marriage. They also have a higher rate of lone-parent families. In 2012,
just over half of families with dependent children headed by a Black person were lone-parent families. This
is in comparison with one in ten white mothers
Berthoud (2001) sees this choice as a result of ‘modern individualism’, the idea that emphasises choice
and independence rather than commitment based on duty or a marriage certificate.
Berthoud argues that African Caribbean women probably rationally weigh up the costs and benefits of
living with the fathers of the children and conclude that African Caribbean men are unreliable as a source of
family income and are potentially a financial burden.
1. Could be due to ‘family disorganisation’. During slavery, men were separated from their female
partners and children
2. Male unemployment and poverty means that Black men are unable to provide for a family, resulting
in higher rates of desertion or marital breakdown.

Reasons why rates in marriage are declining

 Women don’t need to marry to secure financial stability.
 Greater educational and employment opportunities.
 People like to take more risks and not follow ‘safe patterns’ of how to live
 Fear of future divorce which could cause future stress and turmoil.
 Weddings have become too expensive. According to Brides Magazine, the average British wedding now
comes to a total of around £24,000 (2015)
 Decline in stigmatisation. In 1989, 70% believed couples who want children should get married but by
2012 only 42% thought so
 Society has become more secular. Only 3% of those with no religion are married.
It can be argued that now the rates of marriage are in decline, the traditional nuclear family ‘ceases to exist’,
as other family types emerge whilst society changes. These may include:

 Cohabitating couples
 Cohabitation is increasing, cohabiting couple families grew by 29.7% between 2004 and 2014.
This is the fastest growing type of family in the UK according to the ONS (2014)
 Same-sex relationships
 Has been difficult to measure due to high levels of stigma and its illegality
 Last year, there were 69,000 same-sex couples living together outside of a civil partnership,
whereas now there are 89,000.
 One-person households
 Overall increase in one-person households.

 About 1 in 3 households today contain only one person, compared to 1 in 20 in 1901

 There is nearly twice as many men as women living alone in the 25-44 age group.
 But there are over twice as many women as men aged 65 and over living on their own.
 Lone-parent families
 One-parent families now make up 22% of all families with children.
 Lone-parent families has tripled since 1971
 In 2014, nearly one in four (23 per cent of) children live in lone-parent families.
 This is in comparison with 7 per cent in 1972.
 Living Apart Together (LATs)
 Haskey (2005) estimated there were 2 million couples in 2003 in Britain in LATs – around 30
per cent of all men and women aged from 16-59 who were not married or cohabitating.
 Reconstituted families (stepfamilies)
  Also known as stepfamilies account for over 10 per cent of all families with dependent children in
Britain.
 In 85% of stepfamilies, at least one child is from the woman’s previous relationship, while in 11%
there is at least one children from the man’s previous relationship.
Morgan (2000) argues that marriage is in decline because social policies like the welfare state have put
people off it. Marriage legally and ethically regulates and limits people’s behaviour binding individuals to
society through shared social obligations.
Rector (2014) argues that welfare becomes a substitute for a husband. Less educated mothers are married
to the taxpayer. This promotes a decline in marriage and a need for more welfare.
The New Right feel that a decline in marriage will create an unstable society e.g. a decline in employment,
good health, and rise in crime. ONS stated in 2007 married people live longer than single or divorced
people.
Changing Female expectations
 1970s saw a cultural and attitudinal shift = marriage now seen as an intimate relationship rather than
about status or duty. Marriage became more egalitarian than patriarchal.
 Women are now prepared to wait longer to find the right partner.
 Changing role of women in society as women have more independence and decision making power.
Therefore women have more choice in who they marry, when they marry and whether to marry at all.
Helen Wilkinson (2000) argued there was a ‘genderquake’. The success of women in the world of paid
work has led to a dramatic shift in female identity. Marriage and family commitments no longer have
priority in women’s lives; careers and economic independence are now the defining feature for young
women.

Extended Families Today

 Was the dominant family type in pre-industrial society, but Charles (2008) now argues that the
extended family is “all but extinct” in modern industrial society.
 Willmott (1988) argues it still continues to exist as a ‘dispersed extended family’
 This is known as the Modified Extended Family, where family members are geographically separate
but maintain ties through modern communication technology
 This, rather than the isolated nuclear family, is probably the most common type of family arrangement
in Britain today.

Beanpole Families
Where there is an increase in the generations of the family but when there are declining numbers of
children in the family – the family tree is ‘thinner’ and less ‘bushy’. This may be caused by:
1. An ageing population – the amount of older people in society is gradually becoming bigger. Why
might this be?
2. Couple are having fewer children. In the 1960s, families were having 2.69 children on average, in
comparison to 1.74 in 2001
 FAMILY DIVERSITY
Leech (1967) argued the ‘cereal packet image of the family’ is a socially constructed model laden with
assumptions of how families ought to be. While Feminist Thorne (1992) attacked this image for being
‘monolithic’ as it ignores diversity in family structures.
Smart argued we should take a ‘personal life’ approach rather than look at restrictive family structures
when studying the meanings people have for families. She argued we should also consider:
1. Relationship with friends
2. Fictive kin – close friends you treat as family e.g. auntie
3. Gay and lesbian chosen families – supportive network
4. Relationships with deceased relatives who continue to shape lives
5. Pets – children in particular (Tipper)
The British family has changed in modern times - with pets widely considered to be much-loved members,
according to new research. Ancestry.co.uk, the family history website, show 90% of pet owners think of
their animal as part of the family. A third (33%) of those even claim to prefer their pets to real life members
of their family, 15% considering their pet more important than their cousin.
Sue Heath of the University of Southampton's Department of Sociology has been looking at the
lives of the growing "neo-tribes" of twenty-somethings living communally and putting off the day when they
will, with great caution, enter couple relationships. These young people prioritise friendship and, she
argues, their experience of communal living may well be leading to "long-lasting significant ties of intimacy
among friends". For Heath, friendship is rapidly gaining a significance that was once reserved only for
family members.
Robert Chester (1985) argued that ‘neo-conventional’ families exist in modern society. A conventional
family is the nuclear family as described by the New Right and functionalists (men taking the instrumental
role and women playing the expressive role). The neo-conventional family is a dual-earner family, both
spouses have paid work
However, Chester argues the nuclear family still persists and claims that people don’t want to live in
alternative family structures – they strive to live in a nuclear family. Statistics on lone-parent families are
only a ‘snapshot of time’ and ignore that people spend most of their lives in a nuclear family structure
Chester accepts increases in cohabitation, but he argues this is a temporary phase before marrying or re-
marriage
 Increasing divorce, but there is also high levels of re-marriage
 Births outside marriage have increased, but parents wholly remain committed to bringing up the child
together as a couple.
Rapoport and Rapoport argue that diversity is of central importance to understanding the family today.
Britain is a type of pluralist society, because it is made up of different cultures and lifestyles – demonstrates
widespread acceptance of different ways of life. Unlike the New Right, diverse family types are positive to
allow people’s different needs to be met
They argue there are five different types of family diversity
1. Organisational diversity – how it is structured (single or dual wage earners etc)
2. Cultural diversity – different family patterns (Afro-Caribbean families are more likely as lone-mother)
3. Social class diversity - how income affects family structure (middle-class parents are more likely to
afford child-care)
4. Life-stage diversity – family structure depends on age (young newly-weds may have young children)
5. Generational diversity – views on the family differ by generation. I.e. younger members may have
liberal attitudes towards divorce
Giddens (1992) supports the individualisation thesis, the idea that traditional social structures (such as
gender and social class) have lost their influence and people have much greater choice and freedom
Traditionally, relationships were held together by a marriage contract which placed restrictions on
behaviour (no sex outside of marriage and stigma around divorce). Now, couples are free to define
relationships themselves due to changes such as greater female independence and greater accessibility of
contraception. This new kind of relationship is known as the ‘pure relationship’ (which are typical of late-
modern society), where they aren’t bound by traditional norms
Couples stay together out of love, happiness and sexual desire rather than a marriage contract or for the
sake of the children. These relationships are not as stable as they can be ended quickly. This produces
greater family diversity, i.e. lone-parent families.
Weston (1992) argues same-sex couples create ‘families of choice’ made up of friends, former lovers and
biological kin, rather than conforming to pre-existing norms in heterosexual relationships.
Beck (1992) supports the individualisation thesis. Beck argues that we live in a ‘risk society’ – the idea
that traditional norms have less influence and individuals have to calculate the risks of. Traditional family
structures are safe but new forms are untested.
In the past, the man and woman’s role within the family was clear. Although patriarchal, it did offer
stability. But changes to women’s opportunities have increased and there is a greater sense of the pursuit of
self interest
Beck and Beck-Gernscheim argue this has created ‘negotiated families’. These vary according to the
wishes and expectations of their members who decide what is best for themselves by negotiation. This
family type is less stable, as its members are free to leave whenever they feel their needs are not being met.
Overall, people want to be part of a family, but due to greater risks of these falling apart, people can’t offer
such relationship. This has led Beck to describe the family as a ‘zombie category’ – the idea that the family
appears to be alive, but in reality is dead.
Budgeon (2011) argues that the individualisation thesis exaggerates the freedom people have in forming
relationships. It ignores important social structures, such as social class inequalities and patriarchy that
limit relationship choices.
 Women are usually awarded custody of children due to gender norms, which can limit them in
forming new relationships.
 Men are generally paid better than women which gives them more opportunities to form different
types of relationships.
Therefore, Carol Smart argues that we should take a ’personal life’ perspective instead. This takes into
account personal histories and existing relationships that influence our range of options and choices in
relationships. Smart argues that we are social beings whose choices are made ’within a web of
connectedness’, (connected to structural inequalities)
Einasdottir (2011) Heteronormativity means that many homosexuals feel ‘trapped in the closet’ which
limits their choices in relationships.
Cheal (1993) is a postmodernist. Postmodernists believe that society is fragmented and diverse. Rather
than following a singular culture, individuals ’pick and mix’, creating their own individual identities. Cheal
argues that there is not one single, dominant nuclear family. Family structures are fragmented into many
different types. I
Stacey (1998) argues that greater freedom and choice has benefited women. Women interviewed more
likely to reject traditional housewife-mother role and created their own type of family to suit their needs.
One family type created was the ‘divorce-extended family’, where the key members are female, including
former female in-laws, offering financial and domestic support.
Morgan (1996-2011) argues it is pointless trying to make large-scale generalisations about ‘the family’.
Instead, a family is whatever arrangements those involved choose to call their family.
 DOMESTIC DIVISION OF LABOUR
During the mid-twentieth century, the domestic division of labour was shared according to who played the
instrumental and expressive role.
Bott described this as ‘segregated conjugal roles’, which referred to the different marital roles carried out
by the man and woman. For example, men taking responsibility for bringing in the money whilst women
were in charge of the housework.
More recently, however, it is argued a ‘new man’ has emerged (A man who rejects sexist attitudes and the
traditional male role, especially in the context of domestic responsibilities and childcare).
Young and Willmott argue there is a ‘march of progress’ towards the symmetrical family, where roles
within the family are evenly shared between men and women.
Oakley (1974) strongly criticises Young and Willmott’s view that the family is now symmetrical and
argues these claims are exaggerated.
In her own research on 40 housewives, only 15% of husbands had a high level of participation in
housework, but even this was regarded as ‘her’ work, not a joint conjugal role. Husbands were more likely to
share in childcare than in housework, but only in the more pleasurable aspects.
Fisher et al. (1999) argued that British fathers’ care of infants and young children rose 800% between
1975 and 1997, from 15 minutes to 120 minutes on the average working day.
Craig (2007) argues that we have to be careful how we interpret such statistics, because it doesn’t inform
us about the quality of the relationship between father and child. Most of the this additional time was play,
whilst the mother remained ‘serving’ the child (cooking and cleaning up after them)
Feminists argue that mothers remain the more likely carers. Hochschild (2013) notes that women are
often required to perform ‘emotion work’ where they are responsible for managing the emotions and
feelings of family members. Duncombe and Marsden (1995) argues this creates a ‘triple shift’ for
women, made up of paid work, house work and emotion work.
Mumsnet (2014) questioned nearly 1,000 working mothers and found that women did double the
housework of men despite doing a full day at work. Major events, such as Christmas, see 81% of women
being the main organisers according to the same survey.
British Social Attitudes survey (2013) found that less than 10% of under 35s agreed with a traditional
division of labour, as against 30% of the over-65s.
Dunne (1999) found that lesbian couples had more symmetrical relationships because of the absence of
traditional ‘gender scripts’.
Kan found that for every £10,000 a year more a woman earns, she does two hours less housework per
week.
Ramos (2003) found that where the woman is the full-time breadwinner and the man is unemployed, he
does as much domestic labour as she does.
 DECISION MAKING IN THE FAMILY
In traditional patriarchy families, decision makers of the family had always been dominated by men. For
some sociologists, true egalitarian families only exist when decision-making or power is shared equally
between a couple.
Young and Willmott apply their ‘march of progress’ view to explain how decision making between
families is becoming more equal.
Some changes in society that have led women to be more likely to share decisions include:
 New job opportunities in a service sector economy means they have more financial power
 Improved contraception (women have greater control over their bodies)
Parsons would argue that decision making derives from biological differences, as the greater strength of

the male is the reason why men were able to dominant economic life. Murdock argued that the physical
strengths of men was the reason why men were able to dominate economic life.

Edgell’s popular study focused on decision making of nuclear families. He found the decisions could be
allocated into three broad categories:
 Very important decisions
 These included economic/financial and moving house/new job
 Decision either taken solely by the husband or with the husband having the final say.
 Husbands power comes from super earning power
 Important decisions
 These included quality of family life and child’s schooling
 Decisions were taken jointly, but seldom by the wife alone. This is probably due to economic
invested needed for important decisions.
 Less important decisions
 These included everyday minutiae issues, food shopping, children’s clothing
 Decisions were usually exclusively by the wife, due to lack of financial investment needed.
Edgell’s main argument is that men are more likely to take the decisions because they earn more money
than women.
While we might assume that one partner controlling the money is a sign of inequality in the relationship, for
some couples, it may not have this meaning.
Same-sex couples often give a different meaning to the control of money in the relationship.
Carol Smart (2007) found that some gay men and lesbians attached no importance to who controlled the
money and were perfectly happy to leave this to their partners.
The ideology of ‘motherhood’ is organised around the idea that they need to put their children’s needs first.
The British Sociological Association (2012) found that 26 per cent of the British population still
believed that most women should priorities their caring role over having a job. Some argued that a
mother’s absence from their child would cause damage, which prevents women from focussing on a career.
Miller (2010) argues that the father’s responsibilities are not as clear-cut, and the main role emphasised
is to be the ‘breadwinner’, despite changes in society.

AO3 Criticisms
Although women argues this ignores how patriarchy explains women’s lack of power over decision making.
They argue that patriarchy is deeply ingrained into the very fabric of society and instilled in gender role
socialisation.
Laurie and Gershuny (2000) found that by 1995, 70% of couples said that they had an equal say in
decisions. Significantly, they found that women who were high earning were more likely to have an equal
say.

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
According to the Home Office (2013), domestic violence and abuse is defined as “any incident or pattern
of incidents of controlling, coercive or threatening behaviour, violence or abuse between those aged 16 or
over who have been intimate partners or family members regardless of gender or sexuality”.
Women’s Aid Federation (2014) reports that domestic violence accounts between 1/6 and 1/4 of all
violent crime. The British Crime Survey (BCS) estimated that there are 6.6 million assaults per year.
Dobash and Dobash found that violent incidents could be set off by what a husband saw as a challenge to
his authority. They conclude that marriage legitimates violence by giving power to men.
Women are more likely to be victims of domestic violence. According to the BCS, nearly one in four women
are assaulted by her partner at some time
Yearnshire (1997) found that on average a woman suffers 35 assaults before reporting abuse
Official statistics underestimate the extent
 Too scared to report crime in case it makes the situation worse
 Dar argues that some victims don’t believe it is a police matter
 Police may be reluctant to record and investigate reported cases. Cheal (1991) says this could be
because they’re not prepared to be involved with family matters.
 Male violence can be coupled with economic power and women can’t leave because they’re financially
dependent on them
Unreported domestic violence is known as the ‘dark figure’ of crime. Statistics don’t provide us with the true
‘facts’ because not all domestic violence cases are reported
Domestic violence highlights that there is a dark side to the family which functionalist explanations ignore.
It can be argued that Parsons (1957) views the family with rose tinted glasses because they only view the
family as beneficial for its members and for society.
Millett (1970) and Firestone (1970) argue that all societies have been founded on patriarchy. Men are
the enemy: they are the oppressors and exploiters of women. For radical feminists, widespread domestic
violence is an inevitable feature of a patriarchal society and serves to preserve the power of all men over
women.
The Office for National Statistics (2014) suggests that women from some social groups face greater
risks of domestic violence.
1. Those from lower socio-economic backgrounds
2. Those with high levels of alcohol/drug consumption
3. Those in shared or rented accommodation
4. Young women
5. Those on low incomes
6. Those with long term illness or disability
The second explanation for patterns in domestic violence is a materialist explanation Wilkinson and
Pickett (2010) argued inequality means that some families have fewer resources than others, which can
add significant pressure on those families. Worries about money, jobs and housing may spill over into
domestic conflict as tempers become frayed. Lack of money and time restricts people’s social circle and
reduces social support for those under stress

AO3 Criticisms
Wilkinson and Pickett do not explain why women rather than men are the main victims.
Marxist feminist, Fran Ansley (1972), argues this doesn’t explain why females are more likely to be
victims. She states that domestic violence is a product of capitalism as male workers are exploited at work
and take out their frustration on their wives, who become ‘takers of shit
 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF CHILDHOOD
Childhood is a distinct age category. In western society today, it is generally accepted that childhood is a
special time of life because they are psychologically immature and incompetent to run their own lives and

are therefore fundamentally different from adults.

Pilcher (1995) argues the most important feature of the modern idea of childhood is separateness. This
means that it is a clear and distinct life stage, different from adulthood.
However, childhood as a separate age-status is not found in all societies. Wagg (1992) argues childhood is
socially constructed. This means that there is no singular universal notion of childhood and should not be
defined as natural or through biology.

Social class
 Upper-class children
 Encouraged from a young age to aim high, attend Higher Education and gain professional careers.
 Greater economic and cultural support from their parents
 Working-class families
 Laraeu (2011) Parents emphasised ‘natural growth’. They did not cultivate talents but believed if
they grew up with love, food and safety they would be well-rounded individuals
 Middle-class children
 Laraeu (2011) parents are engaged in ‘concerted cultivation’ of children. This meant enrolling
children on cultural/artistic/sporting activities and visit galleries and museums to develop their
child’s knowledge and talents.
 Nelson (2010) parents becoming ‘helicopter’ parents as they constantly hover around children,
constructing detailed schedules for them. He argues this has produced spoilt children, who feel
like they’re entitled to everything.
Ethnicity
 Muslim, Hindu and Sikh children generally feel a strong sense of obligation and duty to their parents
than White children.
 Activities were different for children. Ghumann (2003) found that Muslim children spent their
Saturday mornings spent learning the Qur’an.
 Likewise, a child born into a Roman Catholic household means that Church is likely to be a big feature
in their lives too.
 Racism has a direct and indirect effect on the childhood of ethnic-minority children. O’Brien (2000)
found Asian girls in particular are less likely to be allowed out on their own compared with young
Asian males because of the parents’ belief that they were more vulnerable to racist attacks and abuse.

Gender
 Girls:
 Studies show that children are socialised into a set of behaviours based on cultural expectations.
 More likely to be kept at home which teaches them feminine skills and attitudes.
 McRobbie (2000) suggested that girls’ experience of childhood may differ because parents see
them as in need of greater protection from the outside world.
 Boys:
 According to Chapman, boys’ childhood is about ‘toning down their emotionality and familial
intimacy’ so they can effectively acquire masculine skills and attitudes.
 Boys are seen as needing less protection so have greater experiences of the outdoors
 McHale et al. (2003) found families with limited budgets were more likely to invest in the
development of their son.
Culture
 Samantha Punch (2002) studied rural Bolivia, found children take on responsibility at an earlier
age. Once a child reaches 5, they’re expected to take work responsibilities without question.
  Raymond Firth (1970) found less value is placed on children showing obedience to authority.
Amongst the Tikopia of the western Pacific, doing as you are told is a concession granted by the child
rather than expected by the adult.

Western notion of childhood

Some sociologists argue that western notions of childhood are being globalised. Anti-child labour
campaigns reflect western notions about how childhood ‘ought’ to be, and ignore how, in that culture, it
could be an important preparation for adult life

Pre-industrial childhood
Many sociologists and historians argue that childhood as we understand it today is a relatively recent
invention. Ariès is one key theorist to explore the concept of childhood through the middle Ages (10th-13th
centuries) looking at paintings.
AO3: Paintings were often commissioned for the rich and wealthy and so the paintings depicting children
might not be typical of wider society.
AO3: It’s not representative of medieval society, it’s a snapshot of one place at one moment in time.

Reasons for changes in the position of children

 Children’s development because subject of medical knowledge
 Policies applied specifically for children, from sex to smoking.
 Declining family size
 The shift from agriculture to factory production underlies many of these changes. Modern industry
needed an educated workforce and it brought higher standards of living
1880: Introduction of compulsory schooling
1889: Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act
1989: Children Act. Welfare of the child had fundamental importance.

Childhood DOES NOT exist

Postman (1994) argued that childhood is ‘disappearing at a dazzling speed’, because typical childhood
domains are becoming more like adults. An example of this is how children’s clothing was becoming
similar to adults. The reason for this change, according to Postman, is through an ‘information hierarchy’:

the rise and fall of print culture and its replacement by television culture. It means the boundary between
adult and child is broken as information is available to adults and children alike.
Postman overemphasises the single cause (the TV) at the expense of other social factors which influenced
the development of childhood, i.e. the rising standards of living and changes in the law

Childhood DOES exist

Iona Opie (1993) argued childhood wasn’t disappearing. Instead, she argued that there is a strong
evidence of the continued existence of a separate children’s culture over many years, through games,
rhymes and songs.
Jenks (2005) argued childhood wasn’t disappearing, but was instead changing. For Jenks, modern
society was concerned with ‘futurity’ and childhood was seen as a preparation for the individual to become a
productive adult in the future. Now, in a postmodern society where relationships are unstable,
relationships between a child and parent are even more important. Where a marriage ends, you are still a
parent of your child.

March of Progress View

 Child-centred family
  A child-centred family refers to how children have become the focal point, where parents invest
a great deal in their children emotionally and financially. It’s said that by the time a child
reaches their 21st birthday, they will have cost their parents over £227,000!
 Society has also become child-centred, with leisure activities designed specifically for children.

 Laws and Higher Standards of Living

 By the 18th century, handbooks for childrearing were widely available – a sign of the growing
child-centredness of family life among the middle-classes.
 Compulsory schooling so children could be knowledgeable and wiser.
 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) lays down basic rights such as
entitlement to healthcare and education

Conflict View
 Toxic Childhood
 Sue Palmer: Radical technological and cultural changes have damaged children’s physical
emotional, and intellectual development (junk food and a growing emphasis on testing in
education). The UK has above average rates for obesity and self-harm.
 Inequalities among children
 By gender: Hillman (1993) found boys were more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads
and go out after dark unaccompanied.
 Social class: Poor mothers more likely to have low birth-weight children which in turn is linked
to delayed physical and intellectual development.
 Inequalities between children
 Firestone (1979) and Holt (1974) are laws and policies are actually forms of control.
‘Protection’ from paid work is actually a form of inequality.
 Neglect and Abuse
 Adult control over children can take an extreme form. In 2013, 43,000 children were subject to
child protection plans because they were deemed at risk or significant harm. ChildLine
received 20,000 calls a year from children.
 Controls over children’s space
 Shops might have ‘no school children’ signs.
 ‘Stranger danger’ can deter how children travel. For example, in 1971, 86% of primary school
children walked to school. In 2010, this had fallen to 25%.
 Controls over children’s time
 Children are told when to eat, watch Television and sleep.
 Adults control when a child ‘grows up’(when they can take the tube on their own)
 Controls over children’s bodies
 Children are told how to sit, where to walk/run and they may be disciplined by smacking.
 Adults can stop children from picking their nose or suck their thumb.
• Control over children’s access to resources
 Children are unable to get full time jobs which means have less access to material goods.
 Child benefit goes to the parent, and not the child.

Age patriarchy
Gittins (1998) uses the term age patriarchy to describe adult domination over children. Children try to
resist ‘child’ status by ‘acting up’ (James and Hockey 1993), such as by drinking alcohol.
AO3: This power is justified because children cannot make rational decisions and safeguard their interests.
 DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS IN THE UK
The dependency ratio is the relationship between the
proportion of the population who are working and those
who are dependent or not working.
In 1901…
 Under 15s equalled 33%
 15-65 year olds equalled 63%
 Over 65s equalled 4%
In 2012…
 The proportion over age 65 had risen to about 17%

An ageing population isn’t a problem

It is argued that the negativity surrounding the ‘ageing population’ is socially constructed. This means that
it’s not necessarily a true depiction of older members of society.
People who hold this view are more likely to follow the New Right view, which favours low taxation and
perceives this as a real problem which needs to be dealt with.
 The old generate a lot consumer products. As life-stages blur with trends of later marriages and early
retirement, the old can choose their identities <market for ’body maintenance’ goods. Hunt (2005)
argues, we can choose an identity regardless of age. The old have become a lucrative market.
 ‘Ageing population’ is a social construction. It only perceived as a real problem by those who favour
lower taxes, namely the New Right
 Should be celebrated as evidence of improved medical care as life expectancy has increased
 Economic dependence is an assumption. Chambers (2012) - Diversity of qualities within the concept
of old age – some retired age still work and contribute to the economy.
 Age in which you can access your pension is rising. 2020 = 66y/o, 2026 = 67y/o
 Middle-class have greater savings, poorer old people have a lower life expectancy.
 Only 3.7 % of the elderly pop lived in sheltered housing in 2011 (majority of these over 85).
 2011 Census shows 1.3 million over 65s caring for a relatives
 Chambers – growing recognition that families benefit from the presence of grandparents who make a
significant contribution to the parenting and socialisation process
 2012 RIAS estimated 5.8million grandparents regularly looking after grandchildren saving nearly 11
billion in childcare costs per year

An ageing population is a problem

Feminist sociologists, such as Healey and Yarrow (1997) argued that women are more likely to take on a
disproportionate responsibility for the care of elderly parents.
They would argue, caring for elderly relatives can create financial dependency on their husbands as women
may be forced to give up their job to care for their parents.
 Creates a burden on society, they’re excluded from paid work, reliant on families, increased welfare
spending, don’t contribute to capitalism, declining birth rate means less children to generate tax
 Women are more likely to become the primary carers, give up their jobs, and therefore become
economically dependent on men themselves.
 Declining birth rate leads to the ‘pension crisis’
 Policy implications (raising pension age from 60 to 65)
 Creates a burden on their families, women more likely to be carers (feminism)
 Increased elderly dependency ratio
 Ageism
 Geographical mobility, less family carers
 Some women are remaining childless so they are less likely to have the next generation to support
them in lone-parent families (women live longer so are more likely to head these households)
 EXAM QUESTIONS
Evaluate the contribution of functionalist views to our understanding of the family. (20marks)
Analyse two reasons for changes in the family structure in industrial societies (10 marks)
Outline and explain two functions that the family may perform for capitalism. (10 marks)

Item B Applying material from item B and your knowledge, evaluate the
contribution of feminist views to our understanding of family roles and
Feminists take a critical
relationships (10 marks)
view of the family. They
argue that family life Outline and explain two ways in which family policy may have weakened the
maintains and promotes traditional nuclear family unit (10 marks)
gender inequality. For
example, this is reflected Evaluate sociological contributions to our understanding of the trends in
in the domestic division of divorce in the United Kingdom since 1970 (20marks)
labour. However, some  Paragraph 1: What is divorce? What are the trends in divorce between
sociologists suggest that 1970 and today? Why are sociologists interested in investigating this
feminist theories ignore trend?
the extent of family  Paragraph 2: Changes in the law
diversity and the variation  Paragraph 3: Secularisation
in family roles and  Paragraph 4 and 5: Rising expectations in marriage and
relationships individualisation
 Paragraph 6: Decline in stigma
 Conclusion: How useful are these contributions? Which one is the most useful?
Outline and explain two reasons for ethnic differences in family and households patterns (10 marks)
Evaluate the view that the nuclear family is no longer the norm. (20 marks)
Evaluate the view that growth of family diversity has led to the decline in the nuclear family structure (20

marks)
 It is clear that the growth of family diversity has led to the decline in the nuclear family structure
because…
 Although family life has changed over the years the nuclear family still appears to be the norm
because…
 Therefore, it is difficult to evaluate the view… because...

Item B Applying material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate the view that
the division of labour and power relationships in couples are equal in
Some sociologists argue
modern family life. [20 marks]
that changes within the
family and in wider Evaluate the view that the division of labour and power relationships in
society have led to more couples are equal in modern family life (20 marks)
equality in modern family
life. The way in which Evaluate the view that the division of labour and power relationships in
domestic tasks are couples are equal in modern family life (20 marks)
allocated is more equal
and both partners are
likely to be in paid Outline and explain two reasons for gender inequality in the family
employment. This sharing (10marks).
of responsibilities has led Biology/socialisation
to more equal power
 Women are seen as naturally suited to the role according to
relationships.
Parsons.
 Murdock argued that men are physically stronger = more able to dominate economic life.
 Men and women socialised into expressive and instrumental role.
  Familial ideology is very patriarchal
 Men don’t want to be emasculated and therefore actively resist increased involvement in ‘women’s
work’.
Human capital
 Men have greater human capital than women which means they have greater bargaining power and
chose to dominate decision making.
 They have more access to a wider variety of jobs, which are not interrupted by having children. This
means men are usually the breadwinner.
 More apparent in working-class families (Harkness 2005)

Applying material from Item B, analyse two reasons for patterns of Item B
domestic violence. (10 marks)
Domestic violence
1. Feminist explanations accounts for up to a
 Radical feminism and patriarchy – what is it and why is it quarter of all recorded
important? violent crime. Victims are
 Where does patriarchy stem from – biological explanations for more likely to be female
’natural’ gender roles. and offenders male:
 Support with statistics
 “Men are the enemy”
 Male-dominated institutions such as the police.
 Evaluation: Ignores that not all men are aggressive and fails to explain 18% of men who experience
DV (Elliot 1996)
2. Material explanations
 Social and economic inequality within families can add great stress and strain on a relationship
(Wilkinson and Pikett 2010)
 More notable with working-class families on low-incomes.
 Pressure to ‘keep up with the Joneses’/consumer society.
 Explains why more w/c women are likely to be victims of DV
 Evaluation: Doesn’t explain why more women than men are victims of DV. Ansley would argue
looking at the capitalist society is a better explanation
Outline and explain two ways in which our ideas of ‘childhood’ have changed. (10 marks)

 The length in which we would consider someone being a child.

 Children used to take on adult roles at a very early age, examples? What about marriage?
 Children stay ’children’ for longer because of compulsory education. Why it it important for
them to stay in school? Why does staying in school make you more likely to stay a ’child’ for
longer?
 The importance of their development has increased.
 Why was little attention given to children before?
 Why is there a greater focus on a child’s upbringing today? Examples?
 Importance of play for developing social skills and importance of reading bedtime stories to
develop literacy skills. Children now individuals rather than ‘mini adults’
 Children have appeared to become more ‘innocent’
 Ideas of what children were exposed to: harsh working conditions from w/c families, visuals of
frequent death and pain
 The change that has occurred- why have they become more innocent? Laws imposed because
bodies can’t handle tough load etc…
 Some argue childhood is increasingly becoming ‘toxic’
 Before children used to wear clothes suitable to their age, didn’t used to wear makeup and
certain knowledge was kept from them.
 NOW: Make-up aimed at very young girls, over-sexualisation of teen models in provocative
positions etc. Why has this change occurred?
Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of changes in the
status of childhood.
 Paragraph 1: What is childhood/ separateness /different from biology/socially
constructed/globalisation/western perspective.
 Paragraph 2: Aries/ ‘miniature adults’/medieval/ Evaluate
 Paragraph 3: Introduction of laws/Industrialisation/how this impacted upon the status of
childhood/ Evaluate
 Paragraph 4 and 5: March of progress/Conflict view/ Evaluate
 Paragraph 6: Is childhood changing again? Postman/ Opie/ Evaluate
 Conclusion: Has there been many changes in the status of childhood? How useful are these
explanations? Does childhood exist today?
Using material from Item B and your knowledge, evaluate the view that childhood is lost in society today.
 Childhood IS being lost in society today
 AO3: Childhood IS NOT being lost in society today
Suggest three ways in which the differences between children and adults are becoming less clear in society
today. (6 marks)
1. Children have more access to the adult world via the media
2. Greater commercialisation of childhood
3. Aspects of ‘youth culture’ increasingly enjoyed by adults
4. Rise of lifelong learning means that education no longer confined to childhood years
5. Economic dependency on parents more likely to be carried on into adulthood
Using material from Item 2B and your knowledge, evaluate the view that an ageing population creates
problems for society. (20 marks)

 Paragraph 1: What is an ageing population? Trends/ Dependency ratio

 Paragraph 2: Marxist perspective, Phillipson / Evaluate
 Paragraph 3: Hockey and James (1993) – everyday talk, stereotypes, media serve to make old
age appear similar to childhood/ Evaluate
 Paragraph 4: pension crisis
 Paragraph 5: Healy and Yarrow, found most parents lived with their daughters (58%) at old age.
 Paragraph 6: Brannen (2003) (pivot generation, less likely to have intergenerational ties)
 Conclusion: Does an ageing population create problems?